Operating System

Unit-1
Operating system:
An operating system acts as an intermediary between the user of a computer and the
computer hardware. The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in
which a user can execute programs in a convenient and efficient manner.

Abstract view of the components of a computer system

Goals of operating system:
1. Primary goals
• Convenience/ User friendly

2. Secondary goals
• Efficient use of resources
• Reliability
• Maintainability

Examples of operating system: Windows, Unix, Linux, Mac, Android, iOS etc.
Functions of operating system:
1. Process management: Involves handling the creation, scheduling and termination of
processes.

2. Memory management: Manages allocation and deallocation of physical and virtual

memory spaces to various programs.

3. I/O device management: Handles I/O operations of peripheral devices like keyboards etc.

4. File management: Manages files on storage devices, including their information, naming,
permissions and hierarchy.

5. Network management: Manages network protocols and functions, enabling the OS to

establish network connections and transfer data.

6. Security and protection: Ensures system protection against unauthorised access and
other security threats through authentication, authorization and encryption.
Major components of operating system:
1. Kernal: It is a central component of an OS that manages the system’s resources and
communication between hardware and software.
2. Process management
• Process scheduler: Determines the execution of processes.
• Process Control Block: Contains various process details such as process ID, priority,
status, etc.
• Concurrency control: Manages simultaneous execution of two or more processes.
3. Memory management
• Physical memory management: Manages RAM allocation.
• Virtual memory management: Simulates additional memory using disk space.
• Memory allocation: Assigns memory to different processes.
4. File system management
• File handling: Manages the creation, deletion and access of files and directories.
• File Control Block: Stores file attributes and control information.
• Disk scheduling: Organizes the order of reading or writing to disk.
5. Device management
• Device drivers: Interface between the hardware and the operating system.
• I/O controllers: Manage data transfer to and from peripheral devices.
6. Security and Access control
• Authentication: Verifies user credentials.
• Authorization: Controls access permissions to files and directories.
• Encryption: Ensures data confidentiality and integrity.

7. User interface
• Command Line Interface (CLI): Text-based user interaction.
• Graphical User Interface (GUI): Visual, user-friendly interaction with the OS.

8. Networking
• Network protocols: Rules for communication between devices on a network.
• Network interface: Manages connection between the computer and the network.
Classification of operating systems:

• Batch operating system

• Multiprogramming operating system
• Time sharing operating system
• Real Time operating system
• Multiprocessor operating system
• Multithreaded operating system
• Multiuser operating system
• Interactive operating system
• Multiprocess operating system
Batch operating system:
A Batch Operating System (BOS) processes jobs in groups (batches) without user
interaction, submitting jobs to an operator who then sorts them into batches for
execution, often seen in mainframe environments for tasks like payroll processing.

Key Characteristics:

• No direct interaction between users.

• Jobs are submitted to the computer
operator.
• Jobs are grouped and processed as a batch.
• CPU executes jobs in the order they are
sent.
Multiprogramming operating system:
It allows multiple programs to be loaded into memory and executed by the CPU at the
same time (by using context switching), maximizing the utilization of system resources.
Time sharing operating system:
A Time-Sharing Operating System is an OS that allows multiple users to share system
resources simultaneously by allocating a small time slice (quantum) to each user or
process. This creates the illusion that each user has their own dedicated system.
Examples: UNIX, Linux.

Advantages:
• Efficient resource utilization.
• Fast response time for users.
• Supports multiple users simultaneously.
• Simplifies system management for large networks.
Disadvantages:
• Overhead from context switching between processes.
• Complex to design and manage.
• Security concerns due to resource sharing.
Real Time operating system:
A Real-Time Operating System is an operating system designed to process data and events
within a specific time constraint, ensuring predictable and deterministic responses. It is
commonly used in systems where timing is critical.

Types of Real-Time Systems:

• Hard Real-Time Systems: Must meet strict deadlines (e.g., medical devices,
aerospace systems).
• Soft Real-Time Systems: Deadlines are important but can be missed occasionally
without catastrophic consequences (e.g., video streaming, online gaming).
 Multiprocessor operating system:
A Multiprocessor Operating System is an OS designed to manage and coordinate multiple
processors (CPUs) within a single system. It ensures efficient resource utilization, load
balancing, and seamless process execution across all processors.
Advantages:
• Increased Throughput: Executes more tasks
simultaneously.
• Improved Performance: Faster processing for complex
applications.
• Fault Tolerance: Redundant processors ensure system
reliability.
• Scalability: Easily add more processors as demand grows.

Disadvantages:
• Complexity: Difficult to design, implement, and debug.
• Resource Contention: Potential conflicts over shared
resources.
• Cost: Expensive hardware and infrastructure.
• Overhead: Additional processing for synchronization and
communication.

Examples of Multiprocessor OS: Linux, Windows Server (Enterprise editions), Solaris

 Multithreaded operating system:
A multithreaded operating system is one that supports the execution of multiple threads
within a single process, allowing tasks to run concurrently and efficiently share resources.

Examples of Multithreaded OS: Windows, Linux, macOS, Android, iOS.

Interactive Operating Systems:
These OSs allow users to interact with the system directly in real-time, providing
immediate feedback. The user communicates with the system via a command-line interface
(CLI) or graphical user interface (GUI).
Examples: Microsoft Windows, macOS, Linux, and Android.

Multiuser Operating System:

A multiuser operating system is an operating system that allows multiple users to access
and use a computer system simultaneously or at different times. It's designed to manage
and share system resources efficiently among multiple users while keeping each user's data
and processes secure and isolated.
Examples: Microsoft Windows, macOS, Linux, and Android.
Operating system structures:
• Simple structure of an Operating system:
A simple OS structure refers to an operating system that’s built without layers or strict
modularity — more like a single big program that does everything.
Example: Microsoft Disk Operating System.

Characteristics:
• No clear separation between user and kernel modes.
• Application programs can directly access hardware.
• Not organized into layers or modules.
• Layered structure of an Operating system:
A layered operating system is structured as a hierarchy of layers, with each layer built on
top of lower layers. Each layer can interact only with the layer directly below it and
provides services to the layer above it.
Each layer serves a specific function and is responsible for only that function, minimizing
complexity and increasing reliability.
Example: Unix, Windows NT, Multics.

Characteristics:
• Modular Design: Each layer is independent and focused.
• Abstraction: Each layer hides internal implementation.
• Encapsulation: Internal workings of one layer are hidden from others.
• Clear Interfaces: Only specific calls are allowed between layers.
• Monolithic Structure of an Operating system:
The monolithic structure is one of the earliest and simplest architectures used in operating
system design. In this structure, the entire OS works in a single layer in kernel mode, with
all core services bundled together into one large block of code.
Example: MS DOS, UNIX, Linux.

Characteristics:

• Everything is inside one big kernel.

• Faster due to internal function calls.

• Hard to maintain and debug.

• Microkernal Structure of an Operating system:
A microkernel is a modern and minimalist approach to operating system design where only
the most essential core functionalities are included in the kernel. Other services like device
drivers, file systems, and networking are moved into user space as separate processes (also
called servers).
Example: Minix, Windows NT, Mac OS X.

Characteristics:
• Only critical functions in the kernel.
• More secure and stable due to isolation.
• Slightly slower due to context switches and IPC overhead.
Reentrant kernel:
A reentrant kernel in an operating system refers to a type of kernel that can safely be
interrupted while it is executing, and then called again ("re-entered") before its previous
executions are complete. This property is essential for multitasking and interrupt
handling, especially in real-time and multi-threaded systems.

Operating System Services:

1. Process Management
•Creation, scheduling, and termination of processes
•Handles multitasking and synchronization (e.g., using semaphores, mutexes)
•Provides inter-process communication (IPC)
2. Memory Management
•Allocates and deallocates memory space
•Keeps track of each byte in memory (who owns it, what's free, etc.)
•Manages virtual memory (e.g., paging, segmentation)
3. File System Management
•Manages files and directories
•Handles operations like open, read, write, close, delete
•Maintains file permissions and access control
4. Device Management
•Interfaces with hardware devices via device drivers
•Handles I/O operations and buffering
•Manages queues for devices (spooling, etc.)
5. Security and Protection
•Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data
•Manages user authentication and permissions
•Enforces access control policies
6. User Interface
•Provides command-line interface (CLI) or graphical user interface (GUI)
•Allows users to interact with the system
7. Networking
•Supports communication between devices over a network
•Handles protocols, sockets, and data transmission
8. System Performance Monitoring
•Tracks resource usage (CPU, memory, I/O)
•Provides tools for performance analysis and logging
9. Error Detection and Handling
•Detects hardware and software errors
•Takes action to recover or notify users
10. Resource Allocation
•Manages the distribution of CPU time, memory, disk space, and I/O devices among
users and tasks