This is the augmented matrix for the strictly triangular system, which is

equivalent to
the original system. The solution of the system is easily obtained by back
substitution.
EXAMPLE 4
Solve the system
− x2 − x3 + x4 = 0
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 6
2x1 + 4x2 + x3 − 2x4 = −1
3x1 + x2 − 2x3 + 2x4 = 3
Solution
The augmented matrix for this system is
⎧
⎫
0⎪
0 −1 −1
1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
1
1
1
1
6⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
−1
2
4
1
−2
⎪
⎪
⎩
⎭
3
3
1 −2
2
Since it is not possible to eliminate any entries by using 0 as a pivot element, we
will
use row operation I to interchange the first two rows of the augmented matrix. The
new
first row will be the pivotal row and the pivot element will be 1:
⎫
⎧
1
1
1
6 ⎪ ← pivotal row
(pivot a11 = 1) ⎪ 1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 0 −1 −1
0⎪
1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪2
4
1
−2
−1
⎪
⎪
⎭
⎩
3
3
1 −2
2
Row operation III is then used twice to eliminate the two nonzero entries in the
first
column:
⎫
⎧
6⎪
1
1
1
1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
1
0⎪
⎪
⎪ 0 −1 −1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
2 −1 −4 −13 ⎪
⎪
⎪0
⎭
⎩
0 −2 −5 −1 −15
Next, the second row is used as the pivotal row to eliminate the entries in the
second
column below the pivot element −1:
⎫
⎧
6⎪
1
1
1
1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 0 −1 −1
1
0⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪0
0
−3
−2
−13
⎪
⎪
⎭
⎩
0
0 −3 −3 −1524
Chapter 1 Matrices and Systems of Equations
Finally, the third row is used as the pivotal row to eliminate the last element in
the third
column:
⎧
⎫
6⎪
1
1
1
1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
0 −1 −1
1
0⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
−13
0
0
−3
−2
⎪
⎪
⎩
⎭
0
0
0 −1 −2
This augmented matrix represents a strictly triangular system. Solving by back
substi-
tution, we obtain the solution (2, −1, 3, 2).
In general, if an n × n linear system can be reduced to strictly triangular form,
then
it will have a unique solution that can be obtained by performing back substitution
on
the triangular system. We can think of the reduction process as an algorithm
involving
n − 1 steps. At the first step, a pivot element is chosen from among the nonzero
entries
in the first column of the matrix. The row containing the pivot element is called
the
pivotal row. We interchange rows (if necessary) so that the pivotal row is the new
first
row. Multiples of the pivotal row are then subtracted from each of the remaining n
− 1
rows so as to obtain 0’s in the first entries of rows 2 through n. At the second
step, a
pivot element is chosen from the nonzero entries in column 2, rows 2 through n, of
the matrix. The row containing the pivot is then interchanged with the second row
of
the matrix and is used as the new pivotal row. Multiples of the pivotal row are
then
subtracted from the remaining n − 2 rows so as to eliminate all entries below the
pivot
in the second column. The same procedure is repeated for columns 3 through n − 1.
Note that at the second step row 1 and column 1 remain unchanged, at the third step
the first two rows and first two columns remain unchanged, and so on. At each step,
the
overall dimensions of the system are effectively reduced by 1 (see Figure 1.1.2).
If the elimination process can be carried out as described, we will arrive at an
equivalent strictly triangular system after n − 1 steps. However, the procedure
will break
down if, at any step, all possible choices for a pivot element are equal to 0. When
this
happens, the alternative is to reduce the system to certain special echelon, or
staircase-
shaped, forms. These echelon forms will be studied in the next section. They will
also
be used for m × n systems, where m #= n.
Step 1x
x
x
xx
x
x
xx
x
x
xx
x
x
xx
x
x
xx
0
0
0x
x
x
xx
x
x
xx
x
x
xx
x
x
x
Step 2x
0
0
0x
x
x
xx
x
x
xx
x
x
xx
x
x
xx
0
0
0x
x
0
0x
x
x
xx
x
x
xx
x
x
x
Step 3x
0
0
0x
x
0
0x
x
x
xx
x
x
xx
x
x
xx
0
0
0x
x
0
0x
x
x
0x
x
x
xx
x
x
x
Figure 1.1.2.1.1 Systems of Linear Equations
25
SECTION 1.1 EXERCISES
1. Use back substitution to solve each of the following
systems of equations:
(a) x1 + x2 = 7
2x2 = 6
(c) 4x1 +
(c) x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + 4x4 = 6
7x2 − x3 + 2x4 = 5
x3 − 4x4 = −9
4x4 = 8
(e)
2x3 = 14
(d) x1 + x2 + 16x3 + 3x4 + x5 = 5
4x2 + 4x3 + 6x4 + 3x5 = 1
2x1 − x2 = 3
−4x1 + 2x2 = −6
x1 + x2 = 1
x1 − x2 = 1
−x1 + 3x2 = 3
4. Write an augmented matrix for each of the systems in
Exercise 3.
5. Write out the system of equations that corresponds to
each of the following augmented matrices:
⎧
⎫
⎧
⎫
⎩3 0 6⎪
⎭
⎩ 1 −1 5 8 ⎪
⎭
(b) ⎪
(a) ⎪
0 2 4
3
0 2 0
⎧
⎫
⎪
⎪ 1 −2 1 4 ⎪
⎪
⎪ 7
⎪
0 5 2⎪
(c) ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
⎭
−3
2 0 0
⎫
⎧
1 −2 0 −8 5 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
1 3
4 6⎪
⎪
⎪2
⎪
(d) ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 0 −3 1 −1 7 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎭
⎩
8
4 1
1 9
6. Solve each of the following systems:
(a) x1 − x2 = 11
x1 + x2 = −1
(d)
(b) 3x1 − 2x2 = −5
2x1 + 3x2 = 27
x1 + 3x2 + 5x3 = 27
2x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 11
(f) 2x1 − x2 + 4x3 = −4
(g)
3x4 + 11x5 = 1
(c)
x1 + 2x2 − x3 = −6
2x1 − x2 + x3 = 7
−x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 3
2x1 + 4x2 + 6x3 = 30
−8x3 + 27x4 − 7x5 = 7
x5 = 0
2. Write out the coefficient matrix for each of the systems
in Exercise 1.
3. In each of the following systems, interpret each equa-
tion as a line in the plane. For each system, graph
the lines and determine geometrically the number of
solutions.
(b)
x1 + 2x2 = 4
(a) x1 + x2 = 4
x1 − x2 = 2
−2x1 − 4x2 = 4
(d)
7
x + 14x2 = 9
3 1
(b) x1 + x2 + x3 = 10
2x2 + x3 = 11
1
x =2
2 2
x1 + 3x2 − x3 =8
3x1 − x2 − x3 =2
3
x +
5 11
x +
3 22
x =
3 3
5
x −
7 12
x −
5 23
x = −1
5 3
1
3
x + 102 x2 + 10
x3 =
10 1
(h)
1
1
2
x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 + x4 = 7
x1 − 3x2 + x3 − x4 = 2
3x1 − x2 + x3 + x4 = 0
2x1
+ 2x3
7. The two systems
=8
x1 + 2x2 = 8
4x1 − 3x2 = −1
and
x1 + 2x2 = 7
4x1 − 3x2 = 6
have the same coefficient matrix but different right-hand
sides. Solve both systems simultaneously by eliminating
the first entry in the second row of the augmented matrix:
⎫
⎧
8 7⎪
2
⎪
⎪
⎪1
⎭
⎩
4
−3 −1 6
and then performing back substitutions for each of the
columns corresponding to the right-hand sides.
8. Solve the two systems
x1 + 2x2 − x3 =
6
x1 + 2x2 − x3 =
9
2x1 − x2 + 3x3 = −3 and 2x1 − x2 + 3x3 = −2
x1 + x2 − 4x3 =
7
x1 + x2 − 4x3 =
9
by doing elimination on a 3 × 5 augmented matrix and
then performing two back substitutions.
9. Given a system of the form
−m1 x1 + x2 = b1
−m2 x1 + x2 = b2
where m1 , m2 , b1 , and b2 are constants:
(a) Show that the system will have a unique solution if
m1 #= m2 .26
Chapter 1 Matrices and Systems of Equations
(b) Show that if m1 = m2 , then the system will be
consistent only if b1 = b2 .
(c) Give a geometric interpretation of parts (a) and (b).
10. Consider a system of the form
a11 x1 + a12 x2 = 0
a21 x1 + a22 x2 = 0
1.2
where a11 , a12 , a21 , and a22 are constants. Explain why a
system of this form must be consistent.
11. Give a geometrical interpretation of a linear equa-
tion in three unknowns. Give a geometrical description
of the possible solution sets for a 3 × 3 linear
system.
Row Echelon Form
In Section 1.1, we learned a method for reducing an n × n linear system to strict
trian-
gular form. However, this method will fail if, at any stage of the reduction
process, all
the possible choices for a pivot element in a given column are 0.
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the system represented by the augmented matrix
⎧
1
1
⎪
⎪
⎪
−1
−1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
−2 −2
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
0
⎪
⎩ 0
1
1
1
0
0
1
2
1
0
0
1
2
⎫
1
1 ⎪ ← pivotal row
⎪
1 −1 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
1⎪
3
⎪
⎪
⎪
3 −1 ⎪
⎪
⎭
1
4
If row operation III is used to eliminate the nonzero entries in the last four rows
of the
first column, the resulting matrix will be
⎧
1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
0
⎪
⎪
⎪
0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
⎫
1⎪
1
⎪
⎪
2
0⎪
← pivotal row
⎪
⎪
3⎪
5
⎪
⎪
⎪
3 −1 ⎪
⎪
⎭
3
0
At this stage, the reduction to strict triangular form breaks down. All four
possible
choices for the pivot element in the second column are 0. How do we proceed from
here? Since our goal is to simplify the system a