Operating System Concepts - Full Detailed Notes

Introduction to Operating System (OS)

What is an Operating System?

An Operating System (OS) is a system software that manages computer hardware and software resources
and provides services for computer programs. It acts as a bridge between the user and the computer
hardware.

Basic Roles:

• Controls hardware components like CPU, memory, disk drives, printers, etc.
• Provides a user interface (Command Line or GUI).
• Manages files and folders.
• Provides security and protection.

Examples of Operating Systems:

• Windows
• Linux (Ubuntu, Fedora, Arch)
• macOS
• Android
• iOS
• Unix

Operating System Structure

1. Layered Structure:

• The OS is designed in layers, each built on top of the lower one.

• Each layer performs specific functions and hides its implementation from the higher layers.

Layers (from bottom to top): 1. Hardware 2. CPU Scheduling and Memory Management 3. I/O
Management 4. File System 5. User Interface

Advantages: - Easy to debug and update - Modularity: easier to understand and maintain

Disadvantages: - Slower execution due to overhead of layer communication

Example: - THE Operating System

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2. System Components:

1. Process Management: Handles creation, scheduling, and termination of processes.

2. Main Memory Management: Tracks memory usage, allocates/deallocates memory.
3. Secondary Storage Management: Manages disk storage.
4. File Management: Organizes, stores, retrieves, and manages data files.
5. I/O System Management: Buffers and manages I/O operations.
6. Protection and Security: Controls access to resources and defends against malicious software.
7. Networking: Manages communication between computers.

Operating System Functions

1. Process Management
2. Handles multitasking and multiprocessing
3. Context switching

4. Deadlock prevention

5. Memory Management

6. Allocation strategies (First-fit, Best-fit, etc.)

7. Virtual memory using paging/segmentation

8. Storage Management

9. File systems (FAT, NTFS, ext3, ext4)

10. Disk scheduling algorithms (FCFS, SSTF, LOOK, etc.)

11. Device Management

12. I/O scheduling

13. Device drivers

14. Security and Protection

15. Authentication and authorization

16. Encryption

17. User Interface

18. CLI (e.g., Bash Shell)

19. GUI (e.g., Windows Desktop)

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 Classification of Operating Systems

1. Batch Operating System

• No interaction between user and process

• Jobs are processed in batches
• Input jobs using punch cards or other offline media

Example: IBM 1401, early mainframe computers

Advantages: - Good for large jobs

Disadvantages: - No real-time interaction - Hard to debug

2. Interactive Operating System

• Users interact directly with the system

• Quick response time

Examples: Windows, Linux, macOS

3. Time-Sharing Operating System

• Multiple users use the system simultaneously

• CPU time is divided among users (time slices)

Example: UNIX

Advantages: - Better response time - Resource sharing

Disadvantages: - Overhead of switching

4. Real-Time Operating System (RTOS)

• Responds to inputs immediately

• Used in systems with strict time constraints

Types: - Hard RTOS: Must meet deadlines (e.g., pacemaker) - Soft RTOS: Can tolerate some delay (e.g., live
streaming)

Examples: QNX, VxWorks, RTLinux

5. Multiprocessor Systems

• More than one CPU working together

• Types: Symmetric (SMP) and Asymmetric (ASMP)

Advantages: - Increased throughput - High reliability

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Examples: High-end servers, mainframes

6. Multiuser Systems

• More than one user can use the system at the same time

Examples: UNIX servers, mainframes

7. Multiprogramming Systems

• Several programs are kept in memory at the same time

• CPU switches from one to another to increase utilization

Advantages: - Efficient CPU usage - Increased throughput

8. Multithreaded Systems

• Programs are divided into multiple threads that can run concurrently

Advantages: - Faster execution - Better resource sharing

Examples: Modern web browsers, servers

Operating System Services

1. Program Execution
2. I/O Operations
3. File System Manipulation
4. Communication (Interprocess Communication)
5. Error Detection
6. Resource Allocation
7. Protection and Security

Reentrant Kernels

Definition: A reentrant kernel allows multiple processes to execute the same kernel code simultaneously.

Key Points: - No data is modified during execution - Kernel can be shared among processes safely

Benefits: - Efficient memory usage - Enables multitasking

Examples: Linux, Windows NT

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 Kernel Types

1. Monolithic Kernel

• All OS services run in kernel space

Advantages: - Faster due to fewer context switches

Disadvantages: - Large and difficult to maintain - One bug can crash the whole system

Examples: Linux, UNIX

2. Microkernel

• Only essential services run in kernel mode (IPC, basic scheduling)

• Rest runs in user mode

Advantages: - More secure and stable - Easier to extend

Disadvantages: - Slightly slower due to user-kernel communication

Examples: Minix, QNX

Summary Chart

OS Type Interaction Speed Use Case Example

Batch No Slow Data processing IBM 1401

Interactive Yes Medium General use Windows

Time-Sharing Yes Fast Multi-user tasks UNIX

Real-Time Minimal Very Fast Embedded systems QNX

Multiuser Yes Medium Servers UNIX

Multiprocessor Yes Fast HPC servers Linux

Multithreaded Yes Fast Apps, browsers Windows, Chrome

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