TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1

COURSE OUTLINE

1. Introduction of transport engineering

- History of transport system
i. Roads
ii. Railways
iii. Airports
iv. Water ways
- Development of transport systems
i. Appraisal of ancient systems
ii. Appraisal of modern system
2. Planning of transportation system
- Carry out various planning surveys
i. Map
ii. Reconnaissance
iii. Preliminary
- Carry out site investigation for a site
i. Material survey
ii. Sub-surface exploration
iii. Geological methods
- Analyze and interpret data from surveys
- Determine cost/benefit ratio consideration
i. Political
ii. Social
iii. Economic
iv. Significance of cost benefit ratio
3. Geometric design
- Factors that influence geometric design of roads
i. Design speed
ii. Design capacity
 - Setting out procedures of curves
i. Horizontal curves
ii. Vertical curves
iii. Transition curves
- Significance of sight distances
i. Passing
ii. Stopping
iii. Meeting
iv. At junctions
- Functions of cross section elements of a system
i. Carriageway
ii. Shoulder
iii. Verges
iv. Foot paths
v. Islands
vi. Medians
- Different forms of intersections
i. At grade
ii. Grade separated
iii. Widening/splays
4. Pavement design
- Types of pavements
i. Flexible
ii. Rigid
- Principals of pavement design
i. Flexible pavements
ii. Functions of pavement layers
iii. Use of road note 29 and MOW design manual
 1.0 TRANSPORT ENGINEERING

For as long as the human race has existed, transportation has played a significant role in trade,
commerce, conquest and social interaction while consuming a considerable portion of time and
resources

The primary need for transportation has been economic, involving travel in search for food or
work, travel for exchange of goods and commodities, exploration, personal fulfillment and the
improvement of a society or nation.

The movement of goods and people which is the basis of transportation always has been
undertaken to accomplish those basic objective or tasks that require transport from one location
to another

For example a farmer must transport produce to the market. A doctor/medic must see a patient in
the office/hospital. A teacher must go to school/college to attend student. A salesman must visit
clients located throughout the designated territory. Every day millions of people leave their
homes and travel to workplaces, be it a classroom, office, factory or distant city/towns.

Importance

- Tapping natural resources and market

- Competitiveness of a region/nation
- Speed, cost and capacity significantly impact on the economic vitality of an area
- Enables maximum utilization of resources
- Most developed and industrialized society have high-quality transportation systems
and services
- In the 1900s, nations with well-developed marine time systems once ruled large
colonies located around the world
- Current countries with advanced transportation sys are leaders in industry and
commerce

Inability to transport manufactured goods and raw material and lack of technical know-
how make a country/region unable to maximize comparative advantage that it may have
in the form of natural and human resources
 Transportation and economic growth

- If the country/region expects to develop and grow, it must have a strong internal
transportation system comprising of good roads, rail systems as well as excellent
linkages to the rest of the world by sea and air
- Transportation is a by-product derived from the needs and desire of people to travel
or to transfer their good from one place to another
- It (transportation) is necessary condition for human interaction and economic
competitiveness
- Good transportation pursuits specialization of industry/trade reduce cost of raw
material/manufactured goods and enhances competition between regions resulting in
reduced price and greater choices for consumer
- Transportation is also a necessary element of government services such as security
defense and national emergencies response
- Throughout history transportation sys were developed to ensure economic
development and efficient mobilization in events of tragedies

Social costs and benefits of transportation

- Development of T-sys requires enormous resources of energy, material and land

- In major cities transport can take as much as 50% of the available land area
- An aerial view of major cities will show large area used for rail road terminals,
airports, parking lots and roadways/highway
- Transportation has danger/hazards of the sinking of the “titanic” air crashes and
highway accidents in addition, transportation creates noises, air and water pollution
and consume energy resource
- Society has however accepted to take risk and change in the natural environment in
order to gain the advantages that result from constructing new T-sys
- Society also values many social benefits resulting from good transportation e.g.
providing medical and other services in rural areas, people living some distance apart
to socialize
- A major challenge for the T-engineers is to balance societies need for fast and
efficient transportation with the cost involved. The most efficient and cost effective
 system is created while ensuring that the environment is not compromised/destroyed.
To achieve this, the T-eng must work closely with the public and elected officials and
need to be aware of modern eng practices to ensure that the highest quality T-sys are
developed matching available funds and accepted social policy

Planning design construction operation/management

. data . geometric . service proportion . traffic

. forecasting . pavement/track . grading . maintenance

. evaluation . drainage . pavement . surveillance

. structural . bridge/culverts . control

Research & development experience

. technology transfer . field

. analysis

. projects

2.0 TRANSPORT PLANNING

- Planning is considered a prerequisite for any developed work, new project or an

expansion program
- Planning may be said to be the best utilization of available fund in a systematic way
in order to derive maximum benefits
- Transport planning is thus a basic need for development
- Planning is especially more important when the available resources are limited
relative to the need
The objective of transport planning may be summarized as follows

i. To provide safe and efficient facilities at minimum cost

ii. To prepare for future requirement and improvement of facilities in view of anticipated
development
iii. To provide the best possible facilities with the available resources
iv. To prioritize future development on utility business to work at the financing system
- Transportation plays an essential role in the life of every community today
- Good trans facilities are as a result of sound planning and is now recognized that trans
planning cannot and must not be isolated from land use planning
- Similarly the planning for the future must account for the transportation facilities in
which people wish to travel and move their goods

Strategy for long term – future

See the following figure relating land-use planning to transportation planning

I II III
Land use Trips Transportation
need

Land value Accessibility Transportation

facilities

- Any long-term solution to transportation need must inevitably be associated with

significant development in land use planning and transportation technology
- The figure illustrate the reasons why transportation planning could be isolated from
land use in planning
- The figure shows that whatever the land is used for its activities generates trips
- Some activities obviously generates more trips than others
 - The generated trip in tern bring up the need for particular types of transportation
facilities
- The extent to which the transportation facilities are able to cope with the trip demand
determines the quality or degree of accessibility associated with the land use in
question
- The accessibility is associated with the land influences it value since logically land
has no value if people cannot get to it. Finally, it is the land value which helps to
determine the use to which the land is put. Thus, it is clear that the control of land use
is to a large extent the key to control of movement.

Planning survey/studies

Before taking any decision for the development of particular facilities (road, railway or airport)
some information is gathered as planning based on factual data is scientific and sound

Planning studies include the following

i. Economic studies
The following information is obtained to analyze economic viability of the proposed
road way or facility
- Details of population and its distribution in the area
- Tread of the population growth (development study)
- Area with states of agriculture and industrial produce
- Agricultural and industrial development
- Existing facilities of education, recreation, health and their available means of
communication
ii. Financial studies
These are essential for purposes of getting in idea of the source of income and the
mode of fund collection for the proposed development
Usually the following information is collected
- Sources of income in the area
- Living standard of the people
- Sources of fund e.g. toll taxes, local services, vehicle registration e.t.c.
 - Future treads in financial aspects
iii. Transportation facilities study
Before coming in improvement program, it is necessary to have detailed information
regarding existing traffic
The following information is usually collected
- Traffic volume
- Traffic flow patterns
- Origin/destination studies
- Accidents, their causes and cost analysis
- Future trend of traffic pattern and volume
iv. Engineering studies
- Map studies/ contoured map
- Reconnaissance survey
- Preliminary survey
- Detailed survey (studies)

Site investigation

Site investigation is the gathering of information about the proposed location of transportation
facilities

The reason for these can be: firstly to ascertain location of facility. Secondly to ascertain ground
condition

Avoidance of towns, villages, historic structures, area of outstanding natural beauty, railway and
river crossing together with land surveillance must be considered.

Only in extreme areas such as mush lands or landslide areas with ground conditions greatly
affect the cost of development
Process of site investigation

i. Objectives of site investigation

ii. Desk study
iii. Site reconnaissance
iv. Planning of activities
v. Ground/ sub-surface investigation
- Trial pits
- Bore holes
- Sampling
vi. Reporting

Objective of site investigation

The principal objectives for a transportation facility site investigation are as follows

i. Suitability –is the site and its surrounding suitable for the facilities
ii. Design – involves obtaining all the necessary design parameter for the works
iii. Construction - are there any potential ground or groundwater conditions that would
affect the construction
iv. Material – are there materials available in the site and in what qualities and quantities.
v. Effort of change – how will the design affect the adjacent properties and ground water
conditions
vi. Identify alternative – ensure the facility is optimally located

NB/ in addition to this it is necessary to investigate existing features such as slopes and their
failure of such structure. Then it is necessary to investigate the failure and suggest remedial work

The desk study

It’s the work taken up before commencing the work on site and the ground investigation

It should always be the first stage of the site investigation and is used in planning the good
investigation
The work involves researching the site to gain as much information as possible both historical
and geographical

Work at these stage of site investigation gives much time and vastly improves the planning and
quality of investigation

The site reconnaissance

This is normally in the form of a work cover study of the site. Some of the important evidence or
details to look for include;

i. Hydrogeology – wet mostly ground, springs or seepage port and stream and wells
ii. Slope instability – sign of slope instability include, bent trees and displaced fences or
drains
iii. Mining – the presence of mining is often sign of subsidence and possibly used mine
shafts. Open cast mining is indicated by diverted streams, replaced or removed fences
or hedges extra
iv. Access – it is essential that access to the site can be easily obtained. Possible problem
include low overhead cable and water causes

The planning of site investigation

The main investigation is the full investigation of the site using borehole and trail pit and
includes the preparation of the site investigation reports with reversed plan and site interpretation
and recommendation for the design

There two aspects of site investigation

- The geological structure and character of the site

- The testing of soil both laboratory and in situ

The ground investigation sub-surface

Ground investigation is taken to be the study conducted other than the information available
from the reconnaissance survey. There are two principle method of investigating the ground
conditions namely – trial pits and bore hole
In addition the investigator should be aware of geophysical techniques whose literature is
available

Trial pits

They are shallow excavation up to a depth not exceeding 6m. The trial pit as such is used
extensively on the surface for block sampling and detection of services prior to borehole
excavation

depth (m) excavation method

0–2 by hand
2–4 wheeled back hole
2-6 hydraulic excavation
An important safety point to all pit below a depth of 1 – 2m must be supported in addition care
should be taken as gasses such as methanol, carbon dioxide can build up in trial pit

Breathing apparatus must therefore be used if thus gasses detection is available

Boreholes

A borehole is used to determine the nature of the ground below depth of 6m in a qualitative
manner and then recovered and distributed simple to quantitive examination. Where there not
possible e.g. in gravelly soil below the water table, in situ testing method are used obvious, the
information gained from borehole is an extremely the limited factors of sub-surfaces structure. It
become therefore necessary to compare the result obtained with those that can be expected from
the desk study

The greater the number of borehole the more section is possible to be of collimation and thus to
trust in the result
Reporting

The site investigation for transportation facilities design scheme should answer all the questions
set out in the planning place of investigation. It also could include the visibility of the proposed
route and indication of any alternative

Included in the report should be a location of the entire borehole, trial pits and other excavation
and their log

The logs should give as much as importance as possible on the soil and rock structure as it is
possible to obtain

3.0 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS

This pertains to the dimension and alignment of the visible features of the highway which
include

i. Pavement weight
ii. Horizontal and vertical alignment
iii. Slopes
iv. Channelization
v. Interchanges e.t.c

This design of which significantly affect the highway traffic operation safety and capacity

Structural design rotated to vehicle roads rather than the traffic operation is not included

The guiding consideration are the safety, economy, environmental effect though practically
change from time to time. The aim of good geometric design is to provide a safer, efficient and
economical system of highways consistent with volumes, speed and x-static of vehicles and
drivers who use them

Highway constructed today will serve into the future; hence designs must anticipate future visual
x-static and operational patterns
No design can be completely evaluated until it has being subjected to traffic where a facility does
not operate as expected it is important to find the reason

Not only should the immediate problem is solved but the shortcoming should also be brought to
attention of designer for consideration in future deign

This feedback should not be taken for granted should be a systematic operational evaluation of
new constructed facilities within any highway organisation

Subsequently many operational problems can be eliminated at the design stages thus reducing
the accident potential and providing cost savings for future remedial construction (maintenance)

Roman road construction

Dressed stone

Lime mortar (250 – layer)

Smaller stone (250 – layer)

Large foundation stone (250 – layer)

Hard stratum

NB

- Hard stratum was level / horizontal

- The construction was relatively thick
- The roadway was higher relative to the exciting ground level
Telford technique

40mm gravel layer

Kerb small stone in lime mortar

Smaller foundation stones lay in lime mortar

Langer foundation stone of varied thickness

Level stratum

Macadam technique

Stone < 25mm 50

37.5 mm 100

50mm crushed stones 100

Functional system of road classification

For transport planning purposes as well as for design purposes, highways must effectively
classified by functions. The two major functions are to:

- Provide mobility and

- land access

From mobility aspect high or continued speed are desirable while visible or low as desirable with
respect to land access low speed are desirable and high speed undesirable

The general relationship of function classified road systems can be classified as follows

Mobility

Accessibility
KENYAN ROAD CLASSIFICATION

The roads in Kenya are divided into the following 5 class according to their major function in the
road network

Class A (international trunk road)

These clear rap roads linking centre of international importance and crossing international
boundaries or terminating at international port

Class B (national trunk roads)

Road linking nationally important centres. These could be the principle urban centre or principle
urban town

Class C (primary roads)

These classes represent roads linking provincially importance centre to each other or to high
clans with current administration set up that will represent road linking the county headquarters

Class D (secondary roads)

Roads linking locally important centre to each other or to common important centre or to high
clan roads (county market centre)

Class E (minor roads)

Represent any load link to a minor centre

NB/ roads of the highest class A & B have their major function to provide mobility while the
function of class E is to provide access

Roads of class C & D have for all practical purpose to provide both mobility and access with
emphasis on mobility for primary roads and access for secondary roads

Road class C & D are generally the most difficult to design as far as traffic and operation are
concerned
 A Mobility

B
Land
C
Access
D

Difference of Kenya roads in relation to mobility and land access

DESIGN CONTROL AND CRITERIA

Access control

Control of access is a condition in which the right of owner or occupants of land or other persons
to access connection light, air or view in connection with a highway is freely or partial controlled
by the highway authority

Three levels of access are distinguished namely

1. Full access of control – the highway authority controls access to give preference to
through traffic by providing access connection with selected public road only and
prohibiting some level crossing or direct drive way connection
2. Partial control of access – authority to control access is exercised or give preference to
through traffic to some degree while in addition to access connection with approved road
this may be some crossing some level and some private drive way connection
3. Unrestricted access – preference in this case is given to local traffic i.e. the role in this
situation would predominately act for land access

However, the detail location and layout of the access should be subject to the highway authority
approval in order to ensure adequate safety and drainage standard

NB/ the road function dictate the level of state required

The following table highlight the level of access that are suggested

highway level of control produced

class desired
A full partial
B full partial
C full/partial partial
D partial unrestricted
E partial/unrestricted unrestricted

Design speed

- This is a speed determined for the design correlation of the physical feature of a
highway
- Design speed could be defined as maximum safe speed maintainable over a specified
section of a highway when condition permit design feature govern
- Some features such as curvature, supper elevation, site distance and gradients are
directly related to end very appropriately work the design speed
- Pavement and bolder weights and clearances to walls and rails are less directly related
to design speed but as they can affect the vehicle speed, a high standard for them
should be used on highways with higher design speed. Hence all geometric design
elements are affected by design speed

Basis of solution of design speed

The selection is influenced by the character of terrain the density and land use, traffic volumes
expected to use the road, the economic and environmental consideration. Usually a highway in a
level terrain warrants a high design speed than one in mountain terrain

1. One in a role area a higher design speed than one in urbane

 2. A high volume highway, higher design speed than one at a low volume

Relationship between design speed and average running speed

design speed average running speed (km/h)

km/h low volume intermediate volume volume approaching capacity
48 45 42 -
64 58 55 40
80 71 66 50
97 84 76 56
105 88 80 60
113 93 87 -
120 98 90 -
129 103 95 -

Design volume

A design volume may be defined as a volume determine for design rep traffic expected to use
highway

The current average daily traffic (ACT) may be used for designing local roads and streets - class
E.

For more important two lane highway, the design host volume (DVH) is used – class D & C

For multi lane highway use mode of the dissention design hourly volume (DDHV) – class A & B

The design volume rep this road that a highway must accommodate and it determines to a large
degree the type of facility required pavement weight as well as other geometric features
Design vehicle

design vehicle is a selected motor vehicle, the wrought dimension and operating x-stics are used
in highway design. For purpose of geometric design the second vehicle should be with
dimension and minimal tunnel radius as almost on vehicle in the cross expected to use it highway

Application of design vehicle

The vehicle is used to develop sight distances, intersection design, cross-section and other
geometric design criteria

SIGHT DISTANCE

It refers to the length of the road way visible to the driver. Sight distance may be categorized as
follows;

1. Stopping sight distance (S.S.D.)

This is the length of the roadway available to the driver to stop the vehicle before
crossing an obstacle on the roadway
The stopping sight distances everywhere a long a roadway should be adequate to enable
driver to come to a save stop before reaching an obstructing object on the roadway
2. Passing sight distance (P.S.D)
It is applicable in 2 lanes – 2 way highway
The length of roadway a head necessary for one vehicle to pass/overtake another before
meeting an oncoming vehicle which may appear after the manouvre began.
Sight distance adequate for passing should be provided frequently in the design of 2 lane
highway and each passing section should be long as possible
The percentage of the obstruction where passing can take place affect not only the
capacity but also safety, comfort and convenience of all roadway users.
3. Intersection sight distance (I.S.D)
Intersection should be planned and located to provide as much sight distance as possible
 In achieving a safe highway design as a minimum there should be sufficient sight
distance for the driver on the highway to cross the major highway without requiring
approaching traffic to reduce speed.
Minimum for different design speed as per following table

design speed km/hr 32 48 64 80 97

min I.S.D km/h 61 91 122 152 183

4. Meeting sight distance (M.S.D)

Distance required enabling the driver of two vehicles travelling from opposite direction
on a two way road way with insufficient width for passing to bring the vehicle in a safe
stop after beaming visible to one another
It is the sum of the stopping sight distance of a vehicle plus a safety margin (10m)

Transitional cones

Circular

U arc V

1, R R >,

A transitional cone 1 transitional cone 2 B

- The transition curve is mainly used since it enhances the safety of roads
- When a car is moving from A to U centrifugal forces increase and remain constant
when moving from U to V when moving from V to B the centrifugal force decreases

Centrifugal force (p) ð velocity p ð v

Radius R
Road cross – section elements

- The major geometric design element constituting the cross-section are carriageway,
shoulder and ditches and dual carriage way road, the centre reserve
- The carriageway include the travel way, any axially lengths such as acceleration and
deceleration lanes, climbing lanes, passing lanes and bus base and lay – bys
- Also related to the x-section are cycle track and foot paths. play roads in Kenya
particularly those providing access as their major function carry a considerable
number of pedestrian or cyclist who make use of shoulder and carriageway edges
because separate facilities for them are not provided
- From a traffic safety point of view this is undesirable situation. Cycle tracks and all
foot path should be included in the x-section when appropriate
- The selection of standards for the x-section is dependent on the central adopted in the
design. This means that the cross-section may vary over particular route because the
controlling factor are visible
- The basic requirements are however those changes in x-section standard shall not be
made unnecessarily. X-section standard shall be uniform within each sub-section of
the route and any change of x-section shall be effected gradually and logically over a
transition length
- Abrupt or isolated change in x-section standard lend to increased hazards and reduce
traffic capacity and complicate construction operation

Typical standard x-section

1. Dual carriageway
2. 2.2.8
 Type 1 dual carriageway
30.0m
7m 10.0m 7m
4% 4.5% 4% 4% 2.5% 4%
1:4 min 0.75 2
3
1
hi

2.5 3.5 3.5 1.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 3.5 3.5 2.5

Single carriage road c

a
b c b
4% 5% 5% 4%

Hi 2
1
3

cross - section dimension in (m) normal cross –

fall in %
type lanes surfacing A b c s
II 2 bitumen 10.00 1.50 7.00 2.5
III 2 bitumen 8.50 1.00 6.50 2.5
IV 2 bitumen 7.00 0.50 6.00 2.5
V 1½ bitumen 7.00 1.50 4.00 2.5
VI 1²/² bitumen 5.00 0.50 4.00 2.5
VII 2³ gravel 8.00 - - 4.0
VIII 1 earth/gravel 6.00 - - 5.0
4.0. PAVEMENT DESIGN

- A pavement maybe defined as a relative stable layer or crushed materials constructed

over the natural soil
- The main function of a pavement is to support and distribute the wheel loads of a
vehicle over a large area of the underlying sub-grade and permitting the deformation
within the elastic or allowable range and to provide an adequate surface
- For design purposes the pavement maybe divided in 2 categories on the bases of
structural function
1. Flexible pavement
2. Rigid pavement

The main difference between the two is the manner in which they distribute the load over the
sub-grade

Flexible pavement

Surface layer

t3

Road base t2 T

Sub-base t1

Sub-grade

These pavements comprise of a relatively thin wearing surface build over a base and sub-base
course which rest on compacted sub-grade

These type of pavement is unique in that if reflect deformation in the sub-grade and subsequent
layers or the surface

The design of those pavements is based on principle on that a load of any magnitude is adopted
by carrying deep through the successive layers of granular material
The intensity of the load diminishes in geometric progression as it is transmitted downwards
from the surface by upgrading over increasing layer/area. These result in reduction in stress to
with increased depth. Thus the highest quality material is at or near the surface

Consequently the thickness design in a flexible pavement is primarily influenced by the sub-
grade. That class of pavement can resist low magnitude of tensile stress

Rigid pavement

They are usually constructed of cement concrete. May or may not have a viscas between the
surface and the sub-grade

The design of rigid pavement is based on the principle of providing sufficient strength in the
structural cement concrete slab to resist the destructive action of the traffic

Due to their rigidity and high modules of elasticity they distribute the load over a relatively wide
area. These pavement can resist a press able tensile stress hence the miner variation this strength
of the sub-grade hence no influence of structural construction of the pavement

Component of a flexible pavement

A flexible pavement mainly consists of the following component

1. Sub-grade soil
2. Sub-base
3. Road base
4. Surfacing

Sub-grade soil

It is the layer of natural soil prepared to receive the others layer of the pavement

The load on the pavement are ultimately supported by the soil sub-grade and disposed to the
earth mass below

The sub-grade should poses the following properties

i. Strength
 ii. Good drainage
iii. Ease of compaction
iv. Permanency of compaction

NB/ it is important to ensure that in no case should sub-grade soil be overstressed

Sub-base

This is a layer of selected granular soil, stabilized soil or gravel, boulders, broken stones e.t.c

The main purpose of providing a sub-base layer is to permit the construction of relatively thick
pavement at a low cost

In the design of the sub-base, economy is the essential requirement as far as possible locally
available material should be used

On fine grain soil the sub-base is usually provided for one or more of the following

a. To increase the structural support to the road base and surface

b. To improve drainage
c. To decrease the possibility of “heavy” (expansion) pumps
d. To protect the base and surface course from all effects of the poor quality of the
underline material

Road base

It is the foundation layer design for its structural stability. Its main function is to improve the
road supporting security by distributing the load through affinity thickness

The minimum thickness of road base should not be less than75mm. The road base should fulfill
the following conditions

i. Should have sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load adequately to the sub-
grade
ii. Should always posses adequate structural stability to resist vehicle pressure and
horizontal shear forces develop due to moving of stationary vehicle
iii. Possess sufficient density
 iv. Should have sufficient resistance to weathering

Suitable road materials such as soft aggregate, bricks, stabilized soil may be used.

Under rigid pavement the road base may be provided for once or more of the following

a. To prevent pumping on fine grain soil

b. To protect the cement concrete slab from soil acceptable to most action
c. To clout the volume change of the (sub-grade) or tightly active soil e.g. clays
d. To provide a working platform on seal and clays
e. To provide a level surface on rough formation
f. To increase the structural stability of pavement

Factors that affect stability of pavement

The thickness of the pavement depends on a number of variables. From experience it has been
found that the following factors affect the act of pavement to a great extent

1. Traffic factors
Those include the character and volume of traffic which will use the pavement
2. Moisture factors
Those factor rep the changes in moisture content of the sub-grade due to precipitation and
capillarity
3. Climate factor
This rep the effect of temp changes such as frost penetration. On bases of climate, an area
may be classified as either wet or dry on the bases of the average annual rainfall
The dividing line (threshold) being 500mm of rain per annual (p.a.)
4. Soil factors
This rep the effect of condition of natural foundation soil in cuts and shallow
embankment soil used in the embankment immediately underline sub-grade surface
5. Stress distribution factors
This rep the function of the pavement in transmitting the wheel load to the sub-grade soil
Ministry of road (Kenya) design manual procedure (M.O.R)
1. Determining the sub-grade strength class – the study of lodgment soil with example
homogenous section to be defined of bearing stress. For each homogenous section the
strength class of every class will be noticed
2. Determining the distribution classes – the study of the initial tool and axial load
distribution, the class of the design period and the estimation of traffic growth ratio
will permit the calculation of the cumulative number of axial to be carried by the
pavement.
The traffic closes shall be determined per the following table
Traffic classes – T1 T2 T3T4 T5
3. Inventory – this involves the study of the available load marking materials and
selecting the possible type of pavement.
The knowledge and types of the available pavement material as well and climatic will
allow the solution one or more type of pavement

Traffic classes

class cumulative No of std axial x 106

T1 25 – 60
T2 10 – 25
T3 3 – 10
T4 1–3
T5 0.25 – 1

NB/ std axle load taken as 80 KN

4. Economical and technical comparison – those involves considering the possible
pavement structures and the sub-sequent final choice of one pavement structure. The
knowledge of the sub-grade strength class and of the traffic class will allow the
selection of the appropriate and std pavement structure for each pavement type. The
cost of each possible std pavement shall be estimated
 The specific technical advantage and disadvantage of each type of pavement shall
also be considered. Those economic and factional comparisons will finally allow the
design engineer to choose the most suitable std pavement structure
5. Finalizing the pavement design and preparation of special specification – for the final
refinement to the pavement design, consideration shall be given to local condition
(e.g. climate, drainage, pavement material, maintenance requirement, road study,
e.t.c.)
Any particular requirement to a project shall be covered by special specification

MOR (design manual) method

Example: evaluate the design of a flexible pavement given the following conditions

- Climate : equatorial with 2 rainy season with a mean annual rainfall of 1500mm
- Sub-grade: the sub-grade soil is red soil with CBR value ranging from 7 – 12 at 100%
MDD and after 4 day soak. No soil of higher bearing strength can be found near the
alignment and therefore no improved sub-grade can be placed
- Traffic – traffic axial load services have shown that the initial dairy number of
commercial and vehicle equivalent factor will be as follows

Vehicle No E.F t.
Buses 30 1 30
medium good vehicle 60 1 160
heavy good vehicles 15 4 60
250

- Economics – the economic study of the prospect has lend the design engineer to
choose a design period of 15yrs and to forecast an annual growth rate (traffic annual
growth ratio) of 7 – 5%
NB/ where not given the traffic growth ratio can be taken as the general economic
growth ratio where no other information is available
 - Road making material (construction material) – from investigation and lab test have
shown that lateritic gravel occurs in sufficient quantity near the alignment. However
because of plasticity and insufficient strength the material must be treated 4% cement
or 2% lime to meet the requirement for base and sub-base respectively
A stone source suitable for graded crushed stone and surface dressing chippings exist
close to the alignment
Sub grade boxing strength classes

soil class CBR range

S1 2–5
S2 5 – 10
S3 7 – 13
S4 10 – 18
S5 15 – 30
S6 >30

Solution

i. Determine the sub-grade class

In this is a class S3 sub-grade CBR 7 – 13
ii. Determine the traffic class
The cumulative number of standard axles T over the chosen design period N (N
years) is thus obtained by
T = 365 t1 (1 + i) N – 1
i
t1 = is the average daily number of standard axles in the first year after opening
i = is the annual growth ratio expressed as decimal fraction
t1 = 250 i = 7.5/100 N = 15yrs
 T = 365 t1 (1 + i) N – 1 = 365 x 250 (1 + 7.5/100)15 - 1
i 7.5/100
= 91250 – 1.95888 = 178747.8 = 2383304
7.5/100 7.5/100

T = 2.38 x 106 std axles

The traffic class is T4 class

From the material inventory, determine the base and sub-base materials and chose the
appropriate type from a consideration of the traffic class

Layer material
Base i. Cement improvement
ii. Graded crushed stone
sub-base i. Lime improvement
ii. Graded crushed stone

Possible appropriate type: type No 3, 7, 9

NB/ cost estimate should be carried out to determine the most economic structure for the three
pavement types. The appropriate should comprise of the following

layer pavement type thickness (mm)

surfacing 3 50
base 3 150
sub-base 3 175
surfacing 7 50
base 7 150
sub-base 7 150
Exercise

Consider a pavement to be designed under the following

- Climate: dry sub-humid with two rainy seasons. The main annual rainfall 700mm
- Sub-grade: the alignment soil consist of black cotton soil with average thickness of
1m. the CBR of black cotton soil vary between 2 – 5 while that of decomposed
phonolite vary between 10 – 20
- Traffic: traffic count and axles road surface have shown that the initial dairy number
of commercial vehicle and equipment factors will be as follows

vehicle No E.F t1
buses 180 1 180
medium good 360 2 720
heavy good 320 10 3200
4100

- Construction material: field investigation and lab test have shown that while no gravel
suitable for base or sub-base is available stone for asphalt conc. dense bitumen
macadam and lean conc.
These stone may also be used as graded crushed stone for sub-base. Take the design
load to be 20yrs and traffic annual growth ratio to be 4%

1. Determine the sub-grade class

In this is a class S1 sub-grade
2. Determine the traffic class
T = 365 t1 (1 + i) N – 1
i

= 365 x 4100 (1 + 4/100)20 – 1

4/100
= 1496500 (2977807858) = 44562894.59
 = 44.562 x 106 std axles
Thus traffic class is T1 class
3. Inventory: from the manual inventory

layers Material
base - Asphalt conc. dense bitumen macadam
- Lean conc.
sub-base - Improved conc.
- Graded stone

Possible appropriate type T12 T13

Layer pavement type thickness

Surfacing
Base
Sub-base

Road note 29 design method

- This design approach is based on full scale experimental test carried out by the
transport, road, research laboratory (TRRL of UK).
- From traffic surveys, the volume of commercial traffic can be expected to increase
with an annual growth rate of 4% is used unless more accurate estimate are available
- With the data from traffic surveys, the cumulative number of commercial vehicle
over the roadway during its design life can be obtained either by calculation or from
design chart provided in the road note.
- With the cumulative number of commercial vehicle known, cumulative number of
standard axle to be expected during design road can be calculated from the
observation of the No. of axles per commercial vehicle
 - The following table give the conversion purpose to obtain equivalent number of
standard axle

type of road No of std axle per

commercial vehicle
road design to carry >2000 commercial vehicles 2.75
per day in each direction at the time of
construction
roads designed to carry between 1000 and 2000 2.25
commercial vehicles per day in each direction
at the time of construction
those designed to carry between 250 and 1000 1.25
all other roads 0.75

Drainage and protection

Whenever practicable the water table should be prevented from rising to within 600mm of the
formation level. This may be achieved by sub-soil drainage or by raising the formation level by
means of embankment

Where neither of measures is practicable the high water take condition referred to in the
following table should be used
Estimated laboratory CBR values for soil compacted at the natural moisture content

type of soil P.I (%) CRB%

depth of water table
>600mm <600mm
heavy clay 70 2 1
60 2 1.5
50 2.5 2
40 3 2

silt clay 30 5 3
silt clay 20 6 4
10 7 5
Silt - 2 1
partly graded sand non-plastic 20 10
well graded sand non-plastic 40 15
sandy gravel non-plastic 60 20

NB/ for soil with CBR value less than 2% add 150mm to the sub-thickness indicated for a CBR
value of 2%

The sub-base

The required thickness is obtained from the cumulative number of standard axel to be conveyed
and the CBR value of the sub-grade

The road-base thickness

This is a fraction of the road base material and the cumulative number of standard axel to be
conveyed. Relevant charts in the road note give this thickness
The surface course

A guide to the material that may be used is given in the road note. This is again based on
operations conducted by (TRRL)

Example

Design a flexible pavement for 2 lane road to carry 1000 commercial vehicle per day at the time
of construction with a growth ratio of 4%. The sub-grade comprises of silty clay with a liquid
limit (L.L) of 50% and plastic limit of 20% and water table 1.5m below the formation for a
design period of 20yrs

Solution

1. The initial No of commercial vehicles per lane per day

= 1000 = 550
2

2. From chart rep 4% then cumulative No of comm. Vehicle must be

6.2 x 106

3. The cumulative No of std axles will be equal to 1.25 (6.25 x 106)

= 7.75 x 106 say 8 x 106

4. The sub-grade strength - lab test

- Estimation
NB/ P.I = L.L – P.L
50 – 20 = 30%

CBR = 5% as WT > 0.600 from the formation

 5. Determine layer thickness
Sub-grade – 250
Sub-base – 125

Evaluation of the sub-grade strength (CBR)

The strength of sub-grade depends on the type of material, its density and its moisture content. In
most cases the CBR value or test is applied in the assessment

CBR test

This test can be carried out either in the field or on prepared specimen in the lab. The field
determination of the CBR require specialized equipment making the laboratory CBR test more
common

The lab CBR apparatus comprises of 150mm Ø mould with base plate and collar, a loading
flame with a cylindrical plunger 50mm Ø

The penetration of the plunger is measured by means of a dial range and the loading by means of
calibrated proving ring. See the test apparatus

Loading dial gauge proving ring

Penetration dial gauge plunger 50mm Ø

Surcharge weight

Soil sample 150mm Ø mould

Test procedure

The 50mm Ø plunger is penetrated into the soil sample at a specified rate (1.25mm per min). the
load for 2.54mm and 5.08mm penetration is noted

To obtain the CBR value the load is expressed as a percentage of the standard load at the same
penetration

NB/ the stand load values is obtained from average of number of test pertained on crushed stone
e.g. the standard loads for 2.54mm penetration and 5.08mm form penetration are 1370kg and
2055kg respectively

Usually in the lab the load penetration cone is penetrated and the load value corresponding to va
may be tardy off. Normally the test is conducted on a soft specimen with the time of sinking vary
with un-participated condition and amount of water absorb during sinking. The amount of soil
should also be measured

Sub-grade boxing classes

soil class S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
CBR range % 2-5 5 - 10 7 - 13 10 - 18 15 - 30 >30

NB:

1. From economic and technical consideration, it is out of question to by pavements of soil

with CBR value less than 2%
2. For the direct support of pavement class S1 soil should not be used. Whatever practicable
such poor soils should be excavated and replaced or covered with improved sub-grade
3. CBR range to class S5 is fairly wide. This is so because S5 represent either gravelly
material or unsolved material
4. Class S6 covers all sub-grade material with a CBR value exceeding 30% over this sub-
grade a sub-base is not required as the soils are of sub-base quality
Classification of the common sub-grade material found in Kenya

These are done according to material bearing stress as evaluated using the CBR test. Material
forming the direct support of the pavement should normally comply the following requirement

CBR (@ 100% MDD and after 4 days soak) >5%

Swell (1000% MDD and after 4 days soak) <2%

Organic material (by weight) <3%

Type of material and bearing class

type of material bearing strength classes

after 4days at OMC
soak
black cotton soil S1 S5
malicious silt (decomposed rock) S1 S4
other alluvial silts S2 S4
red friable clays S3 S5
sandy clays S 3 / S4 S5
ash / pumice soils S 3 / S4 S5
silty loams S4 S5
sandy soils S4 S5
sandy clay S4 S5
dune sands S4 S 4 / S6
coastal sands S4 S5
weathered lava S 4 / S5 S 5 / S6
quality gravels S 4 / S5 S 5 / S6
platonic gravel S4 S5
calcareous gravel S 4 / S5 S 5 / S6
coal gravel S4 S5
Improved sub-grade

Planning of an improved sub-grade not only increases it bearing strength of direct support of the
pavement but also protect the upper layer against adverse sub-grade condition and at same type
permits proper compaction of permanent layer

At times improved sub-grade may also be placed in S2 and S3 soils. The decision is usually
decided by the cost sub-base and improve sub-grade and it is not economical for class S4 50%.
Improved sub-grade must be ever higher class (up to class S5) as class S6 is of sub-base quality

Minimum thickness of improve sub-grade required

strength class of the sub- improved material new class of

grade to be improved class min thickness(mm) sub-grade
S2 400 S2
S3 350 S2
425 S3
S S4 275 S2
325 S3
450 S4
200 S2
S5 250 S3
350 S4
500 S5
S3 300 S3
S4 200 S3
S 350 S4
S5 150 S3
200 S4
400 S5
 Intersection design

Following are the basic form of intersections at grade

T – Junction Y – junction scissor cross

Staggered staggered multiway

Minimizing the carriageway area of conflict