Department of ECE Aditya College of Engineering & Technology

UNIT 5 - PULSE MODULATION

In analog modulation systems, some parameter of sinusoidal carrier is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous value of modulating signal. In pulse modulation systems, the carrier is no longer a
continuous signal but consists of a pulse train, some parameter of which is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal.

There are two types of pulse modulation systems.

(i) Pulse Amplitude modulation (PAM)

(ii) Pulse Time modulation (PTM)

In PAM, the amplitude of the pulses of the carrier pulse train is varied in accordance with the
modulating signal; whereas, in PTM, the timing of the pulses of the carrier pulse train is varied.

There are two types of PTM.

(i) Pulse width modulation (PWM) or Pulse duration modulation (PDM) or Pulse length
modulation (PLM): In PWM, Width of the pulses of the carrier pulse train is varied in
accordance with the modulating signal.
(ii) Pulse Position modulation (PPM): In PPM, the position of the pulses of the carrier pulse train
is varied.

According to Sampling theorem, if a modulating signal is band limited to B Hz (i.e there are no
frequency components beyond B Hz in the frequency spectrum of the modulating signal), the sampling
frequency must be at least 2B Hz and hence the frequency of the carrier pulse train must also be at least
2B Hz.

The spectral range occupied by the basic signal is called the baseband frequency range or simply base
band. Hence the basic signal is sometimes called as baseband signal.

Pulse Amplitude Modulation

In PAM, the amplitude of the pulses of the carrier pulse train is varied in accordance with the
modulating signal, that is amplitude of the pulses depends on the value of m(t) during the time of pulse.

A baseband signal m(t) and carrier pulse train c(t) are shown in figure below. The frequency of the
carrier pulse train must be atleast twice the maximum frequency component of message signal.

There are two methods of getting the pulse amplitude modulated waveforms:

a) Natural sampling PAM

b) Flat –top sampling PAM

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Natural sampling PAM Generation

PAM signal is obtained by multiplying m(t) and c(t) in the multiplier as shown in figure below.
It is seen that the tops of the pulse amplitude modulated pulses are not flat but they follow the
natural waveform of the modulating signal m(t) during the respective pulse intervals and hence
the name natural sampling is given to this method.

{The baseband signal m(t) is shown to have only a positive polarity. In practice, however we can have
a baseband signal with a positive as well as negative polarity. But in such a case, the modulated pulses
will also be of positive as well as negative polarities. As the transmission of such bipolar pulses is
inconvenient, a clamping circuit is used so that we always have a baseband signal with only the positive
polarity.}

Operation: The fourier series of a periodic train of pulses can be given as

𝑛𝜋𝜏
𝐴𝜏 2𝐴𝜏 2𝜋𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛( )
𝑐(𝑡) = + ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝐶𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑇 where 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑛𝜋𝜏
𝑇𝑠
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 𝑠 𝑇𝑠

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Assume Amplitude of the pulse A=1, 𝜏 is the pulse duration and 𝑇𝑠 is the sampling period.
∞
𝜏 2𝜏 2𝜋𝑛𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = + ∑ 𝐶𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠
𝑛=0

𝜏 2𝜏 2𝜋𝑡 4𝜋𝑡 6𝜋𝑡

𝑐(𝑡) = + [ 𝐶1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝐶2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝐶3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + ⋯]
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠

As PAM is simply generated by multiplier i.e multiplication of the baseband signal and
carrier pulse train. Mathematically it is given as 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑚(𝑡)𝑐(𝑡)
𝜏 2𝜏 2𝜋𝑡 4𝜋𝑡 6𝜋𝑡
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑚(𝑡){ + [ 𝐶1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝐶2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝐶3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + ⋯ ]}
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠

𝜏 2𝜏 2𝜋𝑡 4𝜋𝑡 6𝜋𝑡

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑚(𝑡) + [ 𝐶1 𝑚(𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝐶2 𝑚(𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝐶3 𝑚(𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠 + ⋯]
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠

1
Choose 𝑇𝑠 = 2𝑓 by sampling theorem, 𝑓𝑚 where is maximum frequency component in m(t)
𝑚

First term is the baseband signal itself. Base band signal is limited upto fm Hz. Second term is
a product of m(t) and a sinusoid of frequency 2𝑓𝑚 , which will yield the frequency spectrum
given by the sum and difference terms. Thus the frequency spectrum of the second term is from
(2𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑚 ) to (2𝑓𝑚 + 𝑓𝑚 ). i.e from 𝑓𝑚 to 3𝑓𝑚 . Similarly the frequency spectrum of the third
term is from (4𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑚 ) to (4𝑓𝑚 + 𝑓𝑚 ). i.e from 3𝑓𝑚 to 5𝑓𝑚 and so on.

The magnitude plots of the spectral densities of m(t) and s(t) are shown in fig below.

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PAM (Natural Sampling) Demodulator

If s(t) is passed through an ideal low pass filter with cut-off frequency 𝑓𝑚 , then the output
will be the baseband signal m(t).

FLAT-TOP Sampling PAM

The electronic circuitry needed to perform natural sampling is somewhat complicated

because the pulse – top shape is to be maintained. These complications are reduced by flat-top
sampling. In this, the top of pulses are flat. Thus the pulses have constant amplitude within the
pulse interval. The constant amplitude of the pulse can be chosen at any value of m(t) within
the pulse interval. In fig.below, the value at the beginning of the pulse is chosen.

The flat top sampled signal may be considered as a convolution of the impulse sampled
signal ms(t) and non-periodic pulse p(t) of width τ and height 1 v.

The flat-top sampled signal is given by 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑚𝑠 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑝(𝑡)

Where 𝑚𝑠 (𝑡) is sampled message signal.

𝑚𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝑚(0)𝛿(𝑡) + 𝑚(𝑇𝑠 )𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑇𝑠 ) + 𝑚(2𝑇𝑠 )𝛿(𝑡 − 2𝑇𝑠 ) + 𝑚(3𝑇𝑠 )𝛿(𝑡 − 3𝑇𝑠 ) + ⋯

𝑠(𝑡) = {𝑚(0)𝛿(𝑡) + 𝑚(𝑇𝑠 )𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑇𝑠 ) + 𝑚(2𝑇𝑠 )𝛿(𝑡 − 2𝑇𝑠 ) + 𝑚(3𝑇𝑠 )𝛿(𝑡 − 3𝑇𝑠 ) + ⋯ } ∗ 𝑝(𝑡)

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑚(0)𝑝(𝑡) + 𝑚(𝑇𝑠 )𝑝(𝑡 − 𝑇𝑠 ) + 𝑚(2𝑇𝑠 )𝑝(𝑡 − 2𝑇𝑠 ) + 𝑚(3𝑇𝑠 )𝑝(𝑡 − 3𝑇𝑠 ) + ⋯

By applying Fourier Transform, we will get 𝑆(𝑤) = 𝑀𝑠 (𝑤)𝑃(𝑤)

𝑀𝑠 (𝑤) is spectrum of 𝑚𝑠 (𝑡) (𝑀𝑠 (𝑤) 𝑖𝑠 periodic version of M(w) with period 2fm)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑓𝜏
𝑃(𝑤) is the fourier transform of gate function p(t). P(w) is sampling function ( )
𝜋𝑓

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Because of the function p(w), high frequency components in the baseband signal are
attenuated. This shows that a distortion will be introduced if the signal is recovered by an ideal
low pass filter of a cut-off frequency fm. This type of distortion is called Aperture effect.

The Aperture effect can be compensated by

1. Selecting the pulse width τ is very small

If pulse width τ is minimized, then spectral range occupied by the main lobe of the sampling
function becomes wider, thus allowing higher frequency of the baseband signal without
attenuation.

2. By using equalizer circuit

sin 𝜋𝑓𝜏
Aperture effect occurs due to 𝑃(𝑓) = . Hence, a filter whose transfer function is
𝜋𝑓
1 𝜋𝑓
given by H(f) = = sin 𝜋𝑓𝜏 which is reciprocal to p(f) is used to eliminate aperture
𝑃(𝑓)
distortion.

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PAM (Flat-top) Demodulator

Method 1:
1 𝜋𝑓
By placing a device whose transfer function is H(f) = = sin 𝜋𝑓𝜏 after LPF as
𝑃(𝑓)
shown in figure below, aperture effect can be eliminated. Such device is called equalizer
as it amplifies the higher frequency components which were attenuated during generation.
Thus it recovers the baseband signal without any distortion.

Method 2:

In this method, the received signal is passed through a holding circuit and an LPF,
shown in fig a. Fig.b shows a simple holding circuit. The switch S closes after the arrival
of the pulse, and it opens at the end of the pulse. The capacitor C gets charged to the pulse
amplitude value, and it holds this value during the interval between the two pulses. Thus
the sampled values are held as shown in fig c. The holding circuit output is smoothened in
LPF as shown in fig d.

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PAM MODULATOR CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

A PAM modulator circuit is shown in fig. This circuit is a simple emitter follower. In the
presence of the clock signal, the output follows the input. The modulating signal is applied as the
input signal. Another input to the base of the transistor is the clock signal. The frequency of the
clock signal is made equal to the desired carrier pulse train frequency. The amplitude of the
clock signal is so chosen that the high level is at ground (0 V), and the low level is at some
negative voltage which is sufficient to bring the transistor in the cut-off region.

Thus when the clock signal is high, the circuit behaves as an emitter follower, and the output
follows the input modulating signal. When the clock signal is low, the transistor is cut-off and
the output is zero.

PAM DEMODULATOR CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

It is just an envelope detector followed by a low pass filter. The diode and R-C combination
work as the envelope detector. This is followed by a second order OP-AMP low pass filter to
have a good filtering characteristic.

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TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING PAM SYSTEM

Normally, in PAM system, the duration of the pulse 𝜏 is much less than the time period of
pulses Ts. Thus no information is being transmitted through the system for most of the time. The
time space Ts – 𝜏 can be utilized to transmit information from other signals. The signal numbers
2, 3 and 4 are transmitting information with the help of samples numbered 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
This is along with the samples numbered 1 of the signal number 1.

The time period Ts is equally divided between the four signals, thus allocating a time slot
𝑇𝑆 𝑇𝑆
of to each signal. Thus the duration of time slot is such that > 𝜏. Thus, there is a guard time
4 4
𝑇𝑆
- 𝜏 between all successive sampling pulses, ensuring that there is less cross talk between signals.
4
The arrangement by which the information from more than one signal is transmitted in this manner
is known as time division multiplexing.

A TDM PAM system is shown in figure below, which transmits information from n signals.
The switch 1 and switch 2 respectively known as commutator and decommutator are synchronized
electronic switches which rotate at the same speed of 2fM rotations per second. The commutator
samples and combines the samples, while the decommutator seperates the samples belonging to
individual signals.

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Synchronization is the most crucial in TDM system. Thus, for example, if the commutator is at
position 2, the decommutator must also be in position 2. To provide synchronization, a synchronizing puse
is transmitted in every frame (time interval between two successive samples of the same signal, i.e Ts).

Thus to multiplex n channels, n+1 time slots are provided in a frame; n for channels and 1 for the
synchronizing pulse. The synchronizing pulse is chosen in such a way that it is easily distinguishable. For
this purpose, one of its properties is adjusted in such a way that it is never attained by the other pulses. For
example, in case of PAM, its amplitude is made larger than the amplitudes of all the other pulses.

Comparison between FDM and TDM

FDM TDM
Frequency Scale is shared by different Time scale is shared by different signals
channels
Different carriers are to be generated for All channels require identical circuits, consisting of
different channels. As each channel occupies simple synchronous switches, gates and a low pass filter
a different frequency band, different band
pass filters are required.

The non linearities in the various amplifiers In TDM system, the signals from different channels are
of an FDM system produce harmonic allotted different time slots and they are not applied to
distortion and hence they introduce the system simultaneously. Hence non linearity
interference within the channels. Therefore requirements of a TDM system are the same as those for
non linearity requirements of an FDM system a single channel. Thus the TDM system is relatively
are much more stringent than those for a immune to interference within the channels as compared
single channel. to FDM.

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PULSE WIDTH MODULATION GENERATION:

In this system, we have fixed amplitude and starting time of each pulse, but the width of each
pulse is made proportional to the amplitude of the signal at that instant.

Let ∆ be the width of the pulse in the unmodulated pulse train. In PWM ∆∝ 𝑉𝑚 .

Mathematically, the width of pulse in PWM signal is given by ∆𝑚 = ∆(1 + 𝑉𝑚 )

When there is no message, i.e., 𝑉𝑚 = 0, then the width of the pulse will be equal to the original
width. For positive values of message, the width will be proportional increases by (1 + 𝑉𝑚 )
factor. For negative values of the message, the width decreases by(1 − 𝑉𝑚 ).

Direct Method of Generation using mono stable multivibrator:

PWM may be generated by applying trigger pulses to control the starting time of pulses
from a mono stable multivibrator, and feeding in the signal to be sampled to control the duration
of these pulses. Emitter coupled mono stable multivibrator makes an excellent voltage to time
converter, since its pulse width is dependent on the voltage to the capacitor C is charged.

If this voltage is varied in accordance with a signal voltage, a series of rectangular pulses
will be obtained, with widths varying as required. The circuit does the twin jobs of sampling and
converting the samples into PWM.

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Operation:

1. We know that stable state for this type of multivibrator is T1 OFF & T2 ON.
2. The applied trigger pulse switches T1 ON, whereupon the voltage at C1 falls as T1 now
begins to draw collector current.
3. The voltage at B2 follows C1 and T2 is switched off by regenerative action.
4. As soon as this happens, C begins to charge up to the collector supply potential through
R.
5. After a time determined by the supply voltage and RC time constant of the charging
network, B2 becomes sufficiently positive to switch T2 on.
6. T1 is simultaneously switched off by regenerative action and stays OFF until the arrival
of the next trigger pulse.
7. The voltage at the base of T2 must reach to allow T2 to turn on, is slightly more positive
than the voltage across the common emitter resistor Rk. This voltage depends on the
current flowing through the circuit, which at the time is the collector current of T1(at that
time T1 ON)
8. The collector current depends on the base bias, which is controlled by the instantaneous
changes in the applied signal voltage.
9. The applied modulating voltage control the voltage to which B2 must rise to switch T2
ON. Since the voltage rise is linear, the modulating voltage is seen to control the period
of time during which T2 is OFF.

PWM Demodulator:

1. A PWM demodulator circuit is shown in figure below.

2. The transistor T1 works as an inverter. Hence during the time interval A –B, when the
PWM signal is high, the input to the transistor T2 is low.
3. Therefore, during this time interval, the transistor T2 is cut-off and the capacitor C gets
charged through an R-C combination.

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4. During the time interval B –C when the PWM signal is low, the input to the transistor T2
is high, and it gets saturated.
5. The capacitor C then discharges very rapidly through T2. The collector voltage of T2
during the interval B-C is then low.
6. Thus the waveform at the collector of T2 is more or less a saw-tooth waveform whose
envelope is the modulating signal.
7. When this is passed through a second – order OP-AMP low pass filter, we get the desired
demodulated output.

PPM Generation

Pulse position modulation is defined as the process of varying the position of the pulse
with respected to the instantaneous variations of the message signal.

Their position depends on the pulse width, which is determined by the signal amplitude at
that instant. Thus, it may be said that the trailing edges of PWM pulses are, in fact, position-
modulated.

Figure: PPM generator

Procedure:

PPM generator consists of differentiator and monostable multivibrator. The differentiator

generates positive and negative spikes corresponding to leading and trailing edges of the PWM
waveform. Diode D1 is used to bypass the positive spikes. The negative spikes are used to trigger

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the multivibrator. The monostable multivibrator then generates the pulses of same width and
amplitude with reference to the trigger to give PPM waveform as shown in figure.

Figure: Waveforms of PPM generator

Advantages of PPM:

1. Like PWM, in PPM amplitude is held constant thus less noise interference.
2. Like PWM, signal and noise separation is very easy
3. Due to constant pulse widths and amplitudes, transmission power for each pulse is same.

Disadvantages of PPM

1. Synchronization between transmitter and receiver is required.

2. Large bandwidth is required as compared to PAM.

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A PPM Demodulator Circuit:

1. A PPM demodulator circuit is shown in figure.

2. This utilizes the fact that the gaps between the pulses of a PPM signal contain the
information regarding the modulating signal.

3. During the gap A- B between the pulses, the transmitter is cut-off, and the capacitor C
gets charged through the R-C combination. During the pulse duration B-C, the
capacitor discharges through the transistor, and the collector voltage becomes low.
4. Thus the waveform at the collector is approximately a saw tooth waveform whose
envelope is the modulating signal.
5. When this is passed through a second order OP- AMP low pass filter, we get the desired
demodulated output.

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Comparison of PAM, PWM and PPM systems

S.No Pulse Amplitude Modulation Pulse Width/ Duration Pulse Position Modulation
Modulation
1

2 Amplitude of the pulse is Width of the pulse is The relative position of

proportional to amplitude proportional to the pulse is proportional
of modulating signal amplitude of modulating to the amplitude of
signal. modulating signal.
3 The bandwidth of the Bandwidth of Bandwidth of
transmission channel transmission channel transmission channel
depends on width f the depends on rise time of depends on rise time of
pulse the pulse. the pulse.
4 The instantaneous power The instantaneous The instantaneous
of the transmitter varies power of the transmitter power of the transmitter
with amplitude of pulses. varies with width of remains constant with
pulses width of pulses.
5 Noise interference is high Noise interference is Noise interference is
minimum minimum
6 System is complex Simple is implement Simple is implement
7 Similar to Amplitude Similar to frequency Simple to Phase
modulation modulation modulation

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Gandhi

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