Structure 1.

Models of the particulate nature of matter

Structure 1.1—Introduction to the particulate nature of matter Guiding question: How
can we model the particulate nature of matter?
Standard level and higher level: 2 hours
Structure 1.1.1—Elements are the primary constituents of matter, which cannot be chemically broken
down into simpler substances.
Compounds consist of atoms of different elements chemically bonded together in a fixed ratio.
Mixtures contain more than one element or compound in no fixed ratio, which are not chemically bonded
and so can be separated by physical methods.
Distinguish between the properties of elements, compounds and mixtures.

Solvation, filtration, recrystallization, evaporation, Tool 1—What factors are considered in choosing a
distillation and paper chromatography should be method to separate the components of a mixture?
covered. The differences between homogeneous and Tool 1—How can the products of a reaction be
heterogeneous mixtures should be understood. purified?
Structure 2.2—How do intermolecular forces
influence the type of mixture that forms between two
substances?
Structure 2.3—Why are alloys generally considered to
be mixtures, even though they often contain metallic
bonding?

Structure 1.1.2—The kinetic molecular theory is a model to explain physical properties of matter (solids,
liquids and gases) and changes of state.
Distinguish the different states of matter.
Use state symbols (s, , g and aq) in chemical equations.

Names of the changes of state should be covered: Structure 2.4—Why are some substances solid while
melting, freezing, vaporization (evaporation and others are fluid under standard conditions?
boiling), condensation, sublimation and deposition. Structure 2 (all), Reactivity 1.2—Why are some
changes of state endothermic and some exothermic?

Structure 1.1.3—The temperature, T, in Kelvin (K) is a measure of average kinetic energy Ek of particles.
Interpret observable changes in physical properties and temperature during changes of state.
Convert between values in the Celsius and Kelvin scales.
The kelvin (K) is the SI unit of temperature and has Reactivity 2.2—What is the graphical distribution of
the same incremental value as the Celsius degree kinetic energy values of particles in a sample at a
(°C). fixed temperature?
Reactivity 2.2—What must happen to particles for a
chemical reaction to occur?

Additional higher level: None for Structure 1.1

Structure 1.2—The nuclear atom

Guiding question: How do the nuclei of atoms differ?
Standard level and higher level: 2 hours
Structure 1.2.1—Atoms contain a positively charged, dense nucleus composed of protons and neutrons
(nucleons). Negatively charged electrons occupy the space outside the nucleus.

Use the nuclear symbol AZX to deduce the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms and ions.

Relative masses and charges of the subatomic Structure 1.3—What determines the different
particles should be known; actual values are given in chemical properties of atoms?
the data booklet. The mass of the electron can be Structure 3.1—How does the atomic number relate to
considered negligible. the position of an element in the periodic table?

Structure 1.2.2—Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. Perform
calculations involving non-integer relative atomic masses and abundance of isotopes from given data.

Differences in the physical properties of isotopes Nature of science, Reactivity 3.4—How can isotope
should be understood. tracers provide evidence for a reaction mechanism?
Specific examples of isotopes need not be learned.

Additional higher level: 1 hour

Structure 1.2.3—Mass spectra are used to determine the relative atomic masses of elements from their
isotopic composition.
Interpret mass spectra in terms of identity and relative abundance of isotopes.

The operational details of the mass spectrometer will Structure 3.2—How does the fragmentation pattern
not be assessed. of a compound in the mass spectrometer help in the
determination of its structure?

Structure 1.3—Electron configurations

Guiding question: How can we model the energy states of electrons in atoms?
Standard level and higher level: 3 hours
Structure 1.3.1—Emission spectra are produced by atoms emitting photons when electrons in excited
states return to lower energy levels.
Qualitatively describe the relationship between colour, wavelength, frequency and energy across the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Distinguish between a continuous and a line spectrum.

Details of the electromagnetic spectrum are given in

the data booklet.
Structure 1.3.2—The line emission spectrum of hydrogen provides evidence for the existence of electrons
in discrete energy levels, which converge at higher energies.
Describe the emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom, including the relationships between the lines and
energy transitions to the first, second and third energy levels.

The names of the different series in the hydrogen Inquiry 2—In the study of emission spectra from
emission spectrum will not be assessed. gaseous elements and of light, what qualitative and
quantitative data can be collected from instruments
such as gas discharge tubes and prisms?
Nature of science, Structure 1.2—How do emission
spectra provide evidence for the existence of
different elements?

Structure 1.3.3—The main energy level is given an integer number, n, and can hold a maximum of 2n2
electrons.

Deduce the maximum number of electrons that can occupy each energy level.
Structure 3.1—How does an element’s highest main
energy level relate to its period number in the
periodic table?

Structure 1.3.4—A more detailed model of the atom describes the division of the main energy level into s,
p, d and f sublevels of successively higher energies.
Recognize the shape and orientation of an s atomic orbital and the three p atomic orbitals.

Structure 3.1—What is the relationship between

energy sublevels and the block nature of the periodic
table?

Structure 1.3.5—Each orbital has a defined energy state for a given electron configuration and chemical
environment, and can hold two electrons of opposite spin.
Sublevels contain a fixed number of orbitals, regions of space where there is a high probability of finding
an electron.
Apply the Aufbau principle, Hund’s rule and the Pauli exclusion principle to deduce electron configurations
for atoms and ions up to Z = 36.

Full electron configurations and condensed electron

configurations using the noble gas core should be
covered.
Orbital diagrams, i.e. arrow-in-box diagrams, should
be used to represent the filling and relative energy of
orbitals.
The electron configurations of Cr and Cu as exceptions
should be covered.

Additional higher level: 3 hours

Structure 1.3.6—In an emission spectrum, the limit of convergence at higher frequency corresponds to ionization.
Explain the trends and discontinuities in first ionization energy (IE) across a period and down a group. Calculate the
value of the first IE from spectral data that gives the wavelength or frequency of the convergence limit.
The value of the Planck constant h and the Structure 3.1—How does the trend in IE values across
equations E = hf and c = λf are given in the data a period and down a group explain the trends in
booklet. properties of metals and non-metals?
Nature of science, Tool 3, Reactivity 3.1—Why are log
scales useful when discussing [H+] and IEs?

Structure 1.3.7—Successive ionization energy (IE) data for an element give information about its electron
configuration.
Deduce the group of an element from its successive ionization data.

Databases are useful for compiling graphs of trends in AHL Structure 3.1—How do patterns of successive IEs
IEs. of transition elements help to explain the variable
oxidation states of these elements?

Structure 1.4—Counting particles by mass: The mole Guiding question: How

do we quantify matter on the atomic scale?
Standard level and higher level: 7 hours
Structure 1.4.1—The mole (mol) is the SI unit of amount of substance. One mole contains exactly the
number of elementary entities given by the Avogadro constant.
Convert the amount of substance, n, to the number of specified elementary entities.

An elementary entity may be an atom, a molecule, an

ion, an electron, any other particle or a specified
group of particles.
The Avogadro constant NA is given in the data booklet.
It has the units mol–1.

Structure 1.4.2—Masses of atoms are compared on a scale relative to 12C and are expressed as relative
atomic mass Ar and relative formula mass Mr .

Determine relative formula masses Mr from relative atomic masses Ar .

Relative atomic mass and relative formula mass have Structure 3.1—Atoms increase in mass as their
no units. position descends in the periodic table. What
The values of relative atomic masses given to two properties might be related to this trend?
decimal places in the data booklet should be used in
calculations.

Structure 1.4.3—Molar mass M has the units g mol–1.

Solve problems involving the relationships between the number of particles, the amount of substance in
moles and the mass in grams.

m Reactivity 2.1—How can molar masses be used with

The relationship n = M is given in the data booklet.
chemical equations to determine the masses of the
products of a reaction?

Structure 1.4.4—The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest ratio of atoms of each element present in
that compound. The molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms of each element present in a molecule.
Interconvert the percentage composition by mass and the empirical formula.
Determine the molecular formula of a compound from its empirical formula and molar mass.
 Tool 1—How can experimental data on mass changes
in combustion reactions be used to derive empirical
formulas?
Nature of science, Tool 3, Structure 3.2—What is the
importance of approximation in the determination of
an empirical formula?

Structure 1.4.5—The molar concentration is determined by the amount of solute and the volume of
solution.
Solve problems involving the molar concentration, amount of solute and volume of solution.

The use of square brackets to represent molar Tool 1—What are the considerations in the choice
concentration is required. of glassware used in preparing a standard solution
Units of concentration should include g dm–3 and mol and a serial dilution?
dm–3 and conversion between these. Tool 1, Inquiry 2—How can a calibration curve be
used to determine the concentration of a solution?
The relationship n = CV is given in the data booklet.

Structure 1.4.6—Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of all gases measured under the same
conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules.
Solve problems involving the mole ratio of reactants and/or products and the volume of gases.

Structure 1.5—Avogadro’s law applies to ideal gases.

Under what conditions might the behaviour of a real
gas deviate most from an ideal gas?

Additional higher level: None for Structure 1.4

Structure 1.5—Ideal gases

Guiding question: How does the model of ideal gas behaviour help us to predict the behaviour of real gases?
Standard level and higher level: 3 hours

Structure 1.5.1—An ideal gas consists of moving particles with negligible volume and no intermolecular forces. All
collisions between particles are considered elastic.
Recognize the key assumptions in the ideal gas model.
Structure 1.5.2—Real gases deviate from the ideal gas model, particularly at low temperature and high
pressure.
Explain the limitations of the ideal gas model.

No mathematical coverage is required. Structure 2.2—Under comparable conditions, why do

some gases deviate more from ideal behaviour than
others?

Structure 1.5.3—The molar volume of an ideal gas is a constant at a specific temperature and pressure.
Investigate the relationship between temperature, pressure and volume for a fixed mass of an ideal gas and
analyse graphs relating these variables.

The names of specific gas laws will not be assessed. Nature of science, Tools 2 and 3, Reactivity 2.2—
Graphs can be presented as sketches or as
The value for the molar volume of an ideal gas under accurately plotted data points. What are the
standard temperature and pressure (STP) is given in advantages and limitations of each representation?
the data booklet.
Structure 1.5.4—The relationship between the pressure, volume, temperature and amount of an ideal gas
P V P V
is shown in the ideal gas equation PV = nRT and the combined gas law T1 1 1 = T2 2 2.

Solve problems relating to the ideal gas equation.

Units of volume and pressure should be SI only. The Tool 1, Inquiry 2—How can the ideal gas law be used
value of the gas constant R, the ideal gas equation, to calculate the molar mass of a gas from
and the combined gas law, are given in the data experimental data?
booklet.

Additional higher level: None for Structure 1.5