Subject : Fundamentals of IoT B.

Tech CSE-Data Science III-II

UNIT-I
Long questions
1 . What do you mean by IOT and it’s features?
IOT can be defined as a global infrastructure that enables advanced services by interconnecting
physical and virtual things based on existing information and communication technology .
The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to a system of interrelated, internet-connected objects that are
able to collect and transfer data over a wireless network without human intervention.

Features of IOT

The most important features of IoT on which it works are connectivity, analyzing, integrating,
active engagement, and many more. Some of them are listed below:

Connectivity: Connectivity refers to establish a proper connection between all the things of IoT
to IoT platform it may be server or cloud. After connecting the IoT devices, it needs a high speed
messaging between the devices and cloud to enable reliable, secure and bi-directional
communication.

Analyzing: After connecting all the relevant things, it comes to real-time analyzing the data
collected and use them to build effective business intelligence. If we have a good insight into
data gathered from all these things, then we call our system has a smart system.

Integrating: IoT integrating the various models to improve the user experience as well.

Artificial Intelligence: IoT makes things smart and enhances life through the use of data. For
example, if we have a coffee machine whose beans have going to end, then the coffee machine
itself order the coffee beans of your choice from the retailer.

Sensing: The sensor devices used in IoT technologies detect and measure any change in the
environment and report on their status. IoT technology brings passive networks to active
networks. Without sensors, there could not hold an effective or true IoT environment.

Active Engagement: IoT makes the connected technology, product, or services to active
engagement between each other.

Endpoint Management: It is important to be the endpoint management of all the IoT system
otherwise, it makes the complete failure of the system. For example, if a coffee machine itself
order the coffee beans when it goes to end but what happens when it orders the beans from a
retailer and we are not present at home for a few days, it leads to the failure of the IoT system.
So, there must be a need for endpoint management.
Dynamic and self-adapting:

The IoT devices can dynamically adapt with sensed environment, their operating conditions, and
user’s context and take actions accordingly. For ex: Surveillance System

Self-configuring:

I. IoT devices can be able to upgrade the software with minimal intervention of user, whenever
they are connected to the internet

II. They can also setup the network i.e a new device can be easily added to the existing network.
For ex: Whenever there will be free wifi access one device can be connected easily.

Interoperable Communication: IoT allows different devices (different in architecture) to

communicate with each other as well as with different network. For ex: MI Phone is able to
control the smart AC and smart TV of different manufacturer.

2. Explain characteristics of IOT.

Characteristics of IoT:

Various characteristics of IoT are:

• Dynamic and self-adapting

• Self-configuring
• Interoperable Communication protocols
• Unique identity
 Integrated into information network

1. Dynamic and self-adapting:

The IoT devices can dynamically adapt with sensed environment, their operating
conditions, and user’s context and take actions accordingly. For ex: Surveillance
System
2 Self-configuring:
I. IoT devices can be able to upgrade the software with minimal intervention of user,
whenever they are connected to the internet
II. They can also setup the network i.e a new device can be easily added to the
existing network. For ex: Whenever there will be free wifi access one device can be
connected easily.
3 Interoperable Communication: IoT allows different devices (different in
architecture) to communicate with each other as well as with different network. For
ex: MI Phone is able to control the smart AC and smart TV of different manufacturer.
Unique identities:
 I. The devices which are connected to the internet have unique identities i.e IP
address through which they can be identified throughout the network
II. The IoT devices have intelligent interfaces which allow communicating with
users. It adapts to the environmental contexts.
III. It also allows the user to query the devices, monitor their status, and control them
remotely, in association with the control, configuration and management
infrastructure.
4 Integrated into information network:

I. The IoT devices are connected to the network to share some information with other
connected devices. The devices can be discovered dynamically in the network by other
devices. For ex. If a device has wifi connectivity then that will be shown to other nearby
devices having wifi connectivity
II. The devices ssid will be visible though out the network. Due to these things the
network is also called as information network.
III. The IoT devices become smarter due to the collective intelligence of the
individual devices in collaboration with the information network. For Ex: weather
monitoring system. Here the information collected from different monitoring nodes
(sensors, arduino devices) can be aggregated and analysed to predict the weather.
3. Explain the Logical Design of IoT.

In this article we discuss Logical design of Internet of things. Logical design of IoT system refers
to an abstract representation of the entities & processes without going into the low-level specifies
of the implementation. For understanding Logical Design of IoT, we describes given below
terms.
i. IoT Functional Blocks
ii. IoT Communication Models
iii. IoT Communication APIs

i. Describe functional blocks of IOT Architecture?

An IoT system comprises of a number of functional blocks that provide the system the
capabilities for identification, sensing, actuation, communication and management.
functional blocks are:
Device: An IoT system comprises of devices that provide sensing, actuation, monitoring and
control functions.
Communication: Handles the communication for the IoT system.
Services: services for device monitoring, device control service, data publishing services and
services for device discovery.
Management: this block provides various functions to govern the IoT system.
Security: this block secures the IoT system and by providing functions such as authentication,
authorization, message and content integrity, and data security.
Application: This is an interface that the users can use to control and monitor various aspects of
the IoT system. Application also allows users to view the system status and view or analyze the
processed data.
 ii. IoT Communication Models

Request-Response Model

Request-response model is communication model in which the client sends requests to the server
and the server responds to the requests. When the server receives a request, it decides how to
respond, fetches the data, retrieves resource representation, prepares the response, and then sends
the response to the client. Request-response is a stateless communication model and each
request-response pair is independent of others.
HTTP works as a request-response protocol between a client and server. A web browser may be
the client, and an application on a computer that hosts a web site may be the server.
Example: A client (browser) submits an HTTP request to the server; then the server returns a
response to the client. The response contains status information about the request and may also
contain the requested content.
Publish-Subscribe Model

Publish-Subscribe is a communication model that involves publishers, brokers and consumers.

Publishers are the source of data. Publishers send the data to the topics which are managed by the
broker. Publishers are not aware of the consumers. Consumers subscribe to the topics which are
managed by the broker. When the broker receive data for a topic from the publisher, it sends the
data to all the subscribed consumers.

Push-Pull Model

Push-Pull is a communication model in which the data producers push the data to queues and the
consumers Pull the data from the Queues. Producers do not need to be aware of the consumers.
Queues help in decoupling the messaging between the Producers and Consumers. Queues also
act as a buffer which helps in situations when there is a mismatch between the rate at which the
producers push data and the rate at which the consumer pull data.
Exclusive Pair Model

Exclusive Pair is a bidirectional, fully duplex communication model that uses a persistent
connection between the client and server. Connection is setup it remains open until the client
sends a request to close the connection. Client and server can send messages to each other after
connection setup. Exclusive pair is stateful communication model and the server is aware of all
the open connections.

iii. IoT Communication APIs

Generally, we used Two APIs For IoT Communication. These IoT Communication APIs are:

 REST-based Communication APIs

 WebSocket -based Communication APIs

REST-based Communication APIs

Representational state transfer (REST) is a set of architectural principles by which you can
design Web services the Web APIs that focus on system’s resources and how resource states are
addressed and transferred. REST APIs that follow the request response communication model,
the rest architectural constraint apply to the components, connector and data elements, within a
distributed hypermedia system. The rest architectural constraint are as follows:
Client-server – The principle behind the client-server constraint is the separation of concerns.
for example, clients should not be concerned with the storage of data which is concern of the
serve. Similarly, the server should not be concerned about the user interface, which is concern of
the client. Separation allows client and server to be independently developed and updated.
Stateless – Each request from client to server must contain all the information necessary to
understand the request, and cannot take advantage of any stored context on the server. The
session state is kept entirely on the client.
Cache-able – Cache constraints requires that the data within a response to a request be implicitly
or explicitly leveled as cache-able or non-cache-able. If a response is cache-able, then a client
cache is given the right to reuse that response data for later, equivalent requests. caching can
partially or completely eliminate some instructions and improve efficiency and scalability.
Layered system – layered system constraints, constrains the behavior of components such that
each component cannot see beyond the immediate layer with they are interacting. For example,
the client cannot tell whether it is connected directly to the end server or two an intermediary
along the way. System scalability can be improved by allowing intermediaries to respond to
requests instead of the end server, without the client having to do anything different.
Uniform interface – uniform interface constraints requires that the method of communication
between client and server must be uniform. Resources are identified in the requests (by URIs in
web-based systems) and are themselves is separate from the representations of the resources data
returned to the client. When a client holds a representation of resources it has all the information
required to update or delete the resource you (provided the client has required permissions). Each
message includes enough information to describe how to process the message.
Code on demand – Servers can provide executable code or scripts for clients to execute in their
context. this constraint is the only one that is optional.

A RESTful web service is a” Web API” implemented using HTTP and REST principles. REST
is most popular IoT Communication APIs.

Http Methods/Commands Shown In Above Table :

WebSocket based communication API

WebSocket APIs allow bi-directional, full duplex communication between clients and servers.
WebSocket APIs follow the exclusive pair communication model. Unlike request-response
model such as REST, the WebSocket APIs allow full duplex communication and do not require
new connection to be setup for each message to be sent. WebSocket communication begins with
a connection setup request sent by the client to the server. The request (called WebSocket
handshake) is sent over HTTP and the server interprets it is an upgrade request. If the server
supports WebSocket protocol, the server responds to the WebSocket handshake response. After
the connection setup client and server can send data/messages to each other in full duplex mode.
WebSocket API reduce the network traffic and latency as there is no overhead for connection
setup and termination requests for each message. WebSocket suitable for IoT applications that
have low latency or high throughput requirements. So, Web socket is most suitable IoT
Communication APIs for IoT System.

4 Explain about Sensors and Actuators.

Sensors They perform some input functions by sensing or feeling the physical changes in
characteristics of a system in response to a stimuli. For example heat is converted to electrical
signals in a temperature sensor, or atmospheric pressure is converted to electrical signals in a
barometer.
The structure of a sensor Transducers convert or transduce energy of one kind into another. For
example, in a sound system, a microphone (input device) converts sound waves into electrical
signals for an amplifier to amplify (a process), and a loudspeaker (output device) converts these
electrical signals back into sound waves. Sensor vs. Transducer The word "Transducer" is the
collective term used for both Sensors which can be used to sense a wide range of different
energy forms such as movement, electrical signals, radiant energy, thermal or magnetic energy
etc., And Actuators which can be used to switch voltages or current.

Sensor Features

It is only sensitive to the measured property (e.g., A temperature sensor senses the ambient
temperature of a room.)
 It is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its application (e.g., A
temperature sensor does not bother about light or pressure while sensing the
temperature.)
 It does not influence the measured property (e.g., measuring the temperature does not
reduce or increase the temperature).

Sensor Resolution
 The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect in the quantity that it is
measuring.
 The resolution of a sensor with a digital output is usually the smallest resolution the
digital output it is capable of processing.
 The more is the resolution of a sensor, the more accurate is its precision.
 A sensor's accuracy does not depend upon its resolution.

Sensor Classes

Analog Sensors
 Analog Sensors produces a continuous output signal or voltage which is generally
proportional to the quantity being measured.
 Physical quantities such as Temperature, speed, Pressure, Displacement, Strain etc. are all
analog quantities as they tend to be continuous in nature.
 For example, the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a thermometer or
thermocouple (e.g. in geysers) which continuously responds to temperature changes as
the liquid is heated up or cooled down.
Digital Sensors

 Digital Sensors produce discrete output voltages that are a digital representation of the
quantity being measured.
 Digital sensors produce a binary output signal in the form of a logic "1" or a logic "0" ,
("ON" or "OFF).
 Digital signal only produces discrete (non-continuous) values, which may be output as a
signal "bit" (serial transmission), or by combing the bits to produce a signal "byte" output
(parallel transmission).

Scalar Sensors

 Scalar Sensors produce output signal or voltage which generally proportional to the
magnitude of the quantity being measured.
 Physical quantities such as temperature, color, pressure, strain, etc. are all scalar
quantities as only their magnitude is sufficient to convey an information.
 For example the temperature of a room can be measured using thermometer or
thermocouple, which responds to temperature changes irrespective of the orientation of
the sensor or its direction.

Vector Sensors

 Vector Sensors produce output signal or voltage which generally proportional to the
magnitude, direction, as well as the orientation of the quantity being measured.
 Physical quantities such as sound, image, velocity, acceleration, orientation, etc. are all
vector quantities, as only their magnitude is not sufficient to convey the complete
information.
 For example, the acceleration of a body can be measured using an accelerometer, which
gives the components of acceleration of the body with respect to the x,y,z coordinate
axes.

Types of sensors :
Temperature sensors

Temperature sensors detect the temperature of the air or a physical object and concert that
temperature level into an electrical signal that can be calibrated accurately reflect the measured
temperature. These sensors could monitor the temperature of the soil to help with agricultural
output or the temperature of a bearing operating in a critical piece of equipment to sense when it
might be overheating or nearing the point of failure.

Pressure sensors

Pressure sensors measure the pressure or force per unit area applied to the sensor and can detect
things such as atmospheric pressure, the pressure of a stored gas or liquid in a sealed system such
as tank or pressure vessel, or the weight of an object.

Image sensors

Image sensors function to capture images to be digitally stored for processing. License plate
readers are an example, as well as facial recognition systems. Automated production lines can
use image sensors to detect issues with quality such as how well a surface is painted after leaving
the spray booth.

Proximity sensors

Proximity sensors can detect the presence or absence of objects that approach the sensor through
a variety of different technology designs. These approaches include:
  Inductive technologies which are useful for the detection of metal objects Capacitive
technologies, which function on the basis of objects having a different dielectric constant
than that of air Photoelectric technologies, which rely on a beam of light to illuminate and
reflect back from an object, or

 Ultrasonic technologies, which use a sound signal to detect an object nearing the sensor

Chemical sensors

Chemical sensors are designed to detect the presence of specific chemical substances which may
have inadvertently leaked from their containers into spaces that are occupied by personnel and
are useful in controlling industrial process conditions.

Smoke sensors

Smoke sensors or detectors pick up the presence of smoke conditions which could be an
indication of a fire typically using optical sensors (photoelectric detection) or ionization
detection.

Infrared (IR) sensors

Infrared sensor technologies detect infrared radiation that is emitted by objects. Non-contact
thermometers make use of these types of sensors as a way of measuring the temperature of an
object without having to directly place a probe or sensor on that object. They find use in
analyzing the heat signature of electronics and detecting blood flow or blood pressure in patients

Characteristics of Sensors

It is the minimum step size within the range of measurement of a sensor in a wire-wound
potentiometer, it will be equal to resistance of one turn of wire. In digital devices with ‗n‘bits,
resolution is ‗Full range/2n

Sensitivity:

It is defined as the change in output response divided by the change in input response.
Highly sensitive sensors show larger fluctuations in output as a result of fluctuations in input.

Linearity:

It represents the relationship between input variations and output variations.

In a sensor with linear output, any change in input at any level within the range will produce the
same change in output.
Repeatability:

is poor - Also, a specific range is desirable for operational performance as the performance of
robots depends on sensors.
Repeatability is a random phenomenon and hence there is no compensation. 23
Range - It is the difference between the smallest and the largest outputs that a sensor can
provide, or the difference between the smallest and largest inputs with which it can operate
properly.
Response time - It is the time that certain sensor‘s percentage output of total change.
It is also defined as the time required to observe the change in output as a result of change in
input for example, ordinary mercury thermometer response time and digital thermometer
response time.
Frequency response - The frequency response is the range i to the input remains relatively high.
The larger the range of frequency response, the better the ability of the system to respond to
varying input.
Reliability - It is the ratio between the number of times a system operates properly and the
number of times it is tried.
For continuous satisfactory operation, it is necessary to choose reliable sensors that last long
while considering the cost as well as other requirements.
Accuracy - It shows how close the output of the sensor is to the expected value.
For a given input, certain expected output value is related to how close the sensor ‘s output value
is to this value.
Interfacing - Direct interfacing of the sensor to the microcontroller/microprocessor is desirable
while some add-on circuit may be necessary in certain special sensors.
The type of the sensor output is equally important. An ADC is required for analogue output
sensors for example, potentiometer output to microcontroller.
Size, weight and volume - Size is a critical consideration for joint displacement sensors.

When robots are used as dynamic machines, weight of the sensor is important.
Volume or spaces also critical to micro robots and mobile robots used for surveillance.
Cost is important especially when quantity involved is large in the end application.

ACTUATORS
Actuators

Another type of transducer that you will encounter in many IoT systems is an actuator. In simple
terms, an actuator operates in the reverse direction of a sensor. It takes an electrical input and
turns it into physical action. For instance, an electric motor, a hydraulic system, and a pneumatic
system are all different types of actuators.

Controller

In a typical IoT system, a sensor may collect information and route to a control center. There,
previously defined logic dictates the decision. As a result, a corresponding command controls an
actuator in response to that sensed input. Thus, sensors and actuators in IoT work together from
opposite ends. Later, we will discuss where the control center resides in the greater IoT system.
An IoT device is made up of a Physical object (“thing”) + Controller (“brain”) + Sensors +
Actuators + Networks (Internet). An actuator is a machine component or system that moves or
controls the mechanism or the system. Sensors in the device sense the environment, then control
signals are generated for the actuators according to the actions needed to perform.

A servo motor is an example of an actuator. They are linear or rotatory actuators, can move to a
given specified angular or linear position. We can use servo motors for IoT applications and
make the motor rotate to 90 degrees, 180 degrees, etc., as per our need.

The following diagram shows what actuators do, the controller directs the actuator based on the
sensor data to do the work.

Working of IoT devices and use of Actuators

The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a source of energy
and a control signal. When it receives a control signal, it converts the source of energy to a
mechanical operation. On this basis, on which form of energy it uses, it has different types given
below.

IoT actuator types

Actuators, as the name itself suggests, can act on their immediate environment to enable correct
operation of the machines or devices they are embedded into.
Small as they are, they are rarely visible during operation, but the effects of their work can be felt
in vehicles, industrial machines or any other electronic equipment involving automation
technologies. They can be separated into four main categories based on their construction pattern
and the role they play in a specific IoT environment:
 Linear actuators – these are used to enable motion of objects or elements in a straight
line.
 Motors – they enable precise rotational movements of device components or whole
objects.
 Relays – this category includes electromagnet-based actuators to operate power switches
in lamps, heaters or even smart vehicles.
 Solenoids – most widely used in home appliances as part of locking or triggering
mechanisms, they also act as controllers in IoT-based gas and water leak monitoring
systems.

Types of Actuators :

Hydraulic Actuators –

A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation. They are actuated
by a cylinder or fluid motor. The mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear, or oscillatory
motion, according to the need of the IoT device. Ex- construction equipment uses hydraulic
actuators because hydraulic actuators can generate a large amount of force.
Advantages :
 Hydraulic actuators can produce a large magnitude of force and high speed.
 Used in welding, clamping, etc.
  Used for lowering or raising the vehicles in car transport carriers.

Disadvantages :
 Hydraulic fluid leaks can cause efficiency loss and issues of cleaning.
 It is expensive.
 It requires noise reduction equipment, heat exchangers, and high maintenance systems.

2. Pneumatic Actuators –
A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure to
convert into either linear or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors that work like
human fingers by using compressed air.
Advantages :
 They are a low-cost option and are used at extreme temperatures where using air is a
safer option than chemicals.
 They need low maintenance, are durable, and have a long operational life.
 It is very quick in starting and stopping the motion.

Disadvantages :
 Loss of pressure can make it less efficient.
 The air compressor should be running continuously.
 Air can be polluted, and it needs maintenance.

3. Electrical Actuators –
An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that converts electrical
energy into mechanical torque. An example of an electric actuator is a solenoid based electric
bell.
Advantages :
 It has many applications in various industries as it can automate industrial valves.
 It produces less noise and is safe to use since there are no fluid leakages.
 It can be re-programmed and it provides the highest control precision positioning.

Disadvantages :
 It is expensive.
 It depends a lot on environmental conditions.

Other actuators are:

Thermal/Magnetic Actuators – These are actuated by thermal or mechanical energy. Shape

Memory Alloys (SMAs) or Magnetic
Shape Memory Alloys (MSMAs) are used by these actuators. An example of a
thermal/magnetic actuator can be a piezo motor using SMA.
Mechanical Actuators – A mechanical actuator executes movement by converting rotary
motion into linear motion. It involves pulleys, chains, gears, rails, and other devices to operate.
Example – A crankshaft.
 Soft Actuators
 Shape Memory Polymers
 Light Activated Polymers
 With the expanding world of IoT, sensors and actuators will find more usage in
commercial and domestic applications along with the pre-existing use in industry

5 Explain various types of sensors.

Types of sensors :
Temperature sensors

Temperature sensors detect the temperature of the air or a physical object and concert that
temperature level into an electrical signal that can be calibrated accurately reflect the measured
temperature. These sensors could monitor the temperature of the soil to help with agricultural
output or the temperature of a bearing operating in a critical piece of equipment to sense when it
might be overheating or nearing the point of failure.

Pressure sensors

Pressure sensors measure the pressure or force per unit area applied to the sensor and can detect
things such as atmospheric pressure, the pressure of a stored gas or liquid in a sealed system such
as tank or pressure vessel, or the weight of an object.

Image sensors

Image sensors function to capture images to be digitally stored for processing. License plate
readers are an example, as well as facial recognition systems. Automated production lines can
use image sensors to detect issues with quality such as how well a surface is painted after leaving
the spray booth.

Proximity sensors

Proximity sensors can detect the presence or absence of objects that approach the sensor through
a variety of different technology designs. These approaches include:
• Inductive technologies which are useful for the detection of metal objects Capacitive
technologies, which function on the basis of objects having a different dielectric constant than
that of air Photoelectric technologies, which rely on a beam of light to illuminate and reflect back
from an object, or

 Ultrasonic technologies, which use a sound signal to detect an object nearing the sensor

Chemical sensors

Chemical sensors are designed to detect the presence of specific chemical substances which may
have inadvertently leaked from their containers into spaces that are occupied by personnel and
are useful in controlling industrial process conditions.

Smoke sensors

Smoke sensors or detectors pick up the presence of smoke conditions which could be an
indication of a fire typically using optical sensors (photoelectric detection) or ionization
detection.

Infrared (IR) sensors

Infrared sensor technologies detect infrared radiation that is emitted by objects. Non-contact
thermometers make use of these types of sensors as a way of measuring the temperature of an
object without having to directly place a probe or sensor on that object. They find use in
analyzing the heat signature of electronics and detecting blood flow or blood pressure in patients

6. Define Sensor Network. Explain the applications of Sensor Networks.

A wireless sensor network (WSN) is a network formed by a large number of sensor nodes where
each node is equipped with a sensor to detect physical phenomena such as light, heat, pressure,
etc. ... With the rapid technological development of sensors, WSNs will become the key
technology for IoT.
Applications of wireless sensor networks
Wireless sensor networks have gained considerable popularity due to their flexibility in solving
problems in different application domains and have the potential to change our lives in many
different ways. WSNs have been successfully applied in various application domains Military
applications: Wireless sensor networks be likely an integral part of military command, control,
communications, computing, intelligence, battlefield surveillance, reconnaissance and targeting
systems. Area monitoring: In area monitoring, the sensor nodes are deployed over a region where
some phenomenon is to be monitored. When the sensors detect the event being monitored (heat,
pressure etc), the event is reported to one of the base stations, which then takes appropriate
action. Transportation: Real-time traffic information is being collected by WSNs to later feed
transportation models and alert drivers of congestion and traffic problems. Health applications:
Some of the health applications for sensor networks are supporting interfaces for the disabled,
integrated patient monitoring, diagnostics, and drug administration in hospitals, tele-monitoring
of human physiological data, and tracking & monitoring doctors or patients inside a hospital.
Environmental sensing: The term Environmental Sensor Networks has developed to cover many
applications of WSNs to earth science research. This includes sensing volcanoes, oceans,
glaciers, forests etc. Some other major areas are listed below:
 Air pollution monitoring
 Forest fires detection
 Greenhouse monitoring
 Landslide detection Structural monitoring: Wireless sensors can be utilized to monitor the
movement within buildings and infrastructure such as bridges, flyovers, embankments,
tunnels etc enabling Engineering practices to monitor assets remotely with out the need
for costly site visits. Industrial monitoring:
Wireless sensor networks have been developed for machinery condition-based maintenance
(CBM) as they offer significant cost savings and enable new functionalities. In wired systems,
the installation of enough sensors is often limited by the cost of wiring. Agricultural sector:
using a wireless network frees the farmer from the maintenance of wiring in a difficult
environment. Irrigation automation enables more efficient water use and reduces waste.
7. Draw and explain the structure of a wireless sensor network.
Structure of a Wireless Sensor Network includes different topologies for radio communications
networks. 1.Star Network 2.MeshNetwork 3.HybridStar-MeshNetwork
1.Star network (single point-to-multipoint):
A star network is a communications topology where a single base station can send and/or
receive a message to a number of remote nodes. The remote nodes are not permitted to send
messages to each other. The advantage of this type of network for wireless sensor networks
includes simplicity, ability to keep the remote node’s power consumption to a minimum. It also
allows low latency communications between the remote node and the base station. The
disadvantage of such a network is that the base station must be within radio transmission range
of all the individual nodes and is not as robust as other networks due to its dependency on a
single node to manage the network.

2.Mesh network :
A mesh network allows transmitting data to one node to other node in the network that is within
its radio transmission range. This allows for what is known as multi-hop communications, that is,
if a node wants to send a message to another node that is out of radio communications range, it
can use an intermediate node to forward the message to the desired node. This network topology
has the advantage of redundancy and scalability. If an individual node fails, a remote node still
can communicate to any other node in its range, which in turn, can forward the message to the
desired location.
In addition, the range of the network is not necessarily limited by the range in between single
nodes; it can simply be extended by adding more nodes to the system. The disadvantage of this
type of network is in power consumption for the nodes that implement the multi-hop
communications are generally higher than for the nodes that don’t have this capability, often
limiting the battery life. Additionally, as the number of communication hops to a destination
increases, the time to deliver the message also increases, especially if low power operation of the
nodes is a requirement.

3.Hybrid star Mesh Network:

A hybrid between the star and mesh network provides a robust and versatile communications
network, while maintaining the ability to keep the wireless sensor nodes power consumption to a
minimum. In this network topology, the sensor nodes with lowest power are not enabled with the
ability to forward messages. This allows for minimal power consumption to be maintained.
However, other nodes on the network are enabled with multi-hop capability, allowing them to
forward messages from the low power nodes to other nodes on the network.
Generally, the nodes with the multi-hop capability are higher power, and if possible, are often
plugged into the electrical mains line. This is the topology implemented by the up-and-coming
mesh networking standard known as ZigBee.
8. Draw and explain Structure of a wireless sensor node.
A sensor node is made up of four basic components such as sensing unit, processing unit,
transceiver unit and a power unit which is shown in Fig. 5. It also has application dependent
additional components such as a location finding system, a power generator and a mobilizer.
Sensing units are usually composed of two subunits: sensors and analogue to digital converters
(ADCs) (Akyildiz et al., 2002). The analogue signals produced by the sensors are converted to
digital signals by the ADC, and then fed into the processing unit. The processing unit is generally
associated with a small storage unit and it can manage the procedures that make the sensor node
collaborate with the other nodes to carry out the assigned sensing tasks. A transceiver unit
connects the node to the network. One of the most important components of a sensor node is the
power unit. Power units can be supported by a power scavenging unit such as solar cells. The
other subunits, of the node are application dependent.
A functional block diagram of a versatile wireless sensing node is provided in Fig. 6. Modular
design approach provides a flexible and versatile platform to address the needs of a wide variety
of applications. For example, depending on the sensors to be deployed, the signal conditioning
block can be re-programmed or replaced. This allows for a wide variety of different sensors to be
used with the wireless sensing node. Similarly, the radio link may be swapped out as required for
a given applications’ wireless range requirement and the need for bidirectional communications.
The components of a sensor node
Functional block diagram of a sensor node
The components of a sensor node Functional block diagram of a sensor node Using flash
memory, the remote nodes acquire data on command from a base station, or by an event sensed
by one or more inputs to the node. Moreover, the embedded firmware can be upgraded through
the wireless network in the field. The microprocessor has a number of functions including:
 Managing data collection from the sensors
 performing power management functions
 interfacing the sensor data to the physical radio layer
 managing the radio network protocol
A key aspect of any wireless sensing node is to minimize the power consumed by the system.
Usually, the radio subsystem requires the largest amount of power. Therefore, data is sent over
the radio network only when it is required. An algorithm is to be loaded into the node to
determine when to send data based on the sensed event. Furthermore, it is important to minimize
the power consumed by the sensor itself. Therefore, the hardware should be designed to allow
the microprocessor to judiciously control power to the radio, sensor, and sensor signal
conditioner.
9. Explain the basics of networking in IoT.
Switches, routers, and wireless access points are the essential networking basics. Through them,
devices connected to your network can communicate with one another and with other networks,
like the Internet. Switches, routers, and wireless access points perform very different functions in
a network.
SWITCHES
Switches are the foundation of most business networks. A switch acts as a controller, connecting
computers, printers, and servers to a network in a building or a campus.
Switches allow devices on your network to communicate with each other, as well as with other
networks, creating a network of shared resources. Through information sharing and resource
allocation, switches save money and increase productivity.
There are two basic types of switches to choose from as part of your networking basics: on-
premises and cloud-managed.
 A managed on-premises switch lets you configure and monitor your LAN, giving you
tighter control of your network traffic.
 Have a small IT team? A cloud-managed switch can simplify your network management.
You get a simple user interface, multisite full-stack management, and automatic updates
delivered directly to the switch.
ROUTERS
 Routers connect multiple networks together. They also connect computers on those
networks to the Internet. Routers enable all networked computers to share a single
Internet connection, which saves money.
 A router acts a dispatcher. It analyzes data being sent across a network, chooses the best
route for data to travel, and sends it on its way.
 Routers connect your business to the world, protect information from security threats, and
can even decide which computers receive priority over others.
 Beyond those basic networking functions, routers come with additional features to make
networking easier or more secure. Depending on your security needs, for example, you
can choose a router with a firewall, a virtual private network (VPN), or an Internet
Protocol (IP) communications system.
ACCESS POINT
An access point* allows devices to connect to the wireless network without cables. A wireless
network makes it easy to bring new devices online and provides flexible support to mobile
workers.
An access point acts like an amplifier for your network. While a router provides the bandwidth,
an access point extends that bandwidth so that the network can support many devices, and those
devices can access the network from farther away.
WIRELESS NETWORKING
To create your wireless network, you can choose between three types of deployment: centralized
deployment, converged deployment, and cloud-based deployment
1. Centralized deployment
The most common type of wireless network system, centralized deployments are traditionally
used in campuses where buildings and networks are in close proximity. This deployment
consolidates the wireless network, which makes upgrades easier
and facilitates advanced wireless functionality. Controllers are based on-premises and are
installed in a centralized location.
2. Converged deployment
For small campuses or branch offices, converged deployments offer consistency in wireless and
wired connections. This deployment converges wired and wireless on one network device—an
access switch—and performs the dual role of both switch and wireless controller.
3. Cloud-based deployment
This system uses the cloud to manage network devices deployed on-premises at different
locations. The solution requires Cisco Meraki cloud-managed devices, which provide full
visibility of the network through their dashboards.
Types of Networks in Use Today

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

The smallest and most basic type of network, a PAN is made up of a wireless modem, a
computer or two, phones, printers, tablets, etc., and revolves around one person in one building.
These types of networks are typically found in small offices or residences, and are managed by
one person or organization from a single device.
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
LANs connect groups of computers and low-voltage devices together across short distances
(within a building or between a group of two or three buildings in close proximity to each other)
to share information and resources. Enterprises typically manage and maintain LANs.
Using routers, LANs can connect to wide area networks (WANs, explained below) to rapidly and
safely transfer data.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
These types of networks are larger than LANs but smaller than WANs – and incorporate
elements from both types of networks. MANs span an entire geographic area (typically a town or
city, but sometimes a campus). Ownership and maintenance is handled by either a single person
or company (a local council, a large company, etc.).
4. Wide Area Network (WAN)
Slightly more complex than a LAN, a WAN connects computers together across longer physical
distances. This allows computers and low-voltage devices to be remotely connected to each other
over one large network to communicate even when they’re miles apart.

Short questions
1. What are communication protocols?
Communication Protocols Used in the IoT Space, HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol),
LoRaWan (Long Range Wide Area Network), Bluetooth, ZigBee, Message Queue
Telemetry Transport (MQTT), Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP), Advanced
Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP)
2. How many levels of IOT Levels are there?
IoT system architecture is laid out across 4 layers i.e., the physical layer, the network
layer, the middleware layer, and the application layer.
3. Classify Computer Networks.
There are five main types of Computer Networks:
LAN (Local Area Network) – Systems connected in a small network like in a building or
a small office.
PAN (Personal Area Network) – The smallest computer network.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
WAN (Wide Area Network)
VPN (Virtual Private Network)
4. Differentiate between Computer Networks V/s IOT.

An IoT network is a closed-loop mesh of autonomously operating devices which can

communicate with each other when required, while regular networks rely on readiness to
connect with an external system.
 5 Define IOT architecture.
IoT architecture is the blueprint that defines how devices and systems communicate and
collaborate within the IoT ecosystem. It provides a structured approach to connect,
manage, and extract value from the vast network of interconnected devices.
7. Internet of Things (IoT) can be integrated with which of the separate domains.
Internet of Things (IoT) can be integrated with Cloud-based storage and computing,Cyber
Physical Systems, Big-data networks domains.
8. In the current market scenario, IoT captures the maximum share in which field?
IoT captures the maximum share in the field of Industry
9. Why is IPv6 preferred over IPv4 for IoT implementations?
With the help of fast transmission of data due to IPv6 In IoT, devices used in IoT will
also be able to interact with each other. IPv6 provides far better security than IPv4. It provides
confidentiality, authenticity, and data integrity as well.
10. The main function of the IoT Gateway can be summarized as?
An IoT gateway acts as a network router, routing data between IoT devices and the
cloud. Early on, most gateway devices only sent traffic in one direction: from the IoT
device to the cloud. Now it's common for gateway devices to handle both inbound and
outbound traffic.
11. What is Scalability of IoT?
IoT scalability refers to the ability to go from prototype to production in a seamless way.
UNIT-II
Long questions
1 Explain M2M Communication.
Machine to Machine: This is commonly known as Machine-to-machine communication.
It is a concept where two or more than two machines communicate with each other without
human interaction using a wired or wireless mechanism. M2M is a technology that helps the
devices to connect between devices without using internet. Internet of Things: IOT is known as
the Internet of Things where things are said to be the communicating devices that can interact
with each other using a communication media. Usually, every day some new devices are being
integrated which uses IoT devices for its function. These devices use various sensors and
actuators for sending and receiving data over the internet. It is an ecosystem where the devices
share data through a communication media known as the internet.
Machine-to-Machine (M2M)
• Machine-to-Machine (M2M) refers to networking of machines (or devices) for the purpose of
remote monitoring and control and data exchange.
M2M System architecture

Machine-to-Machine (M2M)
• An M2M area network comprises of machines (or M2M nodes) which have embedded
hardware modules for sensing, actuation and communication.
• Various communication protocols can be used for M2M local area networks such as ZigBee,
Bluetooh, ModBus, M-Bus, Wirless M-Bus, Power Line Communication (PLC), 6LoWPAN,
IEEE 802.15.4, etc.
• The communication network provides connectivity to remote M2M area networks.
• The communication network can use either wired or wireless networks (IPbased).
• M2M area networks use either proprietary or non-IP based communication protocols, the
communication network uses IP-based networks M2M gateway
• Since non-IP based protocols are used within M2M area networks, the M2M nodes within one
network cannot communicate with nodes in an external network.
• To enable the communication between remote M2M area networks, M2M gateways are used.
M2M Gateway

Virtual Node

M2M Node Native Protocol Proxy

Protocol Translation

Virtual Node

M2M Node Native Protocol Proxy

Protocol Translation

M2M Area Networks

Bluetooth, Zigbee,802.15.4,6oWPAN, M-Bus, Wireless M-Bus, Modbus,2-wave
2. Differentiate between IOT and M2M.

Communication Protocols

M2M and IoT can differ in how the communication between the machines or devices happens.
M2M uses either proprietary or non-IP based communication protocols for communication
within the M2M area networks. Commonly uses m2m protocols include Zigbee, bluetooth,
Modbus, M-Bus, wireless M-bus, Power line communication, 6lowpan, IEEE 802.15.4, Z-
wave etc. The focus of communication in M2M is usually on the protocols below the network
layer. The focus of communication in IoT is usually on the protocols above the network layer
such as HTTP, COAP, Websockets, MQTT, XMPP, DDS, AMQP etc.
Hardware vs Software Emphasis

While the emphasis of M2M is more on hardware with embedded modules, the emphasis of IoT
is more on software. IoT devices run specialized software for sensor data collection, data
analysis and interfacing with the cloud through IP based communication.

Machines in M2M vs things in IoT

The things in IoT refers to physical objects that have unique identifiers and can sense and
communicate with their external environment (and user applications) or their internal physical
States. The unique identifier for the things in IoT are the IP addresses (or Mac addresses). Things
have software components for accessing, processing and storing sensor information, or
controlling actuators connected. IoT systems can have heterogeneous thing (e.g., home
automation IoT system can include IoT system can include IoT devices of various types such as
fire alarms, door alarms, lighting control devices etc.) M2M systems, in contrast to IoT, typically
have homogeneous machine type within a and M2M area network.
 Data Collection and Analysis

M2M data is collected in point Solutions and often in on-premises storage infrastructure. In
context to M2M, the data in IoT is collected in the cloud (can be public, private or hybrid cloud).
The various IoT Levels, and IoT components deployed in the cloud. The analytics component
analyzes the data and stores the results in the cloud database. The IoT data and analysis results
are visualized with the cloud-based applications. The centralized controller is aware of the status
of all the end nodes and sends control commands to the nodes. Observer nodes can process
information and use it for various applications; however, observer nodes do not perform any
control functions.

Applications

M2M data is collected in point Solutions and can be accessed by on-premises application such as
diagnosis applications, service management applications and on-premises enterprise applications.
But We collect IoT Data in the cloud and can be accessed by cloud applications such as analytics
applications, enterprise applications, remote diagnosis and management applications etc. Since
the scale of data collected in IoT is so massive, cloud based real time and batch data analysis
frameworks are used for data analysis. Communication in IoT is IP based networks.
Communication within M2M area network is based on protocols below the network layer
whereas IoT is based on protocols above the network layer.

Difference between IoT and IoT M2M

M2M : (in table format) Basis of
Abbreviation Internet of Things Machine to Machine
Intelligence Devices have objects that are Some degree of intelligence is
responsible for decision making observed in this
Connection type used The connection is via Network The connection is a point to
and using various point
communication types.
Communication protocol used Internet protocols are used such Traditional protocols and
as HTTP, FTP, and Telnet. communication technology
techniques are used
Data Sharing Data is shared between other Data is shared with only the
applications that are used to communicating parties.
improve the end-user
experience.
Internet Internet connection is required Devices are not dependent on
for communication the Internet.
Scope A large number of devices yet Limited Scope for devices.
scope is large.
Business Type used Business 2 Business(B2B) and Business 2 Business (B2B)
Business 2 Consumer(B2C)

3. Define interoperability in IOT.

 Interoperability is defined by IEEE as “the ability of two or more systems or components
to exchange information and to use the information that has been exchanged. In IoT
interoperability can be defined as the ability of two systems to communicate and share services
with each other
The interoperability issues in IoT can be seen from different perspectives due to heterogeneity.
Heterogeneity is not a new concept nor restricted to a domain. Even in the physical world there
are many types of heterogeneities for example, people speak dissimilar languages, but they can
still communicate with each other through a translator (human/tools) or by using a common
language. similarly, the diverse elements comprising IoT (devices, communication, services,
applications, etc.) should seamlessly cooperate and communicate with each other to realize the
full potential of IoT ecosystem.
As shown in figure, IoT interoperability can be seen from different perspectives such as
 Device interoperability
 networking interoperability
 syntactic interoperability
 semantic interoperability and
 platform interoperability.

Device interoperability:
IoT is composed of a variety of devices which are called “smart objects/things”, which may
consist of high-end devices or low-end devices. The high-end IoT devices have enough resources
and computational capabilities such as Raspberry Pi and smartphones. On the other hand, the
low-end IoT devices are resource-constrained in terms of energy, processing power and
communication capabilities, tiny and low-cost sensors, and actuators, Arduino.
various communication protocols have emerged due to the different requirements of IoT markets.
For example, IoT devices such as Smart TV, printers, air conditioners support traditional Wi-Fi
technologies and 3G/4G cellular communications, IoT medical devices are based on ANT+
standard; other wearable devices mostly support Bluetooth SMART and NFC, while the
environmental sensors use ZigBee-based on IEEE 802.15.4 standard.
Device interoperability refers to enabling the integration and interoperability of such
heterogenous devices with various communication protocols and standards. Device
interoperability is concerned with (i) the exchange of information between heterogeneous
devices and heterogenous communication protocols and (ii) (ii) the ability to integrate new
devices into any IoT platform.
Network interoperability:
Network level interoperability deals with mechanisms to enable seamless message exchange
between systems through different networks (networks of networks) for end-to-end
communication. To make systems interoperable, i.e each system should be able to exchange
messages with other systems through various types of networks.
Due to the dynamic and heterogenous network environment in IoT, the network interoperability
level should handle issues such as addressing, routing, resource optimization, security, QoS, and
mobility support.
Syntactical interoperability:
Syntactic interoperability refers to interoperation of the format as well as the data structure used
in any exchanged information or service between heterogeneous IoT system entities.
The content of the messages need to be serialized to be sent over the channel and the format to
do so (such as XML or JSON). The message sender encodes data in a message using syntactic
rules, specified in some grammar. The message receiver decodes the received message using
syntactic rules defined in the same or some other grammar.
Syntactic interoperability problems arise when the sender’s encoding rules are incompatible with
the receiver’s decoding rules, which leads to mismatching message parse trees.
semantic interoperability:
semantic interoperability is defined as “enabling different agents, services, and applications to
exchange information, data and knowledge in a meaningful way, on and off the Web”.
The WoT addresses the current fragmentation by exposing things and systems data and metadata
through API. But, such efforts have been hampered because the corresponding parties need to
share knowledge of an API [27] and many devices do not speak the same language and cannot
exchange across different gateways and smart hub.
For ex: the data generated by things about the environment may have a defined data format (e.g.
JSON, XML or CSV), but the data models and schemas used by different sources are usually
dissimilar and not always compatible.
This semantic incompatibility between data models and information models results in IoT
systems not being able to dynamically and automatically inter-operate as they have different
descriptions or understandings of resources and operational procedures, even if IoT systems
expose their data and resources to others.
Platform interoperability:
Platform interoperability issues in IoT arises due to the availability of diverse operating systems
(OSs), programming languages, data structures, architectures and access mechanisms for things
and data. Developers need to obtain extensive knowledge of the platform specific APIs and
information models of each different platform to be able to adapt their applications from one
platform to another.
A cross-platform IoT application can access different IoT platforms and integrate data from
various platforms. The cross-platform interoperability between things and data in this scenario
enables interoperability across separate IoT platforms specific to one vertical domain such as
smart home, smart healthcare, smart garden, etc
After cross-platform interoperability is enabled, cross-domain interoperability can be achieved in
which different platforms within heterogenous domains are federated to build horizontal IoT
applications.
Fig.. shows the concept behind cross-domain interoperability where different IoT platforms from
different IoT domains (e.g. health, home, transport, etc.) can be integrated to build new
innovative applications.
For example, a smart home platform can provide domain-specific enablers such as air
temperature and the lighting conditions. Fig. 2.
4 Explain architecture of ARDIUNO Board.
Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-use hardware and software.
Arduino boards are able to read inputs - light on a sensor, a finger on a button, or a Twitter
message - and turn it into an output - activating a motor, turning on an LED, publishing
something online. You can tell your board what to do by sending a set of instructions to the
microcontroller on the board.
To do so you use the Arduino programming language (based on Wiring), and the Arduino
Software (IDE), based on Processing. Arduino has been used in thousands of different projects
and applications. The Arduino software is easy-to-use for beginners, yet flexible enough for
advanced users. It runs on Mac, Windows, and Linux.
The Arduino employs an 8-bit ATmega series microcontroller whereas the Raspberry Pi is based
around a 32-bit ARM processor,
Arduino Board And Its Components
Arduino simplifies the process of working with microcontrollers, but it offers some advantage
Inexpensive - Arduino boards are relatively inexpensive compared to other microcontroller
platforms. The least expensive version of the Arduino module can be assembled by hand, and
even the pre-assembled Arduino modules cost less than $50.
Cross-platform - The Arduino Software (IDE) runs on Windows, Macintosh OSX, and Linux
operating systems. Most microcontroller systems are limited to Windows.
Simple, clear programming environment - The Arduino Software (IDE) is easy-to-use for
beginners, yet flexible enough for advanced users to take advantage of as well. .
Open source and extensible software - The Arduino software is published as open source tools,
available for extension by experienced programmers. The language can be expanded through
C++ libraries, and people wanting to understand the technical details can make the leap from
Arduino to the AVR C programming language on which it's based. Similarly, you can add AVR-
C code directly into your Arduino programs if you want to.
Open source and extensible hardware - The plans of the Arduino boards are published under a
Creative Commons license, so experienced circuit designers can make their own version of the
module, extending it and improving it. Even relatively inexperienced users can build the
breadboard version of the module in order to understand how it works .
The Arduino employs an 8-bit ATmega series microcontroller whereas the Raspberry Pi is based
around a 32-bit ARM processor,
Using the above image as a reference, the labeled components of the board respectively are-
Power USB
Arduino board can be powered by using the USB cable from your computer. All you need to do
is connect the USB cable to the USB connection (1).
Power (Barrel Jack)
Arduino boards can be powered directly from the AC mains power supply by connecting it to the
Barrel Jack (2).
Voltage Regulator
The function of the voltage regulator is to control the voltage given to the Arduino board and
stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements.
Crystal Oscillator
The crystal oscillator helps Arduino in dealing with time issues. How does Arduino calculate
time? The answer is, by using the crystal oscillator. The number printed on top of the Arduino
crystal is 16.000H9H. It tells us that the frequency is 16,000,000 Hertz or 16 MHz.
Arduino Reset
You can reset your Arduino board, i.e., start your program from the beginning. You can reset the
UNO board in two ways. First, by using the reset button (17) on the board. Second, you can
connect an external reset button to the Arduino pin labelled RESET (5).
Pins (3.3, 5, GND, Vin)
 3.3V (6) − Supply 3.3 output volt
 5V (7) − Supply 5 output volt
 Most of the components used with Arduino board works fine with 3.3 volt and 5 volt.
 GND (8)(Ground) − There are several GND pins on the Arduino, any of which can be
used to ground your circuit.
 Vin (9) − This pin also can be used to power the Arduino board from an external power
source, like AC mains power supply.
Analog pins
The Arduino UNO board has six analog input pins A0 through A5. These pins can read the
signal from an analog sensor like the humidity sensor or temperature sensor and convert it into a
digital value that can be read by the microprocessor.
Main microcontroller
Each Arduino board has its own microcontroller (11). You can assume it as the brain of your
board. The main IC (integrated circuit) on the Arduino is slightly different from board to board.
The microcontrollers are usually of the ATMEL Company. You must know what IC your board
has before loading up a new program from the Arduino IDE. This information is available on the
top of the IC. For more details about the IC construction and functions, you can refer to the data
sheet.
ICSP pin
Mostly, ICSP (12) is an AVR, a tiny programming header for the Arduino consisting of MOSI,
MISO, SCK, RESET, VCC, and GND. It is often referred to as an SPI (Serial Peripheral
Interface), which could be considered as an "expansion" of the output. Actually, you are slaving
the output device to the master of the SPI bus.
Power LED indicator
This LED should light up when you plug your Arduino into a power source to indicate that your
board is powered up correctly. If this light does not turn on, then there is something wrong with
the connection.
TX and RX LEDs
On your board, you will find two labels: TX (transmit) and RX (receive). They appear in two
places on the Arduino UNO board. First, at the digital pins 0 and 1, to indicate the pins
responsible for serial communication. Second, the TX and RX led (13). The TX led flashes with
different speed while sending the serial data. The speed of flashing depends on the baud rate used
by the board. RX flashes during the receiving process.
Digital I/O
The Arduino UNO board has 14 digital I/O pins (15) (of which 6 provide PWM (Pulse Width
Modulation) output. These pins can be configured to work as input digital pins to read logic
values (0 or 1) or as digital output pins to drive different modules like LEDs, relays, etc. The
pins labeled “~” can be used to generate PWM.
AREF
AREF stands for Analog Reference. It is sometimes, used to set an external reference voltage
(between 0 and 5 Volts) as the upper limit for the analog input pins.

5 Explain Interoperability handling approaches in IoT

To improve the state of IoT interoperability, researchers have leveraged numerous approaches
and technologies which we refer to interoperability handling approaches
1.Adapters/gateways
2.Virtual networks/ overlay-based solutions
3.Networking technologies IP based approaches Software-defined networking (SDN) Network
function virtualization Fog computing
4.Service oriented architecture (SOA)
5.Open API
6.Semantic web technologies
7.Open standard
Adapters/gateways:
Gateways or adapters are the class of schemes which address interoperability through the
development of an intermediate tool sometimes called mediators to improve interoperability
between IoT devices.
The objective here to bridge between different specifications, data, standards, and middleware’s
etc. To perform a conversion between the protocol of the sending device and the protocol of the
receiving device, the gateway can be expanded with the use of plug-ins.
For example, when IoT devices use dissimilar communication technologies (i.e., Bluetooth and
ZigBee) or when they use dissimilar application layer protocols (i.e., XMPP and MQTT)
Gateways can be dedicated hardware, or the function can be embedded in the firmware or
software of an intelligent device such as a programmable logic controller (PLC), human-human
interface (HMI), or computer.
Virtual networks/ overlay-based solutions:
Virtual networks or Overlay-based solutions have been proposed in as “Managed Ecosystems of
Networked Objects” (MENO), with the aim to integrate sensor and actuators and other IP-smart
objects seamlessly to the Internet for end-to-end communication. The main idea behind MENO
is to create a virtual network on top of physical networks and thereby allow communication with
other types of devices, including sensor nodes. Within each virtual network, end-to-end
communication is possible using different protocols. Once end-to-end communication is enabled,
it becomes possible for application developers to write new applications that utilize sensors,
actuators, and other devices
The advantage of this approach is enabling end-to-end communication between devices, however
the key issues are scalability and binding to specific protocols.
Networking technologies:
Different networking protocols and technologies are used to provide networking interoperability
For ex : The conventional universal plugin (UPnp) and DLNA protocols are used for
communication between iot devices and different gateways. The main technologies / solutions
for interoperability at network levels are
IP BASED APPROACHES
SDN
NFV
FOG COMPUTING
IP-based approaches The IP-based approaches embed the full TCP/IP stack on smart devices.
By embedding the TCP/IP stack as shown in Fig. the sensor and actuators are directly connected
to the IP network to allow end-to-end communication between sensor network and IP network.
The key benefit of implementing the TCP/IP stack on sensor nodes is that gateways and protocol
translations are not required.
However, an all IP sensor network is not possible on sensor nodes because of their resource-
constraint property.
Protocols at the network layer such as Routing Over Low Power and Lossy Networks (ROLL)
IPv6 over Low Power WPAN (6LoWPAN), Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) which is
based on UDP, and Constrained Restful Environment to solve the connectivity problem of
resource-constrained devices. This approach, still uses gateways to convert between standard
protocols used in the Internet and protocols used in the sensor network, e.g. IPv6 to 6LoWPAN.

Software-defined networking (SDN):

Software defined networking (SDN) is a new networking paradigm to make the current wireless
and mobile networks more “intelligent”, efficient, secure, and scalable in order to handle the
large amount of data produced in the IoT.
One of the main idea of SDN , is to separate the control and data planes in networking devices.

SDN is used to allow different objects from different networks to communicate with each other
using IPv6 and at the same time simplify the management and control operations of various
objects types by adding an additional IoT controller over the SDN controller. Thus, even so the
devices have different protocols, the forwarding devices in the router convert it in a form
understandable by the receiver. This enables the communication of diverse devices in the
network.

Network function virtualization :

NFV separates the physical network equipment’s (i.e., network address translator, firewall) from
the functions that run on them. This way, numerous service providers can create several isolated
virtual networks which could then share the physical network equipment’s provided by the
network infrastructure providers. NFV has the potential to reduce Operational Expenditure
(OPEX) and Capital Expenditure (CAPEX) costs by sharing the network infrastructure, dynamic
scaling, on-the-fly, and flexible network function deployment.
Fog computing:
The cloud has been used as a medium to address interoperability called the Fog of Things where
the computing, storage and networking services are placed at the edge of the network rather than
centralized cloud servers, i.e., as close as possible to the end user devices.
Service oriented architecture (SOA):
To provide syntactic interoperability between heterogeneous devices and across all systems,
researchers have proposed Service Oriented Architecture. In the SOA of the IoT, the interaction
with and operations of different wireless devices are classified into different service components
and the application layer software can access resources exposed by devices as services. Exposing
each component’s functionalities as a standard service can significantly increase the
interoperability of both network and device.
Semantic web technologies:
The Semantic Web of Things (SWoT) paradigm is proposed for the integration of the Semantic
Web with the WoT, for realizing a common understanding of the various entities which form the
IoT. Ontologies (or vocabularies) in IoT are a set of objects and relationships used to define and
represent an area of concern. They represent an abstraction technology which aims to hide
heterogeneity of IoT entities, acting as a mediator between IoT application provider and
consumers, and to support their semantic matchmaking Some popular approaches
Ontology
 Device ontology
 Physical domain ontology
 Estimation ontology
Collaborative conceptualization theory
 Object is defined based on the collaborative concept, which is called cosign
 The representation of a collaborative sign is defined as follows:
 cosign of a object = (A, B, C, D ), where A is a cosign internal identifier, B is a natural
language, C is the context of A, and D is a definition of the object
 As an example of CCTV, cosign = (1234, English, CCTV, “Camera Type: Bullet,
Communication: Network/IP, Horizontal Resolution: 2048 TVL”)
This solution approach is applicable for different domains/contexts
Many ontologies have been proposed in the context of IoT such as W3C Semantic Sensor
Network (SSN) , IoT-Ontology, SAREF and OpenIoT.
Open API:
With the massive development of IoT platform providers a vast silo of diverse APIs has been
created that increases the difficulty of developing applications as well as interoperability issues.
HyperCat is a specification which provides syntactic interoperability between different APIs
and services based on a Catalog that can be tagged with metadata. Moreover, the symbIoTe and
Big-IoT European projects are working on a generic interworking API to provide uniform access
to resources of all existing and future IoT platforms to address syntactic and cross-platform
interoperability.
Open standards:
Open standards are one significant means to provide interoperability between and within
different domains
6 What is interoperability in IoT as per NPTEL?
Current Challenges in IoT
 Large Scale of Co-Operation:
 The cooperation and coordination of millions of distributed devices are required on
Internet
 Global Heterogeneity:
 Heterogeneous IoT devices and their subnets
 Unknown IoT Device Configuration:
 The different configuration modes for IoT devices which come from unknown owners
 Semantic Conflicts:
 Different processing logics applied to same IoT networked devices or applications.
What is Interoperability?
 Interoperability is a characteristic of a product or system, whose interfaces are completely
understood, to work with other products or systems, present or future, in either
implementation or access, without any restrictions.
 Communicate meaningfully
 Exchange data or services
Why Interoperability is Important in Context of IoT?
 To fulfill the IoT objectives
 Physical objects can interact with any other physical objects and can share their
information
 Any device can communicate with other devices anytime from anywhere
  Machine to Machine communication(M2M), Device to Device Communication (D2D),
Device to Machine Communication (D2M)
 Seamless device integration with IoT network
Why Interoperability is required?
Heterogeneity
1. Different wireless communication protocols such as ZigBee (IEEE 802.15.4), Bluetooth (IEEE
802.15.1), GPRS, 6LowPAN, and Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)
2. Different wired communication protocols like Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) and Higher Layer LAN
Protocols (IEEE 802.1)
3. Different programming languages used in computing systems and websites such as JavaScript,
JAVA, C, C++, Visual Basic, PHP, and Python
4. Different hardware platforms such as Crossbow, NI, etc.
5. Different operating systems
As an example for sensor node: TinyOS, SOS, Mantis OS, RETOS, and mostly vendor specific
OS
As an example for personal computer: Windows, Mac, Unix, and Ubuntu
6. Different databases: DB2, MySQL, Oracle, PostgreSQL, SQLite, SQL Server, and Sybase
7. Different data representations
8. Different control models
9. Syntactic or semantic interpretations
Different Types of Interoperability?
User Interoperability
 Interoperability problem between a user and a device
Device Interoperability
 Interoperability problem between two different devices
 User Interoperability The following problems need to be solved
 Device identification and categorization for discovery. Syntactic interoperability for
device interaction.
 Semantic interoperability for device interaction.
Device identification and categorization for discovery
There are different solutions for generating unique address
  Electronic Product Codes (EPC)
 Universal Product Code (UPC)
 Uniform Resource Identifier (URI)
 IP Addresses
 IPv6
There are different device classification solutions
 United Nations Standard Products and Services Code (UNSPSC)
 an open, global, multi-sector standard for efficient, accurate, flexible classification of
products and services.
 The standard is for classification and clear description of cross-industry products
Syntactic Interoperability for Device Interaction
The interoperability between devices and device user in term of message formats
The message format from a device to a user is understandable for the user’s computer
On the other hand, the message format from the user to the device is executable by the device
Some popular approaches are
Service-oriented Computing (SOC)-based architecture
Web services
RESTful web services
Open standard protocols such as IEEE 802.15.4, IEEE 802.15.1, and WirelessHART
Closed protocols such as Z-Wave
 Middleware technology
 Software middleware bridge
 Dynamically map physical devices with different domains
 Based on the map, the devices can be discovered and controlled, remotely
 Cross-context syntactic interoperability
 Collaborative concept exchange
 Using XML syntax
The above methodologies can achieve :
1.The interoperability between devices and device user in term of message’s meaning
2.The device can understand the meaning of user’s instruction that is sent from the user to the
device.
3.Similarly, the user can understand the meaning of device’s response sent from the device
Some popular approaches in Ontology are:
Device ontology
Physical domain ontology
Estimation ontology
Collaborative conceptualization theory
 Object is defined based on the collaborative concept, which is called cosign
 The representation of a collaborative sign is defined as follows:
 cosign of a object = (A, B, C, D ), where A is a cosign internal identifier, B is a natural
language, C is the context of A, and D is a definition of the object
 As an example of CCTV, cosign = (1234, English, CCTV, “Camera Type: Bullet,
Communication: Network/IP, Horizontal Resolution: 2048 TVL”)
 This solution approach is applicable for different domains/contexts
 Device Interoperability
Solution approach for device interoperability
 Universal Middleware Bridge (UMB)
 Solves seamless interoperability problems caused by the heterogeneity of several kinds of
home network middleware
 UMB creates virtual maps among the physical devices of all middleware home networks,
such as HAVI, Jini, LonWorks, and UPnP
 Creates a compatibility among these middleware home networks
UMB consists
 UMB Core (UMB-C)
 UMB Adaptor (UMB-A)
Fig 1: The Architecture of Universal Middleware Bridge
7. Explain the integration of sensors and Actuators with ARDIUNO.

Sensors
 Basic electronic Device
 Convert a physical quantity/ measurements into electrical signals
 Can be analog or digital
Types of Sensors
Some commonly used sensors :
 Temperature
  Humidity
 Compass
 Light
 Sound
 Accelerometer
Sensor Interface with Arduino

Digital Humidity and Temperature Sensor (DHT)

PIN 1,2,3,4 (from left to right)
 PIN 1-3.3V-5V Power supply
 PIN 2- Data
 PIN 3-Null
 PIN 4- Ground
DHT Sensor Library
 Arduino supports a special library for the DHT11 and DHT22 sensors
 Provides function to read the temperature and humidity values from the data pin
dht.readHumidity()
dht.readTemperature()
Connection
 Connect pin 1 of the DHT to the 3.3 V supply pin in the board
 Data pin (pin 2) can be connected to any digital pin, here 12
 Connect pin 4 to the ground (GND) pin of the board
Sketch: DHT_Sensor
Install the DHT Sensor Library
  Go to sketch -> Include Library -> Manage Library
 Search for DHT Sensor
 Select the "DHT sensor library" and install it

 Connect the board to the PC

 Set the port and board type
 Verify and upload the cod
OutPut
The readings are printed at a delay of 2 seconds as specified by the delay() function
Acutators
Types of Motor acutators
1.Servo Motor
2.Stepper Motor
3.Hydraulic Motor
4.Ac motor and so on
Servo Motor :
Servo Motor is a high Precision motor which provides rotary
motion 0 to 180 degree
The 3 wires in the servo motor are
Black or the darkest one is ground Red is power supply and Yellow is for signal pin
Servo Library on Aurdino
Aurdino provides separate library SERVO to operate the servo motor .
Create an instnace of servo to use it in the sketch .
Syntax : Servo myservo

Here ServoDemo is the instance of Servo.

Write() takes the degree value and rotates the motor accordingly.
Output :
The motor turns 0, 90 and 180 degrees with a delay of 1 second each.

8. Write some example programs using Arduino.

Short questions
1 Explain role of M2M Communication in IOT
M2M integrates the network used by connected objects, servers and applications
developed to control them. M2M technology is direct communication between one or
more devices using wired or wireless communication channels. These devices capture
data, share it, creating a network of smart objects.
2 Explain different types of M2M communication.
A machine-to-machine interface is a system intended to exchange information. The
most common types of interfaces include wireless, RFID, Bluetooth, telemetry, and
hard-wired connections.
3 Explain role of Actuator interfacing in IOT.
An actuator is a device that converts energy into motion. It does this by taking an
electrical signal and combining it with an energy source. In an IoT system, the
 actuator can act on data collected by sensors to create an outcome as determined by
the chosen settings of the user.
4 Briefly explain the term interoperability.
Interoperability refers to the standards, protocols, technologies, and mechanisms that
allow data to flow between diverse systems with minimal human intervention. It
allows diverse systems to talk to each other and share information in real time.
5 Explain importance of programming in IOT.
It allows developers to write the software and algorithms necessary to control and
manage connected devices. Whether it's programming microcontrollers, designing
user interfaces, or developing complex algorithms, coding skills are indispensable for
creating robust and efficient IoT systems.
6. Which is the most important factor to be considered in an IoT implementation:
Scalability, Power efficiency, Efficient and scalable addressing scheme.
 UNIT-III
Long questions
1 Explain features of Python Language.

There are many features in Python, some of which are discussed below –

1. Easy to code: Python is a high-level programming language. Python is very easy to

learn the language as compared to other languages like C, C#, Javascript, Java, etc. It
is very easy to code in python language and anybody can learn python basics in a few
hours or days. It is also a developer-friendly language.

2. Free and Open Source: Python language is freely available at the official website
and you can download it from the given download link below click on the Download
Python keyword. Since it is open-source, this means that source code is also available
to the public. So you can download it as, use it as well as share it.

3. Object-Oriented Language: One of the key features of python is Object-Oriented

programming. Python supports object-oriented language and concepts of classes,
objects encapsulation, etc.

4. GUI Programming Support: Graphical User interfaces can be made using a module
such as PyQt5, PyQt4, wxPython, or Tk in python. PyQt5 is the most popular option
for creating graphical apps with Python.

5. High-Level Language: Python is a high-level language. When we write programs

in python, we do not need to remember the system architecture, nor do we need to
manage the memory.

6. Extensible feature: Python is a Extensible language. We can write us some Python

code into C or C++ language and also we can compile that code in C/C++ language.

7. Python is Portable language: Python language is also a portable language. For

example, if we have python code for windows and if we want to run this code on
other platforms such as Linux, Unix, and Mac then we do not need to change it, we
can run this code on any platform.

8. Python is Integrated language: Python is also an Integrated language because we

can easily integrated python with other languages like c, c++, etc.

9. Interpreted Language: Python is an Interpreted Language because Python code is

executed line by line at a time. like other languages C, C++, Java, etc. there is no
 need to compile python code this makes it easier to debug our code. The source code
of python is converted into an immediate form called bytecode.

10. Large Standard Library Python has a large standard library which provides a rich
set of module and functions so you do not have to write your own code for every
single thing. There are many libraries present in python for such as regular
expressions, unit-testing, web browsers, etc.

11. Dynamically Typed Language: Python is a dynamically-typed language. That

means the type (for example- int, double, long, etc.) for a variable is decided at run
time not in advance because of this feature we don’t need to specify the type of
variable.
2 Write program to interface LED with Raspberry Pi Board.
Connect an LED to the Raspberry Pi
 Push the positive leg of the LED into row 1 of your breadboard, close to the left side of
the ravine. Place the negative leg into row 1 on the other side of the ravine. ...

The breadboard is a convenient way to connect electronic components to each other without
having to solder them together.
They are often used to test ("prototype") a circuit design before making a final version of a
project, whether that be soldering wires together or creating a Printed Circuit Board (PCB).
 Now, connect your components to the ground (GND) GPIO pin: ...
1. import RPi.GPIO as GPIO # Import Raspberry Pi GPIO library.
2. from time import sleep # Import the sleep function from the time module.
3.GPIO. setwarnings(False) # Ignore warning for now.
4. GPIO. setmode(GPIO.BOARD) # Use physical pin numbering.
5. GPIO.
3. Explain pin diagram of Raspberry Pi Board.
Explanation about board components
1. System on Chip The System on Chip (SoC) architecture that the Raspberry Pi 2 implements is
the Broadcom BCM2836, which we touched upon earlier in this chapter. This contains a CPU,
GPU, SDRAM, and single USB port. Each of these items is discussed in more detail under the
appropriate heading.

2. CPU A central processing unit is the brain of your Raspberry Pi. It is responsible for
processing machine instructions, which are the result of your compiled programs.

3. GPU The graphics processing unit (GPU) is a specialist chip designed to handle the complex
mathematics required to render graphics.

4. 4 USB 2.0 ports and 1 SoC on-board USB The previous version of the Raspberry Pi Model B
contained only a single microUSB port and a two standard USB ports. The Raspberry Pi 2 has
been expanded to include an onboard 5-port USB hub. This allows you to connect four standard
USB cables to the device and a single microUSB cable. The micro USB port can be used to
power your Raspberry Pi 2.

5. SD card Slot
Raspberry Pi does not have a builtin operating a system and storage. You can Plug-in SD card
loaded with a Linux image to the SD card slot.

6. DSI display connector – used to attach an LCD panel. On the other side of the board is a
microSD card slot that holds the operating system.

7. Camera Serial Interface(CSI) This interface can be used to connect a camera module to
Raspberry Pi.

8. Status LED’s : Raspberry Pi has 5 status LED’s

Status LED
FUNCTIONS
ACT
SD card access
PWR
3.3 V power is present
FDX
Full Duplex Lan connected
LNK
Link/Network activity
100
100 Mbit Lan connected

9. Ethernet port If you plan to place your Raspberry Pi near a router or switch or have enough
Ethernet cable, then you can connect your Raspberry Pi directly with the Ethernet jack. The
Raspberry Pi 2 supports 10/100 Mbps Ethernet, and the USB adapter in the third/fourth port of
USB hub can also be used for Ethernet via a USB to Ethernet adapter.
10. GPIO pins The main method for interacting with electronic components and expansion
boards is through the general purpose input/output (GPIO) pins on the Raspberry Pi. The
Raspberry Pi 2 Model B contains 40 pins in total. GPIO pins can accept both input and output
commands and can be controlled by programs in a variety of languages running on the Raspberry
Pi. for example :The input could be readings from a temperature sensor, and the output a
command to another device to switch an LED on or off.
11. HDMI Output :
This port provides both video and audio output.You can connect the Raspberry Pi to a monitor
using HDMI cable .
12. Composite Video output : Raspberry Pi comes with composite video output with RCA jack
that supports both PAL and NTSC video output. RCA jack can be used to connect old televisions
that have an RCA input only.
13. Audio Output : Raspberrypi has 3.5mm audio output jack .This audio jacks use for providing
audio output to old Televisions along with RCA jack for video .The audio quality from this.
4 Discuss data types in Python with examples.

Data Types in Python

Python has five standard Data Types:

Numbers
String
List
Tuple
Dictionary

Python sets the variable type based on the value that is assigned to it. Unlike more riggers
languages, Python will change the variable type if the variable value is set to another value. For
example:

var = 123 # This will create a number integer assignment

var = 'john' # the `var` variable is now a string type.

Numbers
Python numbers variables are created by the standard Python method: var = 382

Most of the time using the standard Python number type is fine. Python will automatically
convert a number from one type to another if it needs. But, under certain circumstances that a
specific number type is needed (ie. complex, hexidecimal), the format can be forced into a
format by using additional syntax in the table below:

Type Format Description

int a = 10 Signed Integer
long a = 345L (L) Long integers, they can
 also be represented in octal
and hexadecimal
float a = 45.67 (.) Floating point real values
complex a = 3.14J (J) Contains integer in the
range 0 to 255.
Most of the time Python will do variable conversion automatically. You can also use Python
conversion functions (int(), long(), float(), complex()) to convert data from one type to another.
In addition, the type function returns information about how your data is stored within a variable.

message = "Good morning"

num = 85
pi = 3.14159
print(type(message)) # This will return a string
print(type(n)) # This will return an integer
print(type(pi)) # This will return a float
String
Create string variables by enclosing characters in quotes. Python uses single quotes ' double
quotes " and triple quotes """ to denote literal strings. Only the triple quoted strings """ also will
automatically continue across the end of line statement.
firstName = 'john'
lastName = "smith"
message = """This is a string that will span across multiple lines. Using newline characters
and no spaces for the next lines. The end of lines within this string also count as a newline when
printed"""
Strings can be accessed as a whole string, or a substring of the complete variable using brackets
‘[ ]’. Here are a couple examples:
var1 = 'Hello World!'
var2 = 'RhinoPython'
print var1[0] # this will print the first character in the string an `H`
print var2[1:5] # this will print the substring 'hinoP`
Python can use a special syntax to format multiple strings and numbers. The string formatter is
quickly covered here because it is seen often and it is important to recognize the syntax.
print "The item {} is repeated {} times".format(element,count))
The {} are placeholders that are substituted by the variables element and count in the final string.
This compact syntax is meant to keep the code more readable and compact.
Python is currently transitioning to the format syntax above, but python can use an older syntax,
which is being phased out, but is still seen in some example code:

print "The item %i is repeated %i times"% (element,count)

List

Lists are a very useful variable type in Python. A list can contain a series of values. List variables
are declared by using brackets [ ] following the variable name.

A = [ ] # This is a blank list variable

B = [1, 23, 45, 67] # this list creates an initial list of 4 numbers.
C = [2, 4, 'john'] # lists can contain different variable types.

All lists in Python are zero-based indexed. When referencing a member or the length of a list the
number of list elements is always the number shown plus one.

mylist = ['Rhino', 'Grasshopper', 'Flamingo', 'Bongo']

B = len(mylist) # This will return the length of the list which is 3. The index is 0, 1, 2, 3.
print mylist[1] # This will return the value at index 1, which is 'Grasshopper'
print mylist[0:2] # This will return the first 3 elements in the list.

You can assign data to a specific element of the list using an index into the list. The list index
starts at zero. Data can be assigned to the elements of an array as follows:

mylist = [0, 1, 2, 3]
mylist[0] = 'Rhino'
mylist[1] = 'Grasshopper'
mylist[2] = 'Flamingo'
mylist[3] = 'Bongo'

print mylist[1]

Lists aren’t limited to a single dimension. Although most people can’t comprehend more than
three or four dimensions. You can declare multiple dimensions by separating an with commas. In
the following example, the MyTable variable is a two-dimensional array :

MyTable = [[], []]

In a two-dimensional array, the first number is always the number of rows; the second number is
the number of columns.

Tuple
Tuples are a group of values like a list and are manipulated in similar ways. But, tuples are fixed
in size once they are assigned. In Python the fixed size is considered immutable as compared to a
list that is dynamic and mutable. Tuples are defined by parenthesis ().

myGroup = ('Rhino', 'Grasshopper', 'Flamingo', 'Bongo')

Here are some advantages of tuples over lists:

1. Elements to a tuple. Tuples have no append or extend method.

2. Elements cannot be removed from a tuple.
3. You can find elements in a tuple, since this doesn’t change the tuple.
4. You can also use the in operator to check if an element exists in the tuple.
5. Tuples are faster than lists. If you’re defining a constant set of values and all you’re ever going
to do with it is iterate through it, use a tuple instead of a list.
6. It makes your code safer if you “write-protect” data that does not need to be changed.

It seems tuples are very restrictive, so why are they useful? There are many datastructures in
Rhino that require a fixed set of values. For instance a Rhino point is a list of 3 numbers [34.5,
45.7, 0]. If this is set as tuple, then you can be assured the original 3 number structure stays as a
point (34.5, 45.7, 0). There are other datastructures such as lines, vectors, domains and other data
in Rhino that also require a certain set of values that do not change. Tuples are great for this.

Dictionary

Dictionaries in Python are lists of Key:Value pairs. This is a very powerful datatype to hold a lot
of related information that can be associated through keys. The main operation of a dictionary is
to extract a value based on the key name. Unlike lists, where index numbers are used,
dictionaries allow the use of a key to access its members. Dictionaries can also be used to sort,
iterate and compare data.
Dictionaries are created by using braces ({}) with pairs separated by a comma (,) and the key
values associated with a colon(:). In Dictionaries the Key must be unique. Here is a quick
example on how dictionaries might be used:

room_num = {'john': 425, 'tom': 212}

room_num['john'] = 645 # set the value associated with the 'john' key to 645
print (room_num['tom']) # print the value of the 'tom' key.
room_num['isaac'] = 345 # Add a new key 'isaac' with the associated value
print (room_num.keys()) # print out a list of keys in the dictionary
print ('isaac' in room_num) # test to see if 'issac' is in the dictionary. This returns true.
Dictionaries can be more complex to understand, but they are great to store data that is easy to
access.
5 Enumerate on Raspberry Pi interfaces.
Raspberry pi has Serial, SPI and I2C interfaces for data transfer.
Serial : The Serial interface on Raspberry Pi has receive (Rx) and transmit (Tx) pins for
communication with serial peripherals.
SPI : Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) is a synchronous serial data protocol used for
communicating with one or more peripheral devices. in an SPI connection, there are five pins on
Raspberry Pi for SPI interface :
MISO (Master in slave out) – Master line for sending data to the peripherals.
MOSI (Master out slave in) – Slave line for sending data to the master.
SCK (Serial Clock) – Clock generated by master to synchronize data transmission
CE0 (Chip Enable 0) – To enable or disable devices
CE0 (Chip Enable 1) – To enable or disable devices
I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit):
The I2C interface pins on Raspberry Pi allow you to connect hardware modules. I2C interface
allows synchronous data transfer with just two pins – SDA (data line) an SCL (Clock Line).
6. Explain Program For Temperature Dependent Auto Cooling System.
System Overview
Sensor and actuator interfaced with Raspberry Pi
Read data from the sensor
Control the actuator according to the reading from the sensor
Connect the actuator to a device
Requirements

DHT Sensor (DHT22/AM2302)

4.7K ohm resistor
Relay
Jumper wires
Raspberry Pi
Mini fan

Connection: Relay(Switch)
Connect the relay pins with the Raspberry Pi as mentioned in previous slides
Set the GPIO pin connected with the relay’s input pin as output in the sketch
GPIO.setup(13,GPIO.OUT)
Set the relay pin high when the temperature is greater than 30
#code for fan operating
GPIO.setup(13,GPIO.OUT) if temperature > 30: print ('Temp > 30') GPIO.output (FAN,0)
print('Fan on') sleep(5) print('Fan off ') GPIO.output(FAN,1) else: GPIO.output(FAN,1) print
('Temp below max value.FAN OFF')
Output : The fan is switched ON whenever the temperature value reaches above threshold value
set in the code.
7. Explain the program for interfacing of LED and switch with Raspberry Pi.
In this program LED is connected to GPIO pin 18 and switch is connected to pin 25. In the
infinite Whileloop the value of Pin25 is checked and the state of LED is toggled if switch is
pressed .
Code :
from time import sleep
import RPi.GPIO as GPIO
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BCM)
#switch Pin
GPIO.setup(25,GPIO.IN)
#LED Pin
GPIO.setup(18,GPIO.OUT)
state=False
def LED(pin):
state=not state
GPIO.output(pin,state)
while True:
try :
If(GPIO.input(25)==True):
LED(pin)
Sleep(1)
except KeyboardInterrupt:
exit()
8. Enumerate the programming with Raspberry Pi.
Programming with Raspberry Pi Program for Blinking LED With the circuit created we need to
write the Python script to blink the LED. Before we start writing the software we first need to
install the Raspberry Pi GPIO Python module. This is a library that allows us to access the GPIO
port directly from Python.
Installing GPIO library:
Open terminal
Enter the command “sudo apt-get install python-dev” to install python development
Enter the command “sudo apt-get install python-rpi.gpio” to install GPIO library.
Connection : 1.connect the negative terminal of LED to ground pin of Pi 2.connect the positive
terminal of LED to output pin of Pi
Basic python coding:
Open terminal enter the command
sudo nano filename.py
This will open the nano editor where you can write your code
Ctrl+O : Writes the code to the file
Ctrl+X : Exits the editor
Code

Output : The LED blinks in a loop with delay of 1 and 2 seconds.

Short questions
1 Who invented Python Language ?
Python was invented by Guido van Rossum, and first released on February 20, 1991.
While you may know the python as a large snake, the name of the Python programming
language comes from an old BBC television comedy sketch series called Monty Python's
Flying Circus.

2 Which kind of language Python is ?

Python is an interpreted, object-oriented, high-level programming language with dynamic
semantics developed by Guido van Rossum. It was originally released in 1991. Designed
to be easy as well as fun, the name "Python" is a nod to the British comedy group Monty
Python.
3 Explain role of Raspberry in IOT
The Raspberry Pi is a type of IoT device that offers an immense range of digital
media, communications, and computer applications. It was initially developed as a
low-cost alternative to mainstream consumer electronics like smartphones and tablets
but has since evolved into a powerful tool for robotics development too.

4 Explain role of Ardinuo in IOT.

Arduino boards can collect data from sensors and other sources and process it locally.
They can then transmit this data to other IoT devices or a central server using
communication protocols like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, LoRa, Zigbee, or cellular
connectivity.
5 Explain toggling in IOT.
A toggle, in general computing, is a switch between one setting and another. The term
implies that it is a switch that has only two outcomes: A or B, or on or off. It is found
in almost every aspect of computing when there is an options or preferences list. All
option items that can be marked on or off are considered a toggle.
 UNIT-IV

1 Write the difference between SDN and Conventional/Traditional architecture.

Software Defined Network (SDN) : SDN stands for Software Defined Network which is
networking architecture approach. It enables the control and management of network using
software applications. Through Software Defined Network (SDN) networking behavior of entire
network and its devices are programmed in centrally controlled manner through software
applications using open APIs. Software Defined Network improves performance by network
virtualization. In SDN software controlled applications or APIs work as basis of complete
network management that may be directing traffic on network or to communicate with
underlying hardware infrastructure. So in simple we can say SDN can create virtual network or it
can control traditional network with the help of software.
Components of SDN:
SDN is comprised of three key components: the data plane, the control plane, and the application
layer. The data plane is responsible for forwarding network traffic, while the control plane
manages network infrastructure and makes decisions about how network traffic should be
handled. The application layer consists of software applications that run on top of the SDN
infrastructure.
Benefits of SDN:
SDN offers several key benefits over traditional networking approaches. For example, SDN
allows for more efficient network management, as network administrators can automate many
tasks that would otherwise be done manually. SDN also allows for more flexible and
customizable network configurations, as network infrastructure can be reconfigured on the fly.
Applications of SDN:
SDN has a wide range of applications, from data center networking to wide area networks
(WANs) and even the Internet of Things (IoT). SDN is particularly useful in situations where
network infrastructure needs to be highly flexible and scalable.
The below figure illustrates architecture Software Defined Network :
Software Defined Network
2. Traditional Network : Traditional network refers to the old conventional way of networking
which uses fixed and dedicated hardware devices such as routers and switches to control network
traffic. Inability to scale and network security and Performance are the major concern now a days
in the current growing business situation so that SDN is taking control to traditional network.
Traditional network is static and based on hardware network appliances. Traditional network
architecture was used by many companies till recent years but now a days due to its drawbacks
Software Defined Network has been developed and in coming years it will be used more.
Components of Traditional Network:
Network devices: Traditional networks use physical network devices, such as routers, switches,
and firewalls, to manage and direct network traffic.
Cabling: Traditional networks use physical cabling to connect network devices to each other.
Protocols: Traditional networks rely on standard networking protocols, such as TCP/IP and
Ethernet, for communication between network devices.
Advantages of Traditional Network:
Well-established: Traditional networks are well-established and widely used in various
organizations.
Predictable performance: Traditional networks offer predictable performance as network devices
are configured based on specific requirements.
Familiarity: Traditional networks are familiar to network administrators and require minimal
training.
Disadvantages of Traditional Network:
Limited scalability: Traditional networks have limited scalability due to the dependence on
physical hardware devices.
Limited automation: Traditional networks have limited automation capabilities and require
significant manual intervention.
Rigid architecture: Traditional networks have a rigid, hierarchical architecture that is difficult to
modify or adapt to changing business needs.
The below figure illustrates the architecture of Traditional Network :

Traditional Network Architecture

Here are some similarities between Software Defined Network (SDN) and Traditional Network:
Both SDN and traditional networks aim to provide network connectivity between devices.
Both types of networks use standard networking protocols, such as TCP/IP and Ethernet, for
communication between network devices.
Both SDN and traditional networks have security concerns, such as unauthorized access, data
breaches, and network attacks.
Both types of networks can provide quality of service (QoS) features to ensure that critical
applications receive the required bandwidth and priority.
Difference between SDN and Traditional Network.
S.No SDN Traditional Network
1 Software Defined Network is virtual networking Network is the old conventional
approach networking approach.
2 Software Defined Network is centralized control. Traditional Network is distributed
. control
3 This network is programmable This network is non
programmable
4 Software Defined Network is open interface Traditional network is closed
interface
5 Software Defined Network data plane and control In traditional network data plane
plane are decoupled by software and control plane are mounted on
same plane
6 It supports automatic configuration so it takes It supports static/manual
less time. configuration so it takes more
time
 7 It can prioritize and block specific network It leads all packets in the same
packets. way no prioritization support
8 It is easy to program as per need. . It is difficult to program again
and to replace existing program
as per use
9 Cost of Software Defined Network is low. Cost of Traditional Network is
high
10 Structural complexity is low in Software Defined Structural complexity is high in
Network. . Traditional Network
11 Extensibility is high in Software Defined Extensibility is low in Traditional
Network. Network
12 In SDN it is easy to troubleshooting and reporting In Traditional network it is
as it is centralized controlled. . difficult to troubleshoot and
report as it is distributed
controlled
13 Its maintenance cost is lower than traditional Traditional network maintenance
network. cost is higher than SDN.

2 What is meant by big data analytics.

“Data analytics (DA) is the process of examining data sets in order to draw conclusions about the
information they contain, increasingly with the aid of specialized systems and software. Data
analytics technologies and techniques are widely used in commercial industries to enable
organizations to make more informed business decisions and by scientists and researchers to
verify or disprove scientific models, theories and hypotheses.”
Types of Data Analysis
Qualitative Analysis : Deals with the analysis of data that is categorical in nature
Quantitative Analysis : Quantitative analysis refers to the process by which numerical data is
analyzed
Qualitative Analysis
Data is not described through numerical values
Described by some sort of descriptive context such as text
Data can be gathered by many methods such as interviews, videos and audio recordings, field
notes
Data needs to be interpreted, The grouping of data into identifiable themes
Qualitative analysis can be summarized by three basic principles (Seidel, 1998): Notice things
Collect things Think about things
Quantitative Analysis
Quantitative analysis refers to the process by which numerical data is analyzed, Involves
descriptive statistics such as mean, media, standard deviation.
The following are often involved with quantitative analysis:
1.Statistical models
2.Analysis of variables
3.Data dispersion
4.Analysis of relationships between variables
5.Contingence and correlation
6.Regression analysis
7.Statistical significance
8.Precision
9.Error limits
1.Statistical models
Statistical modeling is the process of applying statistical analysis to a dataset. A statistical model
is a mathematical representation (or mathematical model) of observed data.
1. The statistical model is defined as the mathematical equation that are formulated in the form
of relationships between variables.
2. A statistical model illustrates how a set of random variables is related to another set of random
variables.
3. A statistical model is represented as the ordered pair (X , P), X denotes the set of all possible
observations, P refers to the set of probability distributions on X
Statistical models are broadly categorized as
1. Complete models
2. Incomplete models
Complete model does have the number of variables equal to the number of equations
An incomplete model does not have the same number of variables as the number of equations
In order to build a statistical model Data Gathering Descriptive Methods Thinking about
Predictors Building of model Interpreting the Results
2.Analysis of variables
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a parametric statistical technique used to compare datasets.
ANOVA is best applied where more than 2 populations or samples are meant to be compared. To
perform an ANOVA, we must have a continuous response variable and at least one categorical
factor (e.g. age, gender) with two or more levels (e.g. Locations 1, 2) ANOVAs require data from
approximately normally distributed populations
Properties to perform ANOVA – Independence of case The sample should be selected randomly
There should not be any pattern in the selection of the sample Normality Distribution of each
group should be normal Homogeneity Variance between the groups should be the same (e.g.
should not compare data from cities with those from slums)
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) has three types: One way analysis One fixed factor (levels set by
investigator). Factors: age, gender, etc. Two way analysis Factor variables are more than two
K way analysis Factor variables are k
Analysis of variance Total Sum of square In statistical data analysis, the total sum of squares
(TSS or SST) is a quantity that appears as part of a standard way of presenting results of such
analyses. It is defined as being the sum, over all observations, of the squared differences of each
observation from the overall mean. F –ratio Helps to understand the ratio of variance between
two data sets The F ratio is approximately 1.0 when the null hypothesis is true and is greater than
1.0 when the null hypothesis is false. Degree of freedom Factors which have no effect on the
variance The number of degrees of freedom is the number of values in the final calculation of a
statistic that are free to vary.
3.Data dispersion
A measure of statistical dispersion is a nonnegative real number that is zero if all the data are the
same and increases as the data becomes more diverse.
Examples of dispersion measures: Range Average absolute deviation Variance and Standard
deviation
Range
The range is calculated by simply taking the difference between the maximum and minimum
values in the data set.
Average absolute deviation
The average absolute deviation (or mean absolute deviation) of a data set is the average of the
absolute deviations from the mean.
Variance
Variance is the expectation of the squared deviation of a random variable from its mean
Standard deviation
Standard deviation (SD) is a measure that is used to quantify the amount of variation or
dispersion of a set of data values.
4.Contingence and correlation
In statistics, a contingency table (also known as a cross tabulation or crosstab) is a type of
table in a matrix format that displays the (multivariate) frequency distribution of the variables.
Provides a basic picture of the interrelation between two variables
A crucial problem of multivariate statistics is finding (direct )dependence structure underlying
the variables contained in high dimensional contingency tables
Correlation is a technique for investigating the relationship between two quantitative,
continuous variables
Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) is a measure of the strength of the association between the
two variables.
Correlations are useful because they can indicate a predictive relationship that can be exploited
in practice
5.Regression analysis
1.In statistical modeling, regression analysis is a statistical process for estimating the
relationships among variables
2. Focuses on the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent
variables
3. Regression analysis estimates the conditional expectation of the dependent variable given the
independent variables
4.The estimation target is a function of the independent variables called the regression function
5. Characterize the variation of the dependent variable around the regression function which can
be described by a probability distribution
6.Regression analysis is widely used for prediction and forecasting, where its use has substantial
overlap with the field of machine learning
7. Regression analysis is also used to understand which among the independent variables are
related to the dependent variable
6. Statistical significance
1. Statistical significance is the likelihood that the difference in conversion rates between a given
variation and the baseline is not due to random chance
2.Statistical significance level reflects the risk tolerance and confidence level
3. There are two key variables that go into determining statistical significance: Sample size and
Effect size
4.Sample size refers to the sample size of the experiment
5. The larger your sample size, the more confident you can be in the result of the experiment
(assuming that it is a randomized sample)
6.The effect size is just the standardized mean difference between the two groups
7. If a particular experiment replicated, the different effect size estimates from each study can
easily be combined to give an overall best estimate of the effect size
7. Precision and Error limits
1.Precision refers to how close estimates from different samples are to each other
2. The standard error is a measure of precision
3.When the standard error is small, estimates from different samples will be close in value and
vice versa
4.Precision is inversely related to standard error
5.The limits of error are the maximum overestimate and the maximum underestimate from the
combination of the sampling and the non sampling errors
6. The margin of error is defined as –
Limit of error = Critical value x Standard deviation of the statistic
Critical value: Determines the tolerance level of error.
Advantages of Data Analytics
1. Allows for the identification of important (and often mission critical) trends
2. Helps businesses identify performance problems that require some sort of action
3.Can be viewed in a visual manner, which leads to faster and better decisions
4.Better awareness regarding the habits of potential customers
5.It can provide a company with an edge over their competitors
3 What is Data Handling in IOT.
Internet of Things devices can open a whole new world of data for organizations.
Data handling
Ensures that research data is stored, archived or disposed off in a safe and secure manner during
and after the conclusion of a research project Includes the development of policies and
procedures to manage data handled electronically as well as through non electronic means.
In recent days, most data concern
1. Big Data
2. Due to heavy traffic generated by IoT devices
3. Huge amount of data generated by the deployed sensors
Data Handling in Internet of Things (IoT)
According to Techopedia, IoT “describes a future where every day physical objects will be
connected to the internet and will be able to identify themselves to other devices.”
For example, let’s consider sensor devices where these
Sensors are embedded into various devices and machines and deployed into fields. These sensors
transmit sensed data to remote servers via Internet. The Continuous data acquisition from mobile
equipment, transportation facilities, public facilities, and home appliances are produced now
huge challenge is how to handle all the data that is received from various devices and how to
store this huge data.
Data handling at data centers
 Storing, managing, and organizing data.
 Estimates and provides necessary processing capacity.
 Provides sufficient network infrastructure.
 Effectively manages energy consumption.
 Replicates data to keep backup.
 Develop business oriented strategic solutions from big data.
 Helps business personnel to analyze existing data.
 Discovers problems in business operations.
What is Big Data
Definition1:
“Big data technologies describe a new generation of technologies and architectures, designed to
economically extract value from very large volumes of a wide variety of data, by enabling the
high-velocity capture, discovery, and/or analysis.”
[Report of International Data Corporation (IDC)]
Definition2
“Big data shall mean the data of which the data volume, acquisition speed, or data representation
limits the capacity of using traditional relational methods to conduct effective analysis or the data
which may be effectively processed with important horizontal zoom technologies.” [National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)].
Types of Data :
Structured data
1.Data that can be easily organized.
2.Usually stored in relational databases.
3.Structured Query Language (SQL) manages structured data in databases.
4.It accounts for only 20% of the total available data today in the world.
Unstructured data
1.Information that do not possess any pre defined model.
2. Traditional RDBMSs are unable to process unstructured data.
3. Enhances the ability to provide better insight to huge datasets.
4.It accounts for 80% of the total data available today in the world
Characteristics of Big Data
Big Data is characterized as following,
1. Volume
2. Velocity
3. Variety
4.Variability
5.Veracity
6. Visualization
7.Value
Volume
Quantity of data that is generated
Sources of data are added continuously
Example of volume
1. 30TB of images will be generated every night from the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope
(LSST)
2. 72 hours of video are uploaded to YouTube every minute
Velocity
*Refers to the speed of generation of data
*Data processing time decreasing day by day in order to provide real time services
*Older batch processing technology is unable to handle high velocity of data
Example of velocity –
1. 140 million tweets per day on average (according to a survey conducted in 2011)
2. New York Stock Exchange captures 1TB of trade information during each trading Session
Variety
* Refers to the category to which the data belongs
*No restriction over the input data formats
*Data mostly unstructured or semi structured
Example of variety –
1. Pure text, images, audio, video, web, GPS data, sensor data, SMS, documents, PDFs, flash etc.
Variability
*Refers to data whose meaning is constantly changing.
*Meaning of the data depends on the context.
*Data appear as an indecipherable mass without structure
Example:
Language processing, Hashtags, Geo spatial data, Multimedia, Sensor events
Veracity
*Veracity refers to the biases, noise and abnormality in data.
*It is important in programs that involve automated decision making, or feeding the data into an
unsupervised machine learning algorithm.
*Veracity isn’t just about data quality, it’s about data understandability
Visualization
*Presentation of data in a pictorial or graphical format Enables decision makers to see analytics
presented visually , Identify new patterns
Value
*It means extracting useful business information from scattered data.
*Includes a large volume and variety of data
*Easy to access and delivers quality analytics that enables informed decisions
Platform as a Service (PaaS)
Software as a Service (SaaS)
Flow of data

The above fig shows how data flows from generation to analysis .
Data Sources /Data Generation
Enterprise data
Online trading and analysis data. /Production and inventory data and Sales and other financial
data.
IoT data
Data from industry, agriculture, traffic, transportation, Medical care data, Data from public
departments, and families.
Bio medical data
Masses of data generated by gene sequencing, Data from medical clinics and medical, R&Ds.
Other fields
Fields such as – computational biology, astronomy, nuclear research etc
Data Acquisition
Data collection
Log files or record files that are automatically generated by data sources to record activities for
further analysis, that has been collected from devices like Sensory data such as sound wave,
voice, vibration, automobile, chemical, current, weather, pressure, temperature etc , and even
Complex and variety of data collection through mobile devices. E.g. – geographical location, 2D
barcodes, pictures, videos etc.
Data transmission
1.After collecting data, it will be transferred to storage system for further processing and analysis
of the data.
2. Data transmission can be categorized as – Inter DCN transmission and Intra DCN
transmission
Data pre processing
1. Collected datasets suffer from noise, redundancy, inconsistency etc., thus, preprocessing of
data is necessary.
2.Pre processing of relational data mainly follows – integration, cleaning, and
redundancy mitigation
3.Integration is combining data from various sources and provides users with a uniform view of
data.
4. Cleaning is identifying inaccurate, incomplete, or unreasonable data, and then modifying or
deleting such data.
5.Redundancy mitigation is eliminating data repetition through detection, filtering and
compression of data to avoid unnecessary transmission.
Data Storage :
Data can be stored in Filesystems or Databases
File system
1.Distributed file systems that store massive data and ensure – consistency, availability,and fault
tolerance of data.
2. GFS is a notable example of distributed file system that supports large scale file system,
though it’s performance is limited in case of small files
3.Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) and Kosmosfs are other notable file systems, derived
from the open source codes of GFS.
Databases
1. Emergence of non traditional relational databases (NoSQL) in order to deal with the
characteristics that big data possess i.e unstructured data .
2. Nosql uses 3 different type of databases
1.keyvalue database
2.coloumn oriented database
3.Document oriented database
Nosql doesn’t uses the table module instead data is stored in single document file.

4. How to handle data Using Hadoop. Explain.

Hadoop is an open-source software framework for storing data and running applications on
clusters of commodity hardware. It provides massive storage for any kind of data, enormous
processing power and the ability to handle virtually limitless concurrent tasks or jobs.
Why is Hadoop important?
Ability to store and process huge amounts of any kind of data, quickly. With data volumes and
varieties constantly increasing, especially from social media and the Internet of Things (IoT),
that's a key consideration.
Computing power. Hadoop's distributed computing model processes big data fast. The more
computing nodes you use, the more processing power you have.
Fault tolerance. Data and application processing are protected against hardware failure. If a
node goes down, jobs are automatically redirected to other nodes to make sure the distributed
computing does not fail. Multiple copies of all data are stored automatically.
Flexibility. Unlike traditional relational databases, you don’t have to preprocess data before
storing it. You can store as much data as you want and decide how to use it later. That includes
unstructured data like text, images and videos.
Low cost. The open-source framework is free and uses commodity hardware to store large
quantities of data.
 Scalability. You can easily grow your system to handle more data simply by adding nodes.
Little administration is required.
Hadoop History

How Is Hadoop Being Used?

IoT and Hadoop
Things in the IoT need to know what to communicate and when to act. At the core of the IoT is a
streaming, always on torrent of data. Hadoop is often used as the data store for millions or
billions of transactions. Massive storage and processing capabilities also allow you to use
Hadoop as a sandbox for discovery and definition of patterns to be monitored for prescriptive
instruction. You can then continuously improve these instructions, because Hadoop is constantly
being updated with new data that doesn’t match previously defined patterns.
Because Hadoop was designed to deal with volumes of data in a variety of shapes and forms, it
can run analytical algorithms. Big data analytics on Hadoop can help your organization operate
more efficiently, uncover new opportunities and derive next-level competitive advantage.
The sandbox approach provides an opportunity to innovate with minimal investment.
Hadoop Ecosystem:
Hadoop Framework was developed to store and process data with a simple programming model
in a distributed data processing environment. The data present on different high-speed and low-
expense machines can be stored and analyzed. Enterprises have widely adopted Hadoop as Big
Data Technologies for their data warehouse needs in the past year. The trend seems to continue
and grow in the coming year as well. Companies that have not explored Hadoop so far will most
likely see its advantages and applications.
Currently, four core modules are included in the basic framework are,
Hadoop Common – the libraries and utilities used by other Hadoop modules.
Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) – the Java-based scalable system that stores data
across multiple machines without prior organization.
YARN – (Yet Another Resource Negotiator) provides resource management for the processes
running on Hadoop.
MapReduce – a parallel processing software framework. It is comprised of two steps. Map step
is a master node that takes inputs and partitions them into smaller subproblems and then
distributes them to worker nodes. After the map step has taken place, the master node takes the
answers to all of the subproblems and combines them to produce output.
Other software components that can run on top of or alongside Hadoop
Ambari A web interface for managing, configuring and testing Hadoop services and
components
Cassandra A distributed database system
Flume Software that collects, aggregates and moves large amounts of streaming data
into HDFS
HBase A nonrelational, distributed database that runs on top of Hadoop. HBase tables
can serve as input and output for MapReduce jobs.
HCatalog A table and storage management layer that helps users share and access data.

Hive A data warehousing and SQL-like query language that presents data in the
form of tables. Hive programming is similar to database programming.
 Oozie A Hadoop job scheduler.
Pig A platform for manipulating data stored in HDFS that includes a compiler for
MapReduce programs and a high-level language called Pig Latin. It provides a
way to perform data extractions, transformations and loading, and basic
analysis without having to write MapReduce programs.
Solr A scalable search tool that includes indexing, reliability, central configuration,
failover and recovery.
Spark An open-source cluster computing framework with in-memory analytics.

Sqoop A connection and transfer mechanism that moves data between Hadoop and
relational databases.
Zookeeper An application that coordinates distributed processing.

5. Write a note on Hadoop distributed file system(HDFS) architecture.

Apache HDFS or Hadoop Distributed File System is a block-structured file system where each
file is divided into blocks of a pre-determined size. These blocks are stored across a cluster of
one or several machines. Apache Hadoop HDFS Architecture follows a Master/Slave
Architecture, where a cluster comprises of a single NameNode (Master node) and all the other
nodes are DataNodes (Slave nodes). HDFS can be deployed on a broad spectrum of machines
that support Java. Though one can run several DataNodes on a single machine, but in the
practical world, these DataNodes are spread across various machines.
All these toolkits or components revolve around one term i.e. Data. That’s the beauty of Hadoop
that it revolves around data and hence making its synthesis easier.
HDFS:
HDFS is the primary or major component of Hadoop ecosystem and is responsible for storing
large data sets of structured or unstructured data across various nodes and thereby maintaining
the metadata in the form of log files.
HDFS consists of three core components i.e. 1. Name node 2. Data Node 3. Job tracker and
Task tracker
Name Node is the prime node which contains metadata
Maintains two in memory tables, to map the datanodes to the blocks, and vice versa
Data nodes that stores the actual data. These data nodes can talk to each other to rebalance and
replicate data.
Data nodes update the name node with the block information periodically. Before updating
data nodes verify the checksums
Undoubtedly, making Hadoop cost effective.
HDFS maintains all the coordination between the clusters and hardware, thus working at the
heart of the system.
3. Job Tracker and Task Tracker Job Tracker is our contact for applications and Hadoop, and
when we submit code to the Hadoop cluster, it determines the execution plan, including deciding
which files to process, assigning different tasks to each node (which is actually assigned to task
Tracker, and then forwarding), and monitor all tasks that are running. This process typically runs
on the primary node of the cluster.
Job Tracker:
Runs with the Namenode
Receives the user’s job
Decides on how many tasks will run (number of mappers)
Decides on where to run each mapper
Task Tracker:
Runs on each datanode
Receives the task from Job Tracker
Always in communication with the Job
Tracker reporting progress
Hadoop Master/Slave Architecture
Master slave shared nothing architecture
Master:
Executes operations like opening, closing, and renaming files and directories.Determines the
mapping of blocks to Datanodes.
Slave:
Serves read and write requests from the file system’s clients. Performs block creation, deletion,
and replication as instructed by the Namenode

YARN:
Yet Another Resource Negotiator, as the name implies, YARN is the one who helps to manage
the resources across the clusters. In short, it performs scheduling and resource allocation for the
Hadoop System.
Consists of three major components i.e.
1. Resource Manager
2. Nodes Manager
3. Application Manager
Resource manager has the privilege of allocating resources for the applications in a system
whereas Node managers work on the allocation of resources such as CPU, memory, bandwidth
per machine and later on acknowledges the resource manager.
Application manager works as an interface between the resource manager and node manager and
performs negotiations as per the requirement of the two.
MapReduce:
By making the use of distributed and parallel algorithms, MapReduce makes it possible to
carry over the processing’s logic and helps to write applications which transform big data sets
into a manageable one.
MapReduce makes the use of two functions i.e. Map() and Reduce() whose task is:
1. Map() performs sorting and filtering of data and thereby organizing them in the form of group.
Map generates a key-value pair based result which is later on processed by the Reduce() method.
2. Reduce(), as the name suggests does the summarization by aggregating the mapped data. In
simple, Reduce() takes the output generated by Map() as input and combines those tuples into
smaller set of tuples.
6 Write the implementation of IoT using Raspberry Pi.
IMPLEMENTATION OF IOT USING RASPBERRY PI
Program1
IOT: Remote Data Logging
System Overview:

1. A network of Temperature and humidity sensor connected with Raspberry Pi

2. Read data from the sensor
3. Send it to a Server
4. Save the data in the server

Requirements

DHT Sensor
4.7K ohm resistor
Jumper wires
Raspberry Pi
Program2
Data Processing Techniques
 Data from the client needs to be processed before it can be used further
 Data splitting/filtering
 Data plotting
Plotting the data:
MATPLOTLIB is a python library used to plot in 2D
Plot(x,y): plots the values x and y
xlabel(‘X Axis'): Labels the x-axis
ylabel(‘Y Axis'): Labels the y-axis
title("Simple Plot"): Adds title to the plot

Some other common functions used in plotting:

figure(): Creates a new figure
grid(): Enable or disable axis grids in the plot
ion(): turns on the interactive mode
subplot(): Adds subplot in a figure
Close(): Close the current figure window
Scatter(): make a scatter plot of the given points
7. List the Characteristics of Data Analytics.

Big Data is characterized as following,

1. Volume
2. Velocity
3. Variety
4.Variability
5.Veracity
6. Visualization
7.Value

Volume
Quantity of data that is generated
Sources of data are added continuously
Example of volume
1. 30TB of images will be generated every night from the Large Synoptic Survey
Telescope (LSST)
2. 72 hours of video are uploaded to YouTube every minute

Velocity
*Refers to the speed of generation of data
*Data processing time decreasing day by day in order to provide real time services
*Older batch processing technology is unable to handle high velocity of data
Example of velocity –
1. 140 million tweets per day on average (according to a survey conducted in 2011)
2. New York Stock Exchange captures 1TB of trade information during each trading
Session
 Variety
* Refers to the category to which the data belongs
*No restriction over the input data formats
*Data mostly unstructured or semi structured
Example of variety –
1. Pure text, images, audio, video, web, GPS data, sensor data, SMS, documents, PDFs,
flash etc.

Variability
*Refers to data whose meaning is constantly changing.
*Meaning of the data depends on the context.
*Data appear as an indecipherable mass without structure
Example:
Language processing, Hashtags, Geo spatial data, Multimedia, Sensor events

Veracity
*Veracity refers to the biases, noise and abnormality in data.
*It is important in programs that involve automated decision making, or feeding the data
into an unsupervised machine learning algorithm.
*Veracity isn’t just about data quality, it’s about data understandability

Visualization
*Presentation of data in a pictorial or graphical format Enables decision makers to see
analytics presented visually , Identify new patterns

Value
*It means extracting useful business information from scattered data.
*Includes a large volume and variety of data
*Easy to access and delivers quality analytics that enables informed decisions
Platform as a Service (PaaS)
Software as a Service (SaaS)
Short questions
1 List the advantages of big data analytics.

1. Allows for the identification of important (and often mission critical) trends
2. Helps businesses identify performance problems that require some sort of action
3.Can be viewed in a visual manner, which leads to faster and better decisions
4.Better awareness regarding the habits of potential customers
5.It can provide a company with an edge over their competitors
 2 Explain features of Data Handling.
The process of collecting, Recording, and representing data in some form of graph or
chart to make it easy for people to understand.
3 Enumerate on importance of SDN.

Software defined networking (SDN) is a new networking paradigm to make the current
wireless and mobile networks more “intelligent”, efficient, secure, and scalable in order
to handle the large amount of data produced in the IoT.

4 Explain steps involved in implementation of IOT with Raspberry Pi.

Define problem
Gather necessary hardware
Setup the Raspberry Pi
Programming environment
Connect sensors and devices
Develop the software
Connectivity and communication
Testing and trouble shooting
Deployment
Maintenance and updates
5 Write importance of software in IOT.
IoT software development plays a crucial role in shaping the capabilities and functionality of IoT
devices and systems
 UNIT-V
Long questions
1 Illustrate on Cloud for IOT.
One component that improves the success of the Internet of Things is Cloud Computing. Cloud
computing enables users to perform computing tasks using services provided over the Internet.
The use of the Internet of Things in conjunction with cloud technologies has become a kind of
catalyst: the Internet of Things and cloud computing are now related to each other. These are true
technologies of the future that will bring many benefits.
Due to the rapid growth of technology, the problem of storing, processing, and accessing large
amounts of data has arisen. Great innovation relates to the mutual use of the Internet of Things
and cloud technologies. In combination, it will be possible to use powerful processing of sensory
data streams and new monitoring services. As an example, sensor data can be uploaded and
saved using cloud computing for later use as intelligent monitoring and activation using other
devices. The goal is to transform data into insights and thus drive cost-effective and productive
action.
Benefits And Functions of IoT Cloud:
There are many benefits of combining these services –
IoT Cloud Computing provides many connectivity options, implying large network access.
People use a wide range of devices to gain access to cloud computing resources: mobile devices,
tablets, laptops. This is convenient for users but creates the problem of the need for network
access points.
Developers can use IoT cloud computing on-demand. In other words, it is a web service accessed
without special permission or any help. The only requirement is Internet access.
Based on the request, users can scale the service according to their needs. Fast and flexible
means you can expand storage space, edit software settings, and work with the number of users.
Due to this characteristic, it is possible to provide deep computing power and storage.
Cloud Computing implies the pooling of resources. It influences increased collaboration and
builds close connections between users.
As the number of IoT devices and automation in use grows, security concerns emerge. Cloud
solutions provide companies with reliable authentication and encryption protocols.
Finally, IoT cloud computing is convenient because you get exactly as much from the service as
you pay. This means that costs vary depending on use: the provider measures your usage
statistics. A growing network of objects with IP addresses is needed to connect to the Internet
and exchange data between the components of the network.
It is important to note that cloud architecture must be well-designed since reliability, security,
economy, and performance optimization depends upon it. Using well-designed CI/CD pipelines,
structured services, and sandboxed environments results in a secure environment and agile
development.
Comparison of Internet of Things and Cloud Computing:
Cloud is a centralized system helping to transfer and deliver data and files to data centers over
the Internet. A variety of data and programs are easy to access from a centralized cloud system.
The Internet of Things refers to devices connected to the Internet. In the IoT, data is stored in
real-time, as well as historical data. The IoT can analyze and instruct devices to make effective
decisions, as well as track how certain actions function.
Cloud computing encompasses the delivery of data-to-data centers over the Internet. IBM
divides cloud computing into seven different categories:

Platform as a Service (PaaS)

The cloud contains everything you need to build and deliver cloud applications so there is no
need to maintain and buy equipment, software, etc.

Software as a Service (SaaS)

In this case, applications run in the cloud and other companies operate devices that connect to
users’ computers through a web browser.
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
IaaS is an option providing companies with storage, servers, networks and hubs processing data
for each use.
Public cloud
Companies manage spaces and provide users with quick access through the public network.
Private cloud
The same as a public cloud, but only one person has access here, which can be an organization,
an individual company, or a user.
Hybrid cloud
Based on a private cloud, but provides access to a public cloud.
Now, the Internet of Things refers to connecting devices to the Internet. Everyday devices such
as cars and household appliances may have an Internet connection, and with the advancement of
the Internet of Things, more and more devices will join this list.
Pairing with edge computing:
Data processing at the network edge or edge computing is used with IoT solutions and enables
faster processing and response times. To get a better understanding of how this works, consider a
large factory with many implemented IoT sensors. In this situation, it makes sense, before
sending data to the cloud for processing, to aggregate it close to the border to prevent cloud
overload by reducing direct connections.
Data centers with this approach make data processing much faster. Yet, an approach that is only
based on the edge will never provide a complete view of business operations. If there is no cloud
solution, then the factory only controls each unit individually. Also, it has no way of imagining
how these units work in relation to each other. This is why only the combination of the edge and
the cloud will enable businesses to benefit from IoT developments.
The Role of Cloud Computing on the Internet of Things:

Cloud computing works to improve the efficiency of daily tasks in conjunction with the Internet
of Things. Cloud computing is about providing a path for data to reach its destination while the
Internet of Things generates a huge amount of data.

According to Amazon Web Services, there are four benefits of cloud computing:
No need to pre-guess infrastructure capacity needs
Saves money, because you only need to pay for those resources that you use, the larger the scale,
the more savings
In a few minutes, platforms can be deployed around the world
Flexibility and speed in providing resources to developers
Thus, the role of cloud computing in IoT is to work together to store IoT data, providing easy
access when needed. It’s important to note that cloud computing is an easy way to move large
data packets across the Internet generated by the IoT.
2 Explain Sensor Cloud in details.
A sensor-cloud is the combination of WSNs and cloud computing and controls sensor
networks through a cloud for information collection, processing, and storage.
Dozens of sensors are available today, but the five most important sensors for the maintenance
professional are vibration, gas, temperature, humidity, and security sensors.
The technological advancement of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) empowers numerous real-
life applications such as target tracking, battlefield monitoring, telemonitoring, ubiquitous
monitoring, and several other applications. However, these WSNs are single-user centric. On the
other hand, for certain applications such as environment monitoring and telemonitoring, the data
from the single sensor networks can be shared among multiple applications. In these scenarios,
Sensor-Cloud can play a huge role to provision the Sensors-as-a-Service (Se-aaS) platform,
while satisfying the requirements of multiple applications by forming virtual sensors in a cloud
platform. The sensor-cloud architecture has been conceived as a potential solution for
multiorganization WSN deployment and data access.

Conceptualization of Sensor-Cloud
Mathematical Modelling

In this work, we present a mathematical formulation of sensor-cloud, which is very important for
studying the behavior of WSN-based applications in the sensor-cloud platform. We also
suggested a paradigm shift of technology from traditional WSNs to sensor-cloud architecture. A
detailed analysis is made based on the performance metrics – energy consumption, fault-
tolerance, and lifetime of a sensor node. A thorough evaluation of the cost-effectiveness of
sensor-cloud is also done by examining the cash inflow and outflow characteristics from the
perspective of every actor of sensor-cloud.
Big-Sensor-Cloud Infrastructure
This work relates to the development of Big-Sensor-Cloud Infrastructure (BSCI) that immensely
enhances the usability and management of the physical sensor devices. BSCI is a distributed framework
for “Big” sensor-data storage, processing, virtualization, leveraging, and efficient remote management.
The methods of the proposed BSCI are persuasive as they are equipped with the ability to handle “Big”
data with enormous heterogeneous data volumes (in zettabyte) generated with tremendous velocity. The
framework interfaces between the physical and cyber worlds, thereby acquiring real-time data from the
physical WSNs into the cloud platform.
 Virtual Sensor Formation in Sensor-Cloud
Dynamic Mapping of Virtual Sensors

In this work, the problem of dynamic mapping of virtual sensors in sensor-cloud is divided into
two subproblems — optimal dispersed node selection and optimal data-rate distribution, and
analyze that these problems are NP-complete. Hence, we propose a game theory-based online
scheme, named QADMAP, to solve these two problems in polynomial time.

Economic Model for Virtual Sensors

 Composition of Virtual Sensors

In this work, we propose algorithms for efficient virtualization of the physical sensor nodes and
optimal composition of VSs — within the same geographic region and spanning across multiple
regions.
Caching in Sensor-Cloud
Heterogeneous Caching Mechanism

In this work, we focus on designing an optimal, and adaptive data caching mechanism to be
implemented within sensor-cloud environment. This work models the data caching to be
followed with the External Cache (EC) and the Internal Cache (IC).
 Adaptive Caching Mechanism

In this work, we propose a dynamic, and adaptive caching mechanism for efficient virtualization
in sensor-cloud. The proposed caching mechanism is flexible with the varied rate of change of
the physical environment.
Resource Management in Sensor-Cloud
Bridge Node Selection
In this work, we focus on obtaining an optimal decision rule to select a bridge node on behalf of
a VSN. The work achieves the reduce energy consumption of every node which, in turn,
improves the energy expenditure of the entire VSN.
Gateway Selection

In this work, we study the optimal gateway selection problem in sensor-cloud framework for
real-time patient monitoring system by using a zero-sum game model.
Also appliable in agriculture field, medical fields etc.,
3 How we can build Smart Home with IOT?
Another use case of IoT in smart homes extends to doors, providing added convenience and
security for homeowners.
1. Installing digital locks to control access to the homes remotely via a mobile app.
2. Integrating digital locks with smart home devices, cameras, and motion sensors to
achieve better security.
 Define Goals and Requirements.
 Determine The Unique Features.
 Choose Tech Stack for IoT Smart Home App Development.
 Design the User Interface (UI/UX)
 Integration with IoT Devices.
 Implement Automation and Control Features.
 Finalize and Deploy.
IoT devices in smart homes allow for automation of various tasks. For example, lights,
thermostats, and appliances can be controlled remotely or set to operate on a schedule. Smart
speakers like Amazon Echo and Google Home enable voice commands to control devices,
making daily routines more efficient.

Home automation is constructing automation for a domestic, mentioned as a sensible home or

smart house. In the IoT home automation ecosystem, you can control your devices like light, fan,
TV, etc.

A domestic automation system can monitor and/or manage home attributes adore lighting,
climate, enjoyment systems, and appliances. It is very helpful to control your home devices.

It’s going to in addition incorporates domestic security such as access management and alarm
systems. Once it coupled with the internet, domestic gadgets are a very important constituent of
the Internet of Things.

A domestic automation system usually connects controlled devices to a central hub or gateway.

The program for control of the system makes use of both wall-mounted terminals, tablet or
desktop computers, a smartphone ​application, or an online interface that may even be
approachable off-site through the Internet.

Smart Home automation refers to the use of technology to control and automate various
functions in a home, such as lighting, heating, air conditioning, and security. In the context of
IoT (Internet

of Things) and M2M (Machine-to-Machine) communications, home automation systems can be

controlled and monitored remotely through a network connection.

One of the key benefits of IoT-enabled home automation is the ability to control and monitor a
wide range of devices and systems from a single, centralized location, such as a smartphone or
tablet. This can include everything from lighting and temperature control to security cameras and
alarm systems.

Another advantage of IoT-enabled home automation is the ability to remotely monitor and
control devices, even when away from home. This can be useful for controlling energy
consumption and ensuring the safety and security of the home.

IoT-enabled home automation systems typically involve the use of smart devices, such as
thermostats, light bulbs, and security cameras, that can be controlled and monitored through a
centralized hub or app. These smart devices can communicate with each other and with the
centralized hub using wireless protocols such as Zigbee, Z-Wave, and Bluetooth.

In addition, IoT-enabled home automation systems can integrate with other smart home
technologies, such as voice assistants like Alexa and Google Home, to provide additional
functionality and convenience.
Overall, IoT-enabled home automation can provide many benefits to homeowners, including
increased convenience, energy efficiency, and security. However, it is important to ensure the
security of these systems, as they may be vulnerable to hacking and other cyber threats.

Component-1 :
Smart Lighting :
Smart lighting for home helps in saving energy by adapting the life to the ambient condition and
switching on/off or dimming the light when needed.
Smart lighting solutions for homes achieve energy saving by sensing the human movements and
their environments and controlling the lights accordingly.
Component-2 :
Smart Appliances :
Smart appliances with the management are here and also provide status information to the users
remotely.
Smart washer/dryer can be controlled remotely and notify when the washing and drying are
complete.
Smart refrigerators can keep track of the item store and send updates to the users when an item is
low on stock.
Component-3 :
Intrusion Detection :
Home intrusion detection systems use security cameras and sensors to detect intrusion and raise
alerts.
Alert can we inform of an SMS or an email sent to the user.
Advanced systems can even send detailed alerts such as an image shoot or short video clips.
Component-4 :
Smoke/gas detectors:
Smoke detectors are installed in homes and buildings to detect smoke that is typically an early
sign of Fire.
It uses optical detection, ionization for Air sampling techniques to detect smoke.
Gas detectors can detect the presence of harmful gases such as CO, LPG, etc.
It can raise alerts in the human voice describing where the problem is.
4 How we can build Smart City with IOT?
Smart Traffic Management. IoT sensors can be installed on traffic lights, roadways, and vehicles
to collect data on traffic patterns, congestion, and accidents.
Keys that define a Smart City
 Use of information and communication technologies.
 Building and control automation.
 Efficient urban planning.
 Urban mobility and sustainable public transport.
 Smart waste management.
 Improving environmental sustainability.
 Concern for the social environment.
 Technologies applied to education.

Real-world Applications of IoT in Smart Cities

1. Traffic Management
It is important to control the traffic in cities otherwise there are huge traffic jams in popular
places and totally empty streets otherwise. This also depends on the design and layout of the
roads but it can be managed by having smart traffic lights. For example, the traffic lights should
automatically adjust according to the volume of the traffic so that green lights should have a
longer duration where there more traffic and shorter duration when the streets are empty. Sensors
can also be embedded in roads and bridges to monitor their conditions so that they can be
repaired when there is much wear and tear. After all, roads with potholes are also a major cause
of traffic pollution!
2. Air Pollution
Air pollution is a major problem in many metropolitan cities where the particulate matter in the
air is so high it is damaging to the lungs in the long run. But IoT along with machine learning
can be used to reduce air pollution. This is possible by collecting data related to city pollution
like emissions from vehicles, pollen levels, airflow direction, weather, traffic levels, etc using
IoT from various sources and then calculating pollution forecasts to see the trends in pollution so
they can be controlled.
3. Healthcare
Healthcare is an extremely important aspect of life, especially in current times when non-
communicable diseases like heart problems and cancer are increasing in big cities while there are
still a lot of deaths from infectious diseases in poorer places. In such a situation, IoT technology
can surely help in enhancing the healthcare system so that the best healthcare is received by
everybody. One example of this is microbots that can directly enter the bloodstream and reach
any place inside the body to deliver medicines. Another application of IoT and sensors in
healthcare is remote patient monitoring wherein patients can be monitored 24/7 and emergency
responders called if there are any problems.
4. Public Transport
Public transport, whether it be buses or trains, are at the heart of any city. This is especially true
in big cities where there are big traffic jams and the metro train can be a lifesaver! However,
smart public transport can streamline traffic and also make commuters’ life much easier. It is
very convenient when the trains and buses are connected with a single app and you know exactly
when the next service will arrive and how long you need to wait. In addition to that, predictive
analytics can be used to optimize the routes of public transport which provide maximum benefit
and minimum cost.
5. Water Management
There is no life without water! But water is also a finite resource which is reducing at an
alarming rate. Therefore, using smart water management techniques in cities so that water can be
conserved for future generations is a good idea. Sensors can be used to monitor water levels, pipe
conditions, tank pressures, etc. in municipal water pipelines and tanks to optimize water
management. These will ensure that water is not wasted and that problems like leaky pipes or
high pressure in tanks can be handled without any loss of water. Sensors can also be used to
monitor the groundwater levels so that they can be replenished if there is a groundwater shortage.
6.Buildings
Cities are obviously incomplete without buildings and larger cities have a lot of skyscrapers as
well. Now the challenge is to build smart buildings using IoT where all the functionalities like
lighting, air conditioners, heating, security, etc. can be connected and controlled from a single
source. This will reduce the costs of operating a building as well as increase efficiency. For
example, air conditions and heaters in a building can be set to change the internal temperature
according to the outside temperature. Sensors can also be used to monitor the air quality inside
the building and also automatically switch on lights only when there are people. All these actions
will save a lot of energy and also reduce the electricity bill!
7. Waste Management
Waste management systems in a city can be optimized so that there is efficient waste collection
and disposal which helps in keeping the city clean and hygienic. After all, mismanagement of
waste can lead to contamination of the soil, air, and water as well as provide a breeding ground
for a host of bacteria (not to mention the horrible smell!) But IoT technology with sensors in the
waste bins can be used to find when the bins are full and dispose of them accordingly. This is
better than just disposing the waste on particular days only when the bind might not be full
sometimes or overflowing with the danger of contamination on other days.
8.Parking
It doesn’t sound like parking is a problem but it is actually a big headache, especially in large
cities. Less available space means that drivers have to waste their time finding parking spaces
and increase road traffic in this process (while also becoming more and more irritated!) This
issue can be solved by using IoT connected sensors around the city that point out the empty
parking spaces around wherever your destination is.
9.Natural Disaster Management
It is not possible to prevent natural disasters like hurricanes, earthquakes, tsunamis, etc. but it is
entirely possible to anticipate these disasters before they occur and then manage them effectively.
For example, sensors in combination with IoT can be used to anticipate when earthquakes are
going to occur by analyzing the makeup of the ground, seismic plate interaction, energy
propagation in the ground, etc. Similarly, sensors can be used to obtain flood detection data like
river level readings, rainfall records, terrain and elevation of an area, etc. to predict when and
where a flood might occur and the severity of the flood as well.
10. Infrastructure
The infrastructure of a city i.e. its roads, buildings, etc are essentially what form the city. And
smart infrastructure is a very important part of creating a smart city. This includes using IoT
along with sensors to use technology intelligently which can save energy and cost for a city. An
example of this is using smart streetlights along the roads that only turn on when they detect
motion and stay off the rest of the time. This will definitely save energy and reduce the cost to
the city.
5 Illustrate role of IOT in Smart Grid building.
Smart cities are designed to leverage the power of technology and data to improve the quality of
life for citizens, enhance sustainability, and streamline the delivery of essential services.
Here are a few reasons why we need IoT for smart cities,
 Better Resource Management: They use technologies such as the Internet of Things
(IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), and big data analytics to optimize resources such as
energy, water, and transportation. This can lead to cost savings, reduced waste, and
increased efficiency.
 Improved Quality of Life: They improve citizens’ quality of life in several ways. For
example, they can use data and technology to provide better healthcare, education, and
public safety services. They can also make it easier for citizens to access information and
participate in civic life.
 Increased Sustainability: Smart cities are designed to be more sustainable by reducing
energy consumption, promoting renewable energy sources, and minimizing waste. This
can help mitigate climate change’s effects and make cities more resilient.
 Economic Development: They stimulate economic development by attracting new
businesses and creating new jobs. They can also improve the efficiency of existing
businesses, which can help to boost the local economy.
 Overall, smart cities are a way to create more livable, sustainable, and efficient cities that
can meet the needs of citizens today and in the future.
IoT in Smart Cities Market
 Urbanization is a never-ending phenomenon.
 million people move to cities every week worldwide –estimated that by 2040, a
whopping 65% of the global population will reside in cities. This number is expected to
hit 6.3 billion by 2050 with population growth.
 The market size of smart cities globally is projected to touch $6,061 billion by 2030. The
smart utility segment accounted for a 28% market share in 2022 and includes domains
such as energy distribution, infrastructure management & water treatment, among others.

Real-world Applications of IoT in Smart Cities

 Here are some real-world IoT smart city examples:

Smart Traffic Management

IoT sensors can be installed on traffic lights, roadways, and vehicles to collect data on traffic
patterns, congestion, and accidents. This data can be used to optimize traffic flow, reduce
congestion, and improve road safety. These solutions utilize sensors and GPS data from the
rider’s smartphone to report the location and speed of a vehicle. Further, historical data enables
the prediction of preferred routes and prevent potential congestion problems.
Smart Parking
IoT sensors can be installed in parking spaces to detect when a spot is occupied and transmit that
information to a central server. This data can guide drivers to available parking spots, reducing
congestion and search time. The sensors embedded in the ground transmit the data to the cloud,
immediately notifying the driver whenever a nearby parking spot is vacant.
Public Safety
IoT-enabled cameras and sensors can be installed in public spaces to monitor potential security
threats, such as suspicious activity or unattended bags. IoT-enabled solutions come integrated
with analytics, real-time tracking, and decision-making capabilities. Analyzing the data
generated from CCTV cameras & acoustic sensors embedded throughout the city and the data
generated from social media feeds helps predict potential crime incidents. This can help law
enforcement agencies respond quickly and effectively to potential threats.
Waste Management
Waste collection operators use IoT-powered solutions to optimize collection schedules & routes
with real-time tracking of waste levels, fuel consumption, and use of waste containers. IoT
sensors can be installed in garbage cans and recycling bins to monitor the fill level and optimize
waste collection routes, reducing costs and environmental impact. Every container is embedded
with a sensor that records waste levels. Once a container nears the threshold level, the truck
driver receives an instant notification on a mobile app to empty a full container and avoid
emptying it when it’s half-full.
Utility Management
IoT-equipped smart solutions enable citizens to save their money on home utilities with:
Energy management: IoT sensors can be installed in buildings and homes to monitor energy
usage and optimize energy consumption, reducing costs and carbon emissions.
Smart lighting: IoT sensors can be installed in streetlights to adjust the lighting level based on
ambient light, reducing energy consumption and pollution.
Water management: IoT sensors can be installed in water distribution systems to monitor water
quality, detect leaks, and optimize water usage, reducing costs and conserving resources.
Remote Monitoring
IoT-based smart city solutions also enable efficient utility management for citizens. They allow
residents to use their meters to track and control resource consumption. For instance, a
homeowner can turn off their HVAC system using a smartphone app. And in case of issues like
leakages or potential failures, utility companies can notify households and send specialists for
timely repairs and maintenance.
Environmental Well-being
IoT-powered solutions help municipalities remotely monitor environmental conditions. For
instance, sensors are attached to water grids to inspect their quality and trigger notifications in
case of leakages or changes in the chemical composition of water. The same technology is also
used for measuring air quality in areas prone to pollutants and is critical to recommending
solutions that improve air quality.
Public Transport
Traffic operators can use the data from sensors embedded in multiple sources to analyze and
identify patterns of using public transport. This data helps achieve a standardized level of safety
& timeliness while cutting wait times and enhancing the traveling experience for citizens. A
smart city can also embed BLE beacons on roads and bridges to monitor wear and tear and repair
them immediately in case of impending damage.
6. Explain about industrial IoT.
The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) is the collection of sensors, instruments and autonomous
devices connected through the internet to industrial applications.
Industrial IoT(IIoT) is an ecosystem of devices, sensors, applications, and associated networking
equipment that work together to collect, monitor, and analyze data from industrial operations.
IIoT uses the power of smart machines and real-time analytics to take advantage of the data that
dumb machines have produced in industrial settings for years. The driving philosophy behind
IIoT is that smart machines aren't only better than humans at capturing and analyzing data in real
time, but they're also better at communicating important information that can be used to drive
business decisions faster and more accurately.
Connected sensors and actuators enable companies to pick up on inefficiencies and problems
sooner, saving time and money while also supporting business intelligence efforts. In
manufacturing specifically, IIoT has the potential to provide quality control, sustainable and
green practices, supply chain traceability and overall supply chain efficiency. In an industrial
setting, IIoT is key to processes such as predictive maintenance, enhanced field service, energy
management and asset tracking.
 Connected devices that can sense, communicate and store information about themselves.
 Public and private data communications infrastructure.
 Analytics and applications that generate business information from raw data.
 Storage for the data that's generated by the IIoT devices.
 People.
IIoT infrasgtructure:
IIoT lets you create an end-to-end connected environment covering physical infrastructure like
containers and trucks. Industrial IoT (IIoT) is defined as a set of tools and applications that allow
large companies to create an end-to-end connected environment from the core to the edge.
In a real-world IIoT deployment of smart robotics, a power and robotics company, uses
connected sensors to monitor the maintenance needs of its robots to prompt repairs before parts
break.

Difference between IoT and IIoT:

The goal of IoT is to make life easier and more convenient by allowing devices to communicate
with each other. On the other hand, IIoT specifically applies to the industrial sector. It involves
large-scale machine-to-machine communication and automation of complex industrial processes.
Short Questions
1 What do you mean by Industrial IOT.
The industrial internet of things (IIoT) is the use of smart sensors, actuators and other
devices, such as radio frequency identification tags, to enhance manufacturing and industrial
processes.
2 Illustrate Industry 4.0 concept.
Industry 4.0 allows for smart manufacturing and the creation of intelligent factories. It aims to
enhance productivity, efficiency, and flexibility while enabling more intelligent decision-making
and customization in manufacturing and supply chain operations.
3 Explain role of IOT in Health Care industry.
IoT in healthcare enables interoperability, artificial intelligence machine-to-machine
communication, information exchange, and data movement that makes healthcare service
delivery effective.
4 Explain role of IOT in Agriculture industry.
IoT smart agriculture products are designed to help monitor crop fields using sensors and by
automating irrigation systems. As a result, farmers and associated brands can easily monitor the
field conditions from anywhere without any hassle.
5 Explain how activity monitoring can be achieved in IOT.
By combining the reach of the internet, cellular, and satellite communications networks, data is
truly accessible from anywhere in the world. Once captured, this data is sent back to a cloud-
based monitoring solution for analysis, and real-time notifications are sent when potential issues
are detected.