Geographical Information System

Unit 5: Spatial Analysis

5.1 Vector data analysis: geo-processing, overlay analysis,
buffering, network analysis
5.2 Raster analysis: local operations, focal operations, zonal
operations, re-sampling, mosaic and clip, distance measurement
5.2 Spatial interpolation techniques, geo-statistics, GIS modeling
5.3 GIS programming and customization: Opening and exploring
Model Builder, Python script tools, Customizing QGIS with
Python

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Introduction
(Spatial analysis)
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Spatial analysis: is a fundamental component of a GIS that allows for an
in-depth study of the topological and geometric properties of a dataset or
datasets.
All GIS provide functions for analyses of data chosen and for storing results of
such analysis. Data may be analyzed at various levels:
1. Store attribute data in table: Are stored for presentation in reports or for use in
other computer system.
2. Operation on geometric data: Are performed on geometric data, either in search
mode or for computational purpose.
3. Operations on attribute tables: Like arithmetic, Boolean, statistical are performed
in attribute tables.
4. Both Geometry and Attribute table: Are used jointly to:
a. Compile new set of data based on original and derived attributes.
b. Compile new sets of data based on geographic relationships.

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Spatial analysis:
Geographic data are mainly categories in two types Vector and Raster data and
accordingly the spatial analysis can be categories in two types.
1. Geospatial Analysis: Vector operation 3. Surface Analysis:
a. Single Layer Analysis a. Spatial Interpolation-Creating
b. Multiple Layer Analysis Surfaces
2. Geospatial Analysis : Raster Data b. Terrain Mapping
a. Basic Geoprocessing with Raster Note: Interpolation - calculated based on
i. Single Layer Analysis the numbers or items.
ii. Multiple Layer Analysis
b. Scale of Analysis
i. Local Operations
ii. Neighborhood Operations
iii. Zonal Operations
iv. Global Operations
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5.1 Vector data analysis:

 Geo-processing,
 Overlay Analysis,
 Buffering,
 Network Analysis

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Geo-processing:
 Geoprocessing is a suite of tools provided by many geographic information
system (GIS) software packages that allow the user to automate many of
the routine tasks associated with manipulating GIS data.
 Geoprocessing usually involves the input of one or more feature datasets,
followed by a spatially explicit analysis, and resulting in an output feature
dataset.
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Buffering - Single Layer Analysis
Single layer analyses are those that are undertaken on an individual feature
dataset.
Buffers are common vector analysis tools used to address questions of
proximity in a GIS and can be used on points, lines, or polygons. Figure
"Buffers around Red Point, Line, and Polygon Features”.

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Buffering- Single Layer Analysis

 Buffers are frequently used to create zones

of a specified width around points, lines,
and polygons.
 Vector buffering options include (a)
constant or variable widths, (b) multiple
rings, (c) doughnuts, (d) setbacks, (e)
Nondissolve and (f) dissolve.
 Common single layer geoprocessing
operations on vector layers include
dissolve, merge, append, and select.
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Spatial analysis - Single Layer Analysis
Dissolve operation:
The dissolve operation combines adjacent polygon features in a single feature
dataset based on a single predetermined attribute. For example, part (a) of
Figure "Single Layer Geoprocessing Functions" shows the boundaries of
seven different parcels of land, owned by four different families (labeled 1
through 4). The dissolve tool automatically combines all adjacent features
with the same attribute values. The result is an output layer with the same
extent as the original but without all of the unnecessary, intervening line
segments. The dissolved output layer is much easier to visually interpret when
the map is classified according to the dissolved field.

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Spatial analysis - Single Layer Analysis
Append operation:
The append operation creates an output polygon layer by combining the
spatial extent of two or more layers (part (b) of Figure "Single Layer
Geoprocessing Functions"). For use with point, line, and polygon datasets, the
output layer will be the same feature type as the input layers (which must each
be the same feature type as well). Unlike the dissolve tool, append does not
remove the boundary lines between appended layers (in the case of lines and
polygons). Therefore, it is often useful to perform a dissolve after the use of
the append tool to remove these potentially unnecessary dividing lines.
Append is frequently used to mosaic (a pattern or picture made using many small pieces) data layers
to create a single map for analysis and/or display.
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Spatial analysis - Single Layer Analysis
Select and Merge operation:
The select operation creates an output layer based on a user-defined query that
selects particular features from the input layer. The output layer contains only
those features that are selected during the query. For example, a city planner
may choose to perform a select on all areas that are zoned “residential” so he
or she can quickly assess which areas in town are suitable for a proposed
housing development.
Finally, the merge operation combines features within a point, line, or polygon
layer into a single feature with identical attribute information. Often, the
original features will have different values for a given attribute. In this case,
the first attribute encountered is carried over into the attribute table, and the
remaining attributes are lost. This operation is particularly useful when
polygons are found to be unintentionally overlapping. Merge will conveniently
combine these features into a single entity.

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Overlay:
 Overlay is a GIS operation that superimposes multiple data sets
(representing different themes) together for the purpose of identifying
relationships between them.. An overlay creates a composite map by
combining the geometry and attributes of the input data sets.
 Overlay Operations involve combining spatial and attribute data from two
or more spatial data layers. “Stacking data”
 Very powerful and popular operations

Examples of overlays?
Overlays require that data be in the same coordinate system
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Overlay: The basics

 Two of more input layers
 Can be any combination of point, line or polygon
 Spatial data and attribute data are both combined to create an output layer
 Feature type of the output layer will depend on the combinations of the input
layers

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Overlay: The basics

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Spatial and attribute data:

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Overlay: Multiple Layer Analysis
Map overlay refers to a group of procedures and techniques used in combining
information from different data layers. This is an important capability of most
GIS environments. Map overlays involve at least two input layers and result in
at least one new output layer. A basic set of overlay tools include clipping,
intersecting and unioning.
Overlay is the core part of GIS analysis operation. It combines several spatial
features to generate new spatial elements. In other word, overlay can be
defined as a spatial operation, which combines different geographic layers to
generate new information. Overlay is done using Arithmetic, Boolean, and
Relational operators, and is performed in both vector and raster domain.
1. Vector overlay:
This overlay operation combines the geometries and attribute of two feature
layers to create the output. The geometric of output represent the geometric
intersection of features from the input layers.
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Overlay:
Union: Preserves all feature from the inputs. The area extent of output
combines area extends of both input layers. It requires that both input
layers be polygon layers.

Intersection: It preserves only those features that fall within the area
extent common to inputs. We preferred it because, any feature on its
output has attribute data from both of its inputs.

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Overlay:
Symmetrical difference: Preserve features that fall within the area
extent that is common to only one of the input. It is opposite to intersect
in terms of outputs area extent. This method requires that both input
layers be polygon layers.

Identity: Identity preserve only features that fall within the area of layer
defined as the input layer. The other layer is called identity layer. Input layer
may contain point, lines, polygon and identity layer is polygon layer.
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Overlay:
Clip:

Erase:

Split:

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Clip: Clipping takes one GIS layer (the clip feature) and another GIS layer (the
to-be-clipped input feature). The output is a clipped version of the original
input layer. The output attributes table is a subset of the original attributes table
where only records for the clipped polygons are preserved.

Note that the output layer is limited to the Name polygon geometry and its
attributes (and does not include the clipping circle polygon).
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Intersect:
Intersecting takes both layers as inputs then outputs the features from both
layers that share the same spatial extent. Note that the output attribute table
inherits attributes from both input layers (this differs from clipping where
attributes from just one layer are carried through).

The NAME polygon layer is intersected with the circle polygon. The output
layer combines both intersecting geometries and attributes.

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Union
Unioning overlays both input layers and outputs all features from the two
layers. Features that overlap are intersected creating new polygons. This
overlay usually produces more polygons than are present in both input layers
combined. The output attributes table contains attribute values from both
input features (note that only a subset of the output attributes table is shown in
the following figure).

NAME polygon layer is unioned with the circle polygon. The output layer combines both (complete)
geometries and attributes. Where spatial overlaps do not occur, most software will either assign a NULL
value or a 0.
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Identity tool
To use the Identity tool, the input coverage can be a point, line, or polygon
coverage. The output coverage will be the same feature type as the input
coverage.

All features of the input coverage will be preserved in the output coverage.
This means that the input coverage acts like a cookie cutter on the identity
coverage.

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Identity tool
The three feature types are affected differently by the identity coverage:

 Polygons: Input coverage arcs are split at their intersections with polygons
of the identity coverage.

 Lines: Identity coverage arcs are used to split input coverages where they
overlap.

 Points: All input coverage points are saved in the output coverage, and the
output coverage PAT file lists the identity coverage polygon within which
each point falls.

The Intersect and Union tools are similar to the Identity tool. The only
difference is the features that remain in the output coverage.
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Intersect tool
To use the Intersect tool, the input coverage can be a point, line, or polygon
coverage. The output coverage will be the same feature type as the input
coverage.

Only those features contained by polygons in the intersect coverage will be

preserved in the output coverage.

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Intersect tool
The Intersect tool is similar to the Clip tool; however, the Clip tool does not
transfer any attributes from the clip coverage to the output. The Intersect tool is
also similar to the Identity and Union tools. The only difference is the features
that remain in the output coverage.
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Union tool
Only polygon coverages can be used by the Union tool.

The output coverage contains the polygon features from both the input and
union coverage. Unlike Identity and Intersect, Union never clips any data.

The Union tool is similar to the Intersect and Identity tools. The only difference
is the features that remain in the output coverage.

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Network Analysis
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Network Analysis: Route Optimization and Shortest Path
Route Optimization and Shortest Path,
Route optimization in GIS (Geographic Information Systems) is a process of finding
the most efficient or optimal route between two or more locations on a map,
considering various constraints and criteria.
It is a crucial aspect of spatial analysis and is used in various real-world applications,
such as logistics, transportation, emergency services, urban planning, and field
workforce management.
The main goal of route optimization is to minimize travel time, distance, cost, or any
other relevant criteria while ensuring that the constraints of the problem are met.

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Route Optimization and Shortest Path:
Some common constraints in route optimization may include:
Time windows: Certain locations may have specific time frames within which a
vehicle or a person can visit them. For example, a delivery truck may be allowed to
deliver goods to a store only during specific hours.
Vehicle capacity: In logistics, vehicles may have limitations on the maximum
quantity of goods they can carry. Route optimization considers this capacity constraint
to ensure that the total demand for goods along the route does not exceed the vehicle's
capacity.
Traffic conditions: Real-time traffic data or historical traffic patterns can be
incorporated into route optimization algorithms to avoid congested areas and choose
routes with less traffic, thereby minimizing travel time.
Road network restrictions: Some roads may have weight limits, height restrictions,
or may be one-way, which needs to be taken into account during route planning.
Cost factors: Different routes may have varying costs associated with them, such as
tolls, fuel costs, or vehicle maintenance expenses. Route optimization algorithms can
consider these factors to find cost-effective routes.
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Route Optimization and Shortest Path:
By leveraging GIS data and route optimization, businesses and organizations can
enhance their operational efficiency, reduce transportation costs, improve response
times, and make better-informed decisions in their spatial planning and resource
allocation.
Example: Find the shortest Network Analysis in Arc GIS

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2. Raster overlay:
 Raster overlay is simpler than vector overlay and can be carried out directly
on cell values.
 It is more efficient than vector overlay, as extent of calculation is much less.
 Both raster layer must have identical geometry i.e. cell size must be same,
there must be no relative rotation of transfer between grids.
 Attribute are representation of thematic layers.
 There is no need to distinguish between polygons, lines, points, because all
raster data comprise cells.
 Arithmetic, logical, statistical operation may be performed directly during
overlay process.
 Deviation is carried by transformation and resampling to the same cell size.
 New composite cells are composed from original cells and registered as a
new thematic layer.
 There is no formation of smaller errorneous polygon.
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5.2 Raster analysis

 Local operations,
 Focal operations,
 Zonal operations,
 Re-sampling,
 Mosaic and clip,
 Distance measurement

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Spatial analysis:
Geographic data are mainly categories in two types Vector and Raster data and
accordingly the spatial analysis can be categories in two types.
1. Geospatial Analysis: Vector operation 3. Surface Analysis:
a. Single Layer Analysis a. Spatial Interpolation-Creating
b. Multiple Layer Analysis Surfaces
2. Geospatial Analysis : Raster Data b. Terrain Mapping
a. Basic Geoprocessing with Raster Note: Interpolation - calculated based on
i. Single Layer Analysis the numbers or items.
ii. Multiple Layer Analysis
b. Scale of Analysis
i. Local Operations
ii. Neighborhood Operations
iii. Zonal Operations
iv. Global Operations
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Spatial analysis:
Geospatial Analysis : Raster Data
a. Basic Geoprocessing with Raster
i. Single Layer Analysis
ii. Multiple Layer Analysis
b. Scale of Analysis
i. Local Operations
ii. Neighborhood Operations
Surface Analysis:
iii. Zonal Operations
a. Spatial Interpolation-Creating
iv. Global Operations
Surfaces
b. Terrain Mapping

Note: Interpolation - calculated based on

the numbers or items.

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Raster Data Analysis:
The raster data model uses a regular grid to cover the space and the value in
each grid cell to represent the characteristic of a spatial phenomenon at the cell
location. This simple data structure of a raster with fixed cell locations not only
is computationally efficient, but also facilitates a large variety of data analysis
operations. This is why raster data are typically used in geographic information
system (GIS), involving heavy computation such as building environmental
models.
In contrast with vector data analysis, which uses points, lines, and polygons,
raster data analysis uses cells and rasters. Raster data analysis can be performed
at the level of individual cells, or groups of cells, or cells within an entire
raster. Some raster data operations use a single raster; others use two or more
rasters. An important consideration in raster data analysis is the type of cell
value. Statistics such as mean and standard deviation are designed for numeric
values, whereas others such as majority (the most frequent cell value) are
designed for both numeric and categorical values.
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Raster Data Analysis: Four numbering systems in raster are the following:
Ratio: The ratio scale has a reference point, usually zero, and the numbers within the
scale are comparable. For example, elevation values are ratio numbers, and an
elevation of 50 meters is half as high as 100 meters.
Interval: The values in an interval scale are relative to one another; however, there is
not a common reference point. For example, a pH scale is of type interval, where the
higher the value is above the neutral value of 7, the more alkaline it is, and the lower
the value is below 7, the more acidic it is. However, the values are not fully
comparable. For example, a pH of 2 is not twice as acidic as a pH of 4.
Ordinal: An ordinal scale establishes order, such as who came in first, second, and
third in a race. Order is established, but the assigned order values cannot be directly
compared. For example, the person who came in first was not necessarily twice as fast
as the person who came in second.
Nominal(categorical): There is no relationship between the assigned values in the
nominal scale. For example, land-use values, which are nominal values, cannot be
compared to one another. A land use of 8 is probably not twice as much as a land use
of 4.

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Overview of Raster Overlay:
Raster overlay, also known as raster combination or raster stacking,
is a fundamental concept in GIS. It involves combining or
overlaying multiple raster datasets to create a new composite raster
layer.
Each input raster contains pixel values that represent specific
attributes, such as elevation, land cover, temperature, or any other
geographic phenomenon. The process of raster overlay allows you
to integrate and analyze these attributes simultaneously.
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Overview of Raster Overlay:
Raster overlay typically involves two or more input raster datasets,
each with its own set of attributes. These attributes are represented
by pixel values arranged in a grid pattern. Examples of raster
datasets include satellite imagery, digital elevation models (DEMs),
and thematic maps.
Cell Resolution and Alignment: Raster overlay requires that the input raster
datasets have the same cell size (resolution) and align properly. If the
resolutions are different, resampling may be necessary to adjust the cell sizes.
Alignment ensures that corresponding cells in different layers represent the
same geographic location.

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Overview of Raster Overlay:
Data Compatibility: Before performing raster overlay, it's important to ensure
that the data types, coordinate systems, and projections of the input raster
layers are compatible. If they are not, preprocessing steps may be needed to
standardize the data.
Cell Resolution and Alignment: Raster overlay requires that the input raster
datasets have the same cell size (resolution) and align properly. If the
resolutions are different, resampling may be necessary to adjust the cell sizes.
Alignment ensures that corresponding cells in different layers represent the
same geographic location.
Output Raster: The result of the raster overlay is a new composite raster layer
that represents the combined attributes of the input layers. The pixel values in
the output raster are determined by the specific overlay operation performed.
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Overview of Raster Overlay:
Overlay Operations: There are several overlay operations that can be
performed to combine raster datasets. Some common operations include:
• Summation or Addition: Adding the pixel values of corresponding
cells in two or more raster layers.
• Subtraction: Subtracting the pixel values of one raster layer from
another.
• Multiplication: Multiplying the pixel values of corresponding cells in
two or more raster layers.
• Division: Dividing the pixel values of one raster layer by another.
• Boolean Operations: Combining raster layers using logical
operations (AND, OR, NOT, XOR) to create binary outputs.
• Zonal Statistics: Calculating statistics (e.g., mean, sum) for values
within specified zones or areas of interest.

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MAP ALGEBRA:
Map Algebra refers to a set of mathematical and logical operations performed
on spatial data layers (maps) to generate new layers or to analyze and
manipulate existing layers. It is a fundamental concept in GIS that allows you
to combine, overlay, and analyze different spatial datasets to derive meaningful
information and insights.
Map Algebra operations involve applying mathematical operators and
functions to raster datasets (gridded representations of geographic information).
These operations can include simple arithmetic operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division), as well as more complex operations like
convolution, focal statistics, and reclassification.
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MAP ALGEBRA:
Map Algebra refers to a set of mathematical and logical operations performed
on spatial data layers (maps) to generate new layers or to analyze and
manipulate existing layers. It is a fundamental concept in GIS that allows you
to combine, overlay, and analyze different spatial datasets to derive meaningful
information and insights.
Map Algebra operations involve applying mathematical operators and
functions to raster datasets (gridded representations of geographic information).
These operations can include simple arithmetic operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division), as well as more complex operations like
convolution, focal statistics, and reclassification.

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MAP ALGEBRA: Some common operations in Map Algebra include:
 Overlay Operations: These involve combining multiple layers to create a
new layer. Examples include union, intersection, difference, and xor
operations.
 Local Operations: These operations are performed on a cell-by-cell basis
and involve applying mathematical functions or operators to the values of
corresponding cells in multiple input layers. Examples include addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, and more.
 Zonal Operations: These operations involve aggregating or summarizing
data within defined zones or regions. For example, calculating the mean
elevation within different watersheds.
 Focal Operations: These operations involve applying a function to a
neighborhood of cells around each cell in a raster. Common examples
include calculating the mean, maximum, minimum, or standard deviation
within a specified radius.
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MAP ALGEBRA: Some common operations in Map Algebra include:
 Reclassification: This operation involves reassigning values within a raster
based on defined criteria. It is often used to simplify or recategorize data.
 Boolean Operations: These operations involve logical comparisons
between raster layers, resulting in binary outputs. Examples include AND,
OR, and NOT operations.
 Distance and Cost Surfaces: These operations involve calculating
distance or cost values from specific features, such as calculating travel
time or cost from a set of points.

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Raster Calculator:
Raster Calculator is a tool commonly used in GIS software to perform
mathematical operations on raster datasets. Raster datasets consist of cells or
pixels arranged in a grid, where each cell contains a value representing a
specific attribute, such as elevation, temperature, land cover type, etc. The
Raster Calculator allows you to create new raster layers by applying various
mathematical expressions or functions to one or more input raster layers.
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Raster Calculator: Basic overview of how Raster Calculator works and how
you might use it:
 Input Raster Layers: You start by specifying the raster layers (bands) you
want to use in your calculations. These layers should have the same spatial
extent (same geographic area covered) and cell resolution.
 Mathematical Expressions: You create mathematical expressions that
define how you want to manipulate the values in the input raster layers.
These expressions can involve basic arithmetic operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division), as well as more complex operations
like trigonometric functions, conditional statements, and statistical
functions.
 Output Raster: The Raster Calculator generates a new raster layer as
output, where each cell's value is determined by evaluating the
mathematical expression using the corresponding cell values from the input
raster layers.

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Raster Data Analysis:
Various types of data are stored in raster format. Raster data analysis, however
operates only on raster data supported by a GIS package. Therefore, for some
raster data, we must process them first before analysis. We will discuss the
basic tools for raster data analysis.
 Data Analysis Environment - The analysis environment including the area
for analysis and the output cell size.
 Four common types of raster data analysis - Local Operations,
Neighborhood Operations, Zonal Operations, and Physical Distance
Measures.
 Raster operations that do not fit into the common classification of raster
data analysis.
 Map Algebra - which allows complex raster data operations.
 Overlay and Buffering - to compare vector and raster based operations.
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Raster Data Analysis: Data Analysis Environment
A raster operation may involve two or more rasters, it is necessary to define the
data analysis environment by specifying its area extent and output cell size.

The area extent for analysis may correspond to a specific raster, or an area
defined by its minimum and maximum x-, y-coordinates, or a combination of
rasters.
Given a combination of rasters with different area extents, the area extent for
analysis can be based on the union or intersect of the rasters. The union option
uses an area extent that encompasses all input rasters, whereas the intersect
option uses an area extent that is common to all input rasters.

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Raster Data Analysis: Data Analysis Environment
An analysis mask, either a feature layer or a raster, can also determine the area
extent for analysis. An analysis mask limits analysis to its area coverage. For
example, to limit soil erosion analysis to only private lands, we can prepare a
mask of either a feature layer showing private lands or a raster separating
private lands (e.g., with a cell value of 1) from others (e.g., with a cell value of
no data).

We can define the output cell size at any scale deemed suitable. Typically, the
output cell size is set to be equal to, or larger than, the largest cell size among
the input rasters. This follows the rationale that the resolution of the output
should correspond to that of the lowest-resolution input raster. For instance, if
the input cell sizes range from 10 to 30 meters, the output cell size should be 30
meters or larger.
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Data Analysis Environment

Local
Neighborhood
Zonal Operation

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Raster Data Analysis: Data Analysis Environment
Area extent: Local, Neighborhood, Zonal Operation, Analysis Mask
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Raster Data Analysis: Local Operations
Local operations are cell-by-cell operations. A local operation can create a new
raster from either a single input raster or multiple input rasters. The cell values
of the new raster are computed by a function relating the input to the output or
are assigned by a classification table.

Local Operations with a Single Raster - A local operation computes each cell
value in the output raster as a function of the cell value in the input raster at
the same location. The function may involve a GIS tool, a mathematical
operator, and/or a constant. A large number of mathematical operators are
available in a GIS package.
For example, converting a floating-point raster to an integer raster is a simple
local operation that uses the Integer operator to truncate the cell value at the
decimal point on a cell-by-cell basis. Converting a slope raster measured in
percent to one measured in degrees is also a local operation but requires a more
complex mathematical expression.

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Raster Data Analysis: Local Operations
Reclassification - A local operation, reclassification creates a new raster by
classification. Reclassification is also referred to as recoding, or transforming,
through lookup tables. Two reclassification methods may be used.
 The first method is a one-to-one change, meaning that a cell value in the
input raster is assigned a new value in the output raster. For example,
irrigated cropland in a land-use raster is assigned a value of 1 in the output
raster.
 The second method assigns a new value to a range of cell values in the
input raster. For example, cells with population densities between 0 and 25
persons per square mile in a population density raster are assigned a value
of 1 in the output raster and so on.
 An integer raster can be reclassified by either method, but a floating-point
raster can only be reclassified by the second method.
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Raster Data Analysis: Local Operations
Reclassification - Reclassification serves three main purposes.

First, reclassification can create a simplified raster. For example, instead of

having continuous slope values, a raster can have 1 for slopes of 0 to 10
percent, 2 for 10 to 20 percent, and so on.

Second, reclassification can create a new raster that contains a unique category
or value such as slopes of 10 to 20 percent.

Third, reclassification can create a new raster that shows the ranking of cell
values in the input raster. For example, a reclassified raster can show the
ranking of 1 to 5, with 1 being least suitable and 5 being most suitable.

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Local geoprocessing functions:
Some local operations do not involve statistics or
computation. A local operation called Combine assigns a
unique output value to each unique combination of input
values.
Suppose a slope raster has three cell values (0 to 20 percent,
20 to 40 percent, and greater than 40 percent slope), and an
aspect raster has four cell values (north, east, south, and west
aspects). The Combine operation creates an output raster with
a value for each unique combination of slope and aspect, such
as 1 for greater than 40 percent slope and the south aspect, 2
for 20 to 40 percent slope and the south aspect, and so on.
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Local geoprocessing functions:
 Local operations can be performed on single or multiple
rasters. When used on a single raster, a local operation
usually takes the form of applying some mathematical
transformation to each individual cell in the grid. For
example, a researcher may obtain a digital elevation
model (DEM) with each cell value representing elevation
in feet. If it is preferred to represent those elevations in
meters, a simple, arithmetic transformation (original
elevation in feet * 0.3048 = new elevation in meters) of
each cell value can be performed locally to accomplish
this task.

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Raster Data Analysis: Local Operations with Multiple Rasters
Local operations with multiple rasters are also referred to as compositing,
overlaying, or superimposing maps. Because local operations can work with
multiple rasters, they are the equivalent of vector-based overlay operations. A
greater variety of local operations have multiple input rasters than have a single
input raster. Besides mathematical operators that can be used on individual
rasters, other measures that are based on the cell values or their frequencies in
the input rasters can also be derived and stored in the output raster. Some of
these measures are, however, limited to rasters with numeric data.
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Raster Data Analysis: Local Operations with Multiple Rasters
Summary statistics, including maximum, minimum, range,
sum, mean, median, and standard deviation, are measures
that apply to rasters with numeric data. Figure 12.3, for
example, shows a local operation that calculates the mean
from three input rasters. If a cell contains no data in one of
the input rasters, the cell also carries no data in the output
raster by default.
Other measures that are suitable for rasters with numeric or
categorical data are statistics such as majority, minority,
and number of unique values. For each cell, a majority
output raster tabulates the most frequent cell value among
the input rasters, a minority raster tabulates the least
frequent cell value, and a variety raster tabulates the
number of different cell values. Figure 12.4, for example,
shows the output with the majority statistics from three
input rasters.

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Raster Data Analysis: Local Operations with Multiple Rasters
Some local operations do not involve
statistics or computation. A local operation
called Combine assigns a unique output value
to each unique combination of input values.
Suppose a slope raster has three cell values (0
to 20 percent, 20 to 40 percent, and greater
than 40 percent slope), and an aspect raster
has four cell values (north, east, south, and
west aspects). The Combine operation creates
an output raster with a value for each unique
combination of slope and aspect, such as 1 for
greater than 40 percent slope and the south
aspect, 2 for 20 to 40 percent slope and the
south aspect, and so on (Figure 12.5).
 Geographical Information System
Local geoprocessing functions:
 Determines the largest value of the inputs on a cell-by-cell basis. If all the
inputs are integer, the output is integer. If any of the inputs are floating
point, the output is floating point. (Note: Empty cell store 99)

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Local geoprocessing functions:
 When applied to multiple rasters, it becomes possible to perform such
analyses as changes over time. Given two rasters containing information on
groundwater depth on a parcel of land at Year 2000 and Year 2010, it is
simple to subtract these values and place the difference in an output raster
that will note the change in groundwater between those two times (Figure
"Local Operation on a Raster Dataset"). These local analyses can become
somewhat more complicated however, as the number of input rasters
increase. For example, the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) applies a
local mathematical formula to several overlying rasters including rainfall
intensity, erodibility of the soil, slope, cultivation type, and vegetation type
to determine the average soil loss (in tons) in a grid cell.
 Geographical Information System
Local geoprocessing functions:
 The Local geoprocessing functions are those where the value at each cell
location on the output raster is a function of the values from all the inputs
at that location. With these geoprocessing functions, you can combine the
input rasters, calculate a statistic on them, or evaluate a criterion for each
cell on the output raster based on the values of each cell from multiple
input rasters.
 To perform the calculation, a local geoprocessing function only needs, for
each of the input rasters, the value at that location, as well as (in some
cases) a comparison value. Once the result is generated, the calculation is
made for the next cell location, and the process is iterated until all cells
have been processed.

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Raster Data Analysis: Neighborhood Operations
A neighborhood operation, also called a focal operation, involves a focal cell
and a set of its surrounding cells. The surrounding cells are chosen for their
distance and/or directional relationship to the focal cell. A required parameter
for neighborhood operations is the type of neighborhood. Common
neighborhoods include rectangles, circles, annuluses, and wedges (Figure
12.6). A rectangle is defined by its width and height in cells, such as a 3-by-3
area centered at the focal cell. A circle extends from the focal cell with a
specified radius. An annulus or doughnut-shaped neighborhood consists of the
ring area between a smaller circle and a larger circle centered at the focal cell.
And a wedge consists of a piece of a circle centered at the focal cell. As shown
in Figure 12.6, some cells are only partially covered in the defined
neighborhood. The general rule is to include a cell if the center of the cell falls
within the neighborhood. Although irregular neighborhoods such as symmetric
and discontinuous neighborhoods have been proposed in the literature (e.g.,
Guan and Clarke 2010), they are not available as options in GIS packages.
 Geographical Information System
Raster Data Analysis: Neighborhood Operations

Figure 12.6: Four common neighborhood types:

rectangle (a), circle (b), annulus (c), and wedge
(d). The cell marked with an x is the focal cell.

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Raster Data Analysis: Neighborhood Operations

Figure 12.7: The cell values in (b) are the

neighborhood means of the shaded cells in (a)
using a 3-by-3 neighborhood. For example, 1.56
in the output raster is calculated from (1 + 2 + 2 +
1 + 2 + 2 + 1 + 2 + 1)/9.
 Geographical Information System
Raster Data Analysis: Neighborhood Operations
Neighborhood Statistics: A neighborhood operation typically uses the cell values
within the neighborhood in computation, and then assigns the computed value to
the focal cell. To complete a neighborhood operation on a raster, the focal cell is
moved from one cell to another until all cells are visited. Different rules devised
by GIS software developers are applied to focal cells on the margin of a raster,
where a neighborhood such as a 3-by-3 rectangle cannot be used. A simple rule is
to use only cell values available within the neighborhood (e.g., 6 instead of 9) for
computation. Although a neighborhood operation works on a single raster, its
process is similar to that of a local operation with multiple rasters. Instead of using
cell values from different input rasters, a neighborhood operation uses the cell
values from a defined neighborhood.
The output from a neighborhood operation can show summary statistics including
maximum, minimum, range, sum, mean, median, and standard deviation, as well
as tabulation of measures such as majority, minority, and variety. These statistics
and measures are the same as those from local operations with multiple rasters

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Raster Data Analysis: Neighborhood Operations
Neighborhood Statistics:
A block operation is a neighborhood operation that uses a rectangle (block) and
assigns the calculated value to all block cells in the output raster. Therefore, a
block operation differs from a regular neighborhood operation because it does not
move from cell to cell but from block to block.
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Raster Data Analysis: Neighborhood Operations
Figure 12.8: The cell values in (b) are the neighborhood range statistics of
the shaded cells in (a) using a 3-by-3 neighborhood. For example, the upper-
left cell in the output raster has a cell value of 100, which is calculated from
(200 − 100).

Figure 12.9: The cell values in (b) are the neighborhood majority statistics of
the shaded cells in (a) using a 3-by-3 neighborhood. For example, the upper-
left cell in the output raster has a cell value of 2 because there are five 2’s and
four 1’s in its neighborhood.

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Raster Data Analysis: Zonal Operations
A zonal operation works with groups of cells of same values or like features.
These groups are called zones. Zones may be contiguous or noncontiguous. A
contiguous zone includes cells that are spatially connected, whereas a
noncontiguous zone includes separate regions of cells. A watershed raster is an
example of a contiguous zone, in which cells that belong to the same watershed
are spatially connected. A land use raster is an example of a noncontiguous
zone, in which one type of land use may appear in different parts of the raster.
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Raster Data Analysis: Zonal Operations -Zonal Statistics:
A zonal operation may work with a single raster or two rasters. Given a single input
raster, zonal operations measure the geometry of each zone in the raster, such as area,
perimeter, thickness, and centroid (Figure 12.10). The area is the sum of the cells that
fall within the zone times the cell size.
The perimeter of a contiguous zone is the length of its boundary, and the perimeter of
a noncontiguous zone is the sum of the length of each part. The thickness calculates
the radius (in cells) of the largest circle that can be drawn within each zone. And the
centroid is the geometric center of a zone located at the intersection of the major axis
and the minor axis of an ellipse that best approximates the zone. Given two rasters in a
zonal operation, one input raster and one zonal raster, a zonal operation produces an
output raster, which summarizes the cell values in the input raster for each zone in the
zonal raster. The summary statistics and measures include area, minimum, maximum,
sum, range, mean, standard deviation, median, majority, minority, and variety. (The
last four measures are not available if the input raster is a floating-point raster.) Figure
12.11 shows a zonal operation of computing the mean by zone. Figure 12.11b is the
zonal raster with three zones, Figure 12.11a is the input raster, and Figure 12.11c is the
output raster.

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Raster Data Analysis: Zonal Operations -Zonal Statistics:
Figure 12.10: Thickness and centroid for two large watersheds
(zones). Area is measured in square kilometers, and perimeter and
thickness are measured in kilometers. The centroid of each zone is
marked with an x

Figure 12.11: The cell values in (c) are the zonal means derived from
an input raster (a) and a zonal raster (b). For example, 2.17 is the mean
of {1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 3} for zone 1.
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Raster Data Analysis: Applications of Zonal Operations
Measures of zonal geometry such as area, perimeter, thickness, and centroid
are particularly useful for studies of landscape ecology.

Many other geometric measures can be derived from area and perimeter. For
example, the perimeter-area ratio (i.e., zonalperimeter/zonalarea) is a simple
measure of shape complexity used in landscape ecology.

Zonal operations with two rasters can generate useful descriptive statistics for
comparison purposes. For example, to compare topographic characteristics of
different soil textures, we can use a soil raster that contains the categories of
sand, loam, and clay as the zonal raster and slope, aspect, and elevation as the
input rasters. By running a series of zonal operations, we can summarize the
slope, aspect, and elevation characteristics associated with the three soil
textures.

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Raster Data Analysis: Physical distance measure perations
In a GIS, distances may be expressed as physical distances or cost distances.
The physical distance measures the straight-line or Euclidean distance, whereas
the cost distance measures the cost for traversing the physical distance. The
distinction between the two types of distance measures is important in real-
world applications.
A truck driver, for example, is more interested in the time or the fuel cost for
covering a route than in its physical distance. The cost distance in this case is
based on not only the physical distance but also the speed limit and road
condition.
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Raster Data Analysis: Physical distance measure operations
Physical distance measure operations calculate straight-line distances away
from cells designated as the source cells. For example, to get the distance
between cells (1, 1) and (3, 3) in Figure 12.12, we can use the following
formula:

or cell size × 2.828. If the cell size were 30 meters, the distance would be 84.84
meters. operations.

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Raster Data Analysis: Physical distance measure operations
A physical distance measure operation
essentially buffers the source cells with
wavelike continuous distances over the
entire raster (Figure 12.13) or to a specified
maximum distance. This is why physical
distance measure operations are also called
extended neighborhood operations or global
(i.e., the entire raster).
 Geographical Information System
Introduction to Interpolation:
GIS data modeling
 What is a model? A model is a simplified representation of a
phenomenon or a system.
 Several types of models have already been discussed.
A map is a model. So are the vector and raster data models for
representing spatial features and the relational model for
representing a database system.
 A model helps us better understand a phenomenon or a system by
retaining the significant features and relationships of reality.
 First, we studied with models using geospatial data.
 Second, the emphasis is on the use of GIS in modeling rather than
the models.

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Introduction to Interpolation:
GIS data modeling
 What is a model? A model is a simplified representation of a
phenomenon or a system.
 Several types of models have already been discussed.
A map is a model. So are the vector and raster data models for
representing spatial features and the relational model for
representing a database system.
 A model helps us better understand a phenomenon or a system by
retaining the significant features and relationships of reality.
 First, we studied with models using geospatial data.
 Second, the emphasis is on the use of GIS in modeling rather than
the models.
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Surface modeling
 Surface modeling - A representation of a geographic feature or
phenomenon that can be measured continuously across some part of the
earth's surface (for example, elevation). A surface model is an
approximation of a surface, generalized from sample data. Surface models
are stored and displayed as rasters, TINs, or terrains.

GIS supports display of raster and

TIN surface models and provides
analysis tools in the Spatial
Analyst, 3D Analyst,
and Geostatistical Analyst extensions
to create, analyze, and extract
information from surfaces.

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Surface modeling
Surface modeling - A representation of a geographic feature or
phenomenon that can be measured continuously across some part of
the earth's surface (for example, elevation). A surface model is an
approximation of a surface, generalized from sample data. Surface
models are stored and displayed as rasters, TINs, or terrains.

 What are surfaces?

 Creating surfaces
 Analyzing surfaces
 Extracting information from surfaces
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Surface modeling - What are surfaces?
Surfaces represent phenomena that have values at every point across
their extent.
 The values at the infinite number of points across the surface are
derived from a limited set of sample values. These may be based on
direct measurement, such as height values for an elevation surface,
or temperature values for a temperature surface; between these
measured locations, values are assigned to the surface by
interpolation.
 Surfaces can also be mathematically derived from other data, such
as slope and aspect surfaces derived from an elevation surface, a
surface of distance from bus stops in a city, or surfaces showing
concentration of criminal activity or probability of lightning strikes.

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5.1 Surface modeling - What are surfaces?
Surfaces - can be represented using contour lines or isolines, arrays of
points, TINs, and rasters; however, most surface analysis in GIS is
done on raster or TIN data.
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Surface modeling
The Interpolation geoprocessing functions create a continuous (or prediction)
surface from sampled point values that represents some measure, such as the
height, concentration, or magnitude (for example, elevation, acidity, or noise
level). Surface interpolation geoprocessing functions make predictions from
sample measurements for all locations in an output raster dataset, whether or
not a measurement has been taken at the location.

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Surface modeling - Creating surfaces?
There are tools to create surfaces from vector features or from other
surfaces. There are several ways to create surfaces, including
 interpolating values stored at measured point locations,
 interpolating a surface of the density of a given phenomenon or
feature type from the numbers of features in an area,
 deriving surfaces of distance (or direction) from a feature or
features, or
 deriving a surface from another surface (slope raster from
elevation).
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Introduction to Interpolation - Creating surfaces
Interpolation in GIS is a technique used to estimate values at
unmeasured locations within a set of known data points. It is
especially useful when working with spatial data that has a
continuous variation, such as elevation, temperature, or population
density. Interpolation helps create a smooth representation of these
continuous phenomena, making it easier to visualize and analyze
the data.

There are several methods of interpolation commonly

used in GIS:

Geographic Information System

Introduction to Interpolation - Creating surfaces
There are several methods of interpolation commonly used in GIS:
 Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW): IDW is a simple method that assigns
values to unmeasured locations based on the weighted average of nearby
known values. The weight decreases as the distance from the unknown point
increases. The parameter that controls the rate of weight decrease is called
the "power" or "exponent."
 Kriging: Kriging is a more sophisticated technique that takes into account
both the spatial correlation and the variability of the data. It estimates values
by considering the semivariogram, which describes the spatial
autocorrelation of the data. Kriging can provide estimates along with
measures of uncertainty.
 Geographic Information System
Introduction to Interpolation - Creating surfaces
There are several methods of interpolation commonly used in GIS:
 Natural Neighbor Interpolation: This method calculates the value at an
unmeasured location based on the values of its nearest neighbors. The values
are weighted according to the proportion of the area that belongs to each
neighbor. This approach can create smooth surfaces and works well for
irregularly spaced data points.
 Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) Interpolation: TIN interpolation
divides the data points into triangles and constructs a surface by connecting
the vertices of these triangles. It creates a natural representation of the
terrain and is often used for elevation data.

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Spatial Autocorrelation:
Spatial autocorrelation is a concept commonly used in GIS and spatial analysis
to understand the degree of similarity or dissimilarity between spatially related
data points. It refers to the tendency of similar values to cluster together on a
map, indicating that nearby locations tend to have similar attributes or values.
In simpler terms, if spatial autocorrelation is high, it means that similar values
are often found near each other on the map. If spatial autocorrelation is low,
there's no clear pattern of similarity or dissimilarity among neighboring
locations.
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DEM:
DEM stands for "Digital Elevation Model," and it is a fundamental component
in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing. A DEM is a
representation of the Earth's surface, usually in a gridded format, where each
cell in the grid contains elevation information. In other words, a DEM provides
a digital representation of the topography of a landscape.
DEM data is obtained through various remote sensing techniques, such as
LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) and photogrammetry. These techniques
involve collecting elevation measurements from aircraft, satellites, or ground-
based instruments. Once collected, the elevation data is processed and
interpolated to create a continuous elevation model.

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DEM:
Some key points about DEMs in GIS:
 Applications: DEMs have numerous applications in GIS and geospatial
analysis. They are used for terrain analysis, hydrological modeling,
floodplain mapping, viewshed analysis, slope and aspect calculations, and
more.
 Resolution: DEMs can vary in resolution, with finer resolutions providing
more detailed elevation information. Higher-resolution DEMs are suitable
for localized analyses, while coarser resolutions may be used for broader
regional assessments.
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DEM:
Some key points about DEMs in GIS:
 Derived Data: From a DEM, various derived datasets can be generated. For
example:
 Slope and Aspect: Slope represents the steepness of the terrain at a
given point, while aspect indicates the direction the slope faces.
 Hillshades: These are used to visualize the terrain using light and
shadow effects, simulating how sunlight interacts with the landscape.
 Contours: Lines connecting points of equal elevation on the landscape
are known as contour lines. These lines help visualize elevation changes.

Geographic Information System

Spatial Statistics:
Spatial statistics in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) involve the analysis
of spatial patterns and relationships within geospatial data. It helps to uncover
hidden insights, identify trends, and make informed decisions based on the
spatial distribution of data. Spatial statistics are widely used in various fields,
including urban planning, environmental science, epidemiology, natural
resource management, and more.
Some key concepts and techniques in spatial statistics within GIS:
Point Patterns Analysis: This involves studying the spatial arrangement of
individual points, such as the distribution of trees in a forest or the locations of
disease cases.
Spatial Autocorrelation: Spatial autocorrelation assesses whether similar
values are clustered together in space. It helps to identify areas with high or
low similarity among neighboring locations.
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Spatial Statistics:
Some key concepts and techniques in spatial statistics within GIS:
Spatial Interpolation: Interpolation methods estimate values at unobserved
locations based on data from observed points. Common techniques include
Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW), kriging, and spline interpolation.
Spatial Clustering: Spatial clustering identifies areas where similar values are
concentrated.
Spatial Regression: Spatial regression analyzes the relationships between
spatially distributed variables, considering spatial dependencies. It accounts for
spatial autocorrelation in the regression model.
Hotspot Analysis: Hotspot analysis identifies statistically significant clusters
of high or low values in a dataset. It's commonly used in crime analysis,
disease mapping, and environmental monitoring.
Spatial Join: Spatial join combines attributes from one dataset with another
based on their spatial relationships. This is useful for overlaying different types

Geographic Information System

Spatial Statistics:
Some key concepts and techniques in spatial statistics within GIS:
Spatial Join: Spatial join combines attributes from one dataset with another
based on their spatial relationships. This is useful for overlaying different types
of data to perform analysis or visualization.
Network Analysis: Network analysis focuses on studying the connectivity and
accessibility of geographic features through networks, such as road networks or
utility networks. It's often used for route optimization and facility location
analysis.
Buffer Analysis: Buffer analysis creates zones around points, lines, or
polygons to study the influence or interaction of features within a specified
distance.
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Spatial Statistics:
Some key concepts and techniques in spatial statistics within GIS:

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Raster Weighted Overlay:
There are various approaches to weight and transform input criteria when
performing overlay analysis.
The three main approaches available to weight and add the transformed input
are Weighted Overlay, Weighted Sum, and Fuzzy Overlay.
In Weighted Overlay analysis, a series of tools can complement the Weighted
Overlay tool to follow the general overlay analysis steps. The Weighted
Overlay tool scales the input data on a defined scale (the default being 1 to 9),
weights the input rasters, and adds them together. The more favorable locations
for each input criterion will be re-classed to the higher values such as 9. In the
Weighted Overlay tool, the weights assigned to the input rasters must equal
100 percent. The layers are multiplied by the appropriate multiplier, and for
each cell, the resulting values are added together. Weighted Overlay assumes
that more favorable factors result in the higher values in the output raster,
therefore identifying these locations as being the best.
 Geographical Information System
Raster Weighted Overlay:
In Weighted Overlay analysis,

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Raster Weighted Overlay: Example
Weighted overlay analysis is a technique commonly used in Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) to combine multiple raster layers into a single
composite raster layer. This composite layer is created by assigning weights to
each input raster layer based on their relative importance in a decision-making
process. Here's a simple example to illustrate the concept:
Let's say we're interested in finding the best location for a new residential
development, and we have three factors to consider: proximity to schools,
proximity to parks, and distance from industrial areas. Each factor is
represented as a raster layer with values ranging from 0 to 1, where 1 indicates
the most desirable conditions and 0 indicates the least desirable conditions.
 Geographical Information System
Raster Weighted Overlay: Example
Proximity to Schools: Raster layer where cells closer to schools have higher values (e.g., 1 for cells right
next to schools, decreasing to 0 as distance increases).
Proximity to Parks: Similar raster layer representing proximity to parks.
Distance from Industrial Areas: Inverted raster layer where cells closer to industrial areas have lower
values (e.g., 0 for cells right next to industrial areas, increasing to 1 as distance increases).
Next, we assign weights to each factor based on their importance. Let's say we decide that proximity to
schools is most important (weight = 0.4), followed by proximity to parks (weight = 0.3), and distance
from industrial areas (weight = 0.3).
Now, we perform the weighted overlay: Multiply each raster layer by its corresponding weight.
Weighted proximity to schools = Proximity to Schools * 0.4
Weighted proximity to parks = Proximity to Parks * 0.3
Weighted distance from industrial areas = Distance from Industrial Areas * 0.3
Add the weighted raster layers together to get the composite suitability raster layer:
Composite Suitability = Weighted proximity to schools + Weighted proximity to parks + Weighted
distance from industrial areas
The resulting composite suitability raster layer will have values ranging from 0 to 1, where higher values
indicate more suitable locations for the new residential development based on the weighted combination
of the three factors.

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Mosaic and Aggregate tools:
In GIS (Geographic Information Systems), mosaic and aggregate are two
important tools used for data manipulation and visualization. Let's explore each
tool in more detail:

Mosaic:
Mosaic is a process of combining multiple raster datasets into a single seamless
mosaic dataset. This tool is commonly used when you have several individual
raster files that represent different parts of the same area or have the same
extent but different attributes. Mosaicking allows you to create a continuous
and consistent representation of the entire study area.
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Mosaic and Aggregate tools:

Key features and uses of the Mosaic tool:

Combining multiple raster datasets: Mosaic tool can merge overlapping or

adjacent raster datasets to create a single composite image.
Handling overlapping pixels: When raster datasets have overlapping areas, the
Mosaic tool provides methods to determine how to blend the overlapping
pixels, such as using the maximum or minimum value, average, or blending
based on transparency.
Pyramid generation: Mosaicking often involves creating pyramid layers
(pyramiding) for efficient visualization and rendering at different scales.

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Mosaic and Aggregate tools:
Aggregate:
The Aggregate tool is used to resample raster data to a lower resolution,
effectively reducing the amount of data and creating a new raster dataset at a
coarser scale. This can be useful for managing large datasets, speeding up
processing, and creating generalized representations of geographic information.

Key features and uses of the Aggregate tool:

Resampling to coarser resolution: By aggregating data, you reduce the spatial
detail of the raster, which can be helpful for visualization, data compression,
and faster analysis.
Maintaining statistics: When aggregating raster data, statistics such as
minimum, maximum, mean, or majority are often computed for the new pixel
values based on the original raster cells that fall within the aggregated cells.
 Geographical Information System
Mosaic and Aggregate tools:

Mosaic and Aggregate:

Both Mosaic and Aggregate tools are commonly found in GIS software
packages and are essential for preprocessing and data preparation before
analysis or visualization. They help improve the efficiency and effectiveness of
handling large raster datasets, making it easier to work with vast amounts of
geographic information.