RQF LEVEL III

TRADE: Computer Systems and

Architecture

MODULE CODE: CSACD301

TEACHER’S GUIDE
Module name: Computer System
1

Deployment
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2022
✔ Table of content

2
✔ Acronyms

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 ✔ Introduction
This module describes the skills, knowledge and attitude required to
deploy a computer system. This module is intended to prepare
learners pursuing TVET Level 3 in computer system and architecture.
At the end of this module the learners will be able to deploy computer
hardware system, install computer firmware, deploy operating
system, install application software, and prepare deployment
documentation.

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 Module Code and Title: CSACD301 Computer System
Deployment

Learning Outcome 1: Deploy computer system hardware

Learning Outcome 2: Install computer firmware

Learning Outcome 3:Deploy Operating system

Learning Outcome 4: Install application software

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✔ Learning outcome 1: Deploy computer system hardware

Picture/s reflecting the Learning outcome 1

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Learning outcome 1. Deploy computer system hardware

Indicative contents (headings of indicative content from the module of the curriculum)

1.1. Introduction to computer system deployment

1.2. Identification of main computer hardware components specifications

1.3. Connection of computer peripherals

1.4. Perform computer system hardware testing

Duration: 15hrs

Learning outcome 1 objectives: (Performance criteria in affirmative form)

By the end of the learning outcome, the trainees will be able to:
1. Describe computer system hardware based on system requirement
2. Identify Computer parts based on computer system requirements
3. Connected Computer hardware parts based on user manual
4. Test hardware system based on system requirements

Resources

Equipment Tools Materials

PPEs, UPS, Computer, Internet bundles,
Projector, Scanner, Electricity, Data cables,
Printer, Digital Camera Multimeter, Tool Kits, Cable ties, Power
extensions

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 Advance preparation:

Indicative content 1.1: Introduction to computer system deployment

Definition of Computer
Computer: is an electronic device that operates (works) under the control of programs stored
in its own memory unit. Also it can e defined as An electronic device that accepts data as
input, and transforms it under the influence of a set of special instructions called Programs, to
produce the desired output (referred to as Information).
Explanations
A computer is described as an electronic device because; it is made up of electronic
components and uses electric energy (such as electricity) to operate.
A computer has an internal memory, which stores data & instructions temporarily awaiting
processing, and even holds the intermediate result (information) before it is communicated to
the recipients through the Output devices. It works on the data using the instructions issued,
means that, the computer cannot do any useful job on its own. It can only work as per the set
of instructions issued. A computer will accept data in one form and produce it in another
form. The data is normally held within the computer as it is being processed.
COMPUTER SYSTEM
Definition
Computer System: Is a collection of entities (hardware, software and livewire) that are
designed to receive, process, manage and present information in a meaningful format.
Computer hardware: Are physical parts/ intangible parts of a computer. eg Input devices,
output devices, central processing unit and storage devices also known as to the physical,
tangible computer equipment and devices, which provide support for major functions such as
input, processing (internal storage, computation and control), output, secondary storage (for
data and programs), and communication.
Computer software: also known as programs or applications. They are classified into two
classes namely - system software and application software

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Liveware: is the computer user. Also kwon as orgwareor the humanware. The user
commands the computer system to execute on instructions.

A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output, process, and store data
and information. Computer systems are currently built around at least one digital processing
device. There are five main hardware components in a computer system: Input, Processing,
Storage, and Output and Communication devices

Theoretical learning Activity

✔ ………………………………. (example: ask trainees to brainstorm about……….
within groups)
✔ ……………………………….
✔ ……………………………….

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 Practical learning Activity
✔ …………………………………… (Example: Trainees in pair perform
…………………)

Points to Remember (Take home message)

Indicative content 1.2: Identification of main computer hardware components

specifications
Components of Computer System: Every computer system has the following three basic
components:
● Input unit
● Central processing unit
● Output unit
Input Unit
Input Unit Are devices used for entering data or instructions to the central processing unit.
This unit creates a link between the user and the computer. These components help users
enter data and commands into a computer system. Data can be in the form
of numbers, words, actions, commands, etc. The main function of input devices is to direct
commands and data into computers. Computers then use their CPU to process this data and
produce output. For example, a laptop’s keyboard is an input unit that enters numbers and
characters. Similarly, even a mouse can be an input unit for entering directions and
commands. Other examples include barcode readers, Magnetic Ink Character Readers
(MICR), Optical Character Readers (OCR), etc. Another example of input devices is touch-
screens. Users can simply touch these screens without using any other device to enter
commands. From smartphones to ATM machines, these input devices are becoming very
popular these days.

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 POINTING DEVICES: Are devices that enter data and instructions into the computer using
a pointer that appears on the screen. The items to be entered are selected by either pointing to
or clicking on them .e.g mice, joystick, touch sensitive screen, trackballs.

i) THE MOUSE
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen.
Although mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual mouse.
It's small, oblong, and connected to the system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail and
the connector which can either be PS/2 or USB. Some newer mice are wireless.

C) SCANNING DEVICES
Are devices that capture an object or a document directly from the source. They are classify
according to the technology used to capture data e.g. Scanners and Document readers.
i) Scanners
Used to capture a source document and converts it into an electronic form.
Example are - FlatBed and HandHeld scanner.

ii) Document readers

Are documents that reads data directly from source document and convey them as input in
the form of electronic signal.

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Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer:
⮚ Keyboard
⮚ Mouse
⮚ Joy Stick
⮚ Light pen
⮚ Track Ball
⮚ Scanner
⮚ Graphic Tablet
⮚ Microphone
⮚ Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
⮚ Optical Character Reader(OCR)
⮚ Bar Code Reader
⮚ Optical Mark Reader(OMR) Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are
some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or
108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

After receiving data and commands from users, a computer system now has to process it
according to the instructions provided. Here, it has to rely on a component called the central
processing unit. The CPU further uses these three elements:

a) Memory Unit: Once a user enters data using input devices, the computer system stores
this data in its memory unit. This data will now remain here until other components of
CPU process it. The memory unit uses a set of pre-programmed instructions to further
transmit this data to other parts of the CPU

Functions of the memory unit are :

● It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
● It stores intermediate results of processing.
● It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.

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 ● All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory. Memory is
primarily.
b) Arithmetic and Logic Unit

This part of the CPU performs arithmetic operations. It does basic mathematical
calculations like addition, subtraction, division, multiplication, etc. Further, it can even
perform logical functions like the comparison of data.

c) Control Unit

This unit is the backbone of computers. It is responsible for coordinating tasks between all
components of a computer system. The control unit collects data from input units and sends it
to processing units depending on its nature. Finally, it also further transmits processed data to
output units for users.

Functions of Control Unit

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

• CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

• CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
• It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
• It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box placed on or
underneath your desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that process data. The
most important of these components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor,
which acts as the "brain" of your computer. Another component is random access memory
(RAM), which temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the computer is on.
The information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is turned off.

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Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The
cables plug into specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware
that is not part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral device. Peripheral devices
can be external such as a mouse, keyboard, printer, monitor, external Zip
drive or scanner or internal, such as a CD-ROM drive, CD-R drive or internal modem.
Internal peripheral devices are often referred to as integrated peripherals. There are two types
according to shape: tower and desktop.
Tower System Unit or Desktop System Unit

A motherboard (mainboard, system board, planar board or logic board) is the main printed
circuit board found in computers and other expandable systems. It holds many of the crucial
electronic components of the system, such as the central processing unit (CPU) and memory,
and provides connectors for other peripherals.

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TYPES OF PROCESSORS
I) Comples Instruction Set Computers (CISC)
ii) Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC)

FUNCTIONS OF CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

✔ Process data
✔ Control sequence of operaions within the computers
✔ It gives command to all parts of a main memory in storing of data and instructions
✔ it provides temporary storage (RAM) and permanent storage(ROM) of data
✔ This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies
information to other units of the computer when computer
✔ It control the use of the
✔ needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary
storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).
✔ Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory
are two types of memories in the computer.
Functionalities of a computer:
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:
⮚ Takes data as input
⮚ Stores data /instructions in its memory and use them when required.
⮚ Processes the data and converts it into useful information
⮚ Generates the output
⮚ Controls all above four steps

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 ● Chipsets
Compute Chipset. is a silicon backbone integrated into the motherboard that works with
specific CPU generations. It relays communications between the CPU and the many connected
storage and expansion devices. A motherboard is a PCB that connects all components of the
computer. In older computers, all the chips were spread across the motherboard. In modern
computers, the number of chips is reduced and centralized into particular locations. Therefore,
multiple chips are combined together to form one single chip. This chip that can replace a large
number of chips is called a chipset. There is a chipset in the motherboard. Chipset handles the
communication between various components such as CPU, peripherals, and buses. Northbridge
and Southbridge are two chips in the chipset.

How to identify your PC’s chipset?

When looking at the name of the motherboard, the chipset is the letter and number
combination following the brand name. So, for an AMD 1st Gen Ryzen X300, the “X300” is
the chipset.
You can also use your Device Manager to find it.
● Type "Device Manager" into the search bar in your Start Menu
● Click to expand "System Devices"
● Look for any of the following brand names: ALI, AMD, Intel®, NVIDIA®, VIA, or SIS
● The letter and number combo should be included in the chipset or motherboard listing
The chipset determines important factors for how you compute, including expansion ability,
compatibility, and overclocking. While not all will apply to your unique situation, it’s good to
familiarize yourself with these functions. Here is how the chipset you choose impacts each
factor:
1. Expansion and chipset lanes
If you want to expand your PC to enjoy better graphics, faster connectivity, or more memory,
make sure your chipset supports it. There are only so many “lanes” on a chipset, usually
between 8 and 40, and these lanes are two-way, wired connections that send data back and
forth between things like a graphics card and the chipset (and then on to the motherboard).
Each component may take up many lanes, and some even take up 16 lanes at once. If your
chipset doesn’t have room for everything you want to connect, you can forget about the

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expansion. You have to make sure that both the motherboard and the chipset have the room
to make your setup work.
2. Compatibility
It can be tricky to determine if your PC is compatible with the graphics card or processor you
want. If you like to do your own upgrades, it’s not as simple as just picking up the product all
your friends are raving about and plugging it into the motherboard.
That’s because not all older motherboards support newer lane formats, such as PCIe® 4.0
compatibility. If they don’t, you can’t simply buy new components and trust they’ll work.
Most motherboard manufacturers have compatibility charts to help you know for sure,
like AMD’s chart for the B550 chipset.

3. Overclocking
Keep in mind that overclocking can void your manufacturer warranty, so do some research
before you get started. If you decide to do it, the right (or wrong) chipset can be the
difference between achieving those speeds you want and being disappointed.
What is Northbridge
Northbridge is located in the northern section of the motherboard. It is also known as the host
bridge. It is directly connected to the CPU, RAM, AGP, and PCI Express slots. If it is required
for the CPU to communicate with AGP or PCI express slots etc., the communication occurs
via the Northbridge. Usually, Northbridge operates at a faster speed as it connects to high-
speed components in the computer.
What is Southbridge
Southbridge is located in the southern section of the motherboard. It connects
the components such as PCI bus slots, BIOS, SATA and IDE connectors and USB
ports. There is no direct connection between the CPU and the southern section
of the motherboard. If components like PCI, USB etc. need to communicate with
the CPU, the information has to go through the Southbridge, then Northbridge
and finally to the CPU

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There is no direct connection between the CPU and the southern section of the
motherboard. If components like PCI, USB etc. need to communicate with the
CPU, the information has to go through the Southbridge, then Northbridge and
finally to the CPU.

Difference between Northbridge and Southbridge

Definition
A Northbridge is a chip in the core logic chipset architecture on the northern section of the PC
motherboard. A Southbridge is a chip in the core logic chipset architecture on the southern
section of the PC motherboard. This is the basic difference between Northbridge and
Southbridge.

Location
As their names indicate, Northbridge is located in the northern section of the motherboard while
Southbridge is located in the southern section of the motherboard.

Connection to CPU
The main difference between Northbridge and Southbridge is in the connection to the CPU.
While Northbridge is directly connected to the CPU, Southbridge connects to the CPU via the
Northbridge.

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 Connecting Components
Northbridge connects to the CPU, RAM, AGP, PCI Express slots and Southbridge. On the
other hand, Southbridge connects to the PCI bus slots, BIOS, SATA and IDE connectors, USB
ports and Northbridge.

Operating Speed
Moreover, Northbridge operates faster than Southbridge. The difference between
Northbridge and Southbridge is that Northbridge is a chip in the chipset of a motherboard that
directly connects to the CPU while Southbridge is a chip in the chipset of a motherboard that
does not directly connect to the CPU. In brief, Northbridge connects to faster components and
Southbridge connects to the slower components.

● Memory
Memory is the electronic holding place for the instructions and data a computer needs to
reach quickly. It's where information is stored for immediate use. Memory is one of the basic
functions of a computer, because without it, a computer would not be able to function
properly. Memory is also used by a computer's operating system, hardware and software.
There are technically two types of computer memory: primary and secondary. The
term memory is used as a synonym for primary memory or as an abbreviation for a specific
type of primary memory called random access memory (RAM). This type of memory is
located on microchips that are physically close to a computer's microprocessor.
If a computer's central processer (CPU) had to only use a secondary storage device,
computers would become much slower. In general, the more memory (primary memory) a
computing device has, the less frequently the computer must access instructions and data
from slower (secondary) forms of storage.

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Memory is primarily of three types:
❖ Cache Memory
❖ Primary Memory/Main Memory
❖ Secondary Memory Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU.
It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of
data and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and
programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where
the CPU can access them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows :
• Cache memory is faster than main memory.
• It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
• It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
• It stores data for temporary use. Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows :
• Cache memory has limited capacity.
• It is very expensive.
PRIMARY MEMORY (MAIN MEMORY)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers.
The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory.
It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

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 ● These are semiconductor memories.
● It is known as the main memory.
● Usually volatile memory.
● Data is lost in case power is switched off.
● It is the working memory of the computer.
● Faster than secondary memories.
● A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
SECONDARY MEMORY
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the
main memory.
These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these
memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For
example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
• These are magnetic and optical memories.
• It is known as the backup memory.
• It is a non-volatile memory.
• Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
• It is used for storage of data in a computer.
• Computer may run without the secondary memory.
• Slower than primary memories.
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is
working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can
hold.

RAM is of two types :

• Static RAM (SRAM)
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Static RAM (SRAM)

Memory vs. storage

The concept of memory and storage can be easily conflated as the same concept; however,
there are some distinct and important differences. Put succinctly, memory is primary
memory, while storage is secondary memory. Memory refers to the location of short-term
data, while storage refers to the location of data stored on a long-term basis.
Memory is most often referred to as the primary storage on a computer, such as RAM.
Memory is also where information is processed. It enables users to access data that is stored
for a short time. The data is only stored for a short time because primary memory is volatile,
meaning it isn't retained when the computer is turned off.

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The term storage refers to secondary memory and is where data in a computer is kept. An
example of storage is a hard drive or a hard disk drive (HDD). Storage is nonvolatile,
meaning the information is still there after the computer is turned off and then back on. A
running program may be in a computer's primary memory when in use -- for fast retrieval of
information -- but when that program is closed, it resides in secondary memory or storage.
How much space is available in memory and storage differs as well. In general, a computer
will have more storage space than memory. For example, a laptop may have 8 GB of RAM
while having 250 GB of storage. The difference in space is there because a computer will not
need fast access to all the information stored on it at once, so allocating approximately 8 GB
of space to run programs will suffice.
The terms memory and storage can be confusing because their usage today is not always
consistent. For example, RAM can be referred to as primary storage -- and types of secondary
storage can include flash memory. To avoid confusion, it can be easier to talk about memory
in terms of whether it is volatile or nonvolatile -- and storage in terms of whether it is primary
or secondary.
How does computer memory work?
When a program is open, it is loaded from secondary memory to primary memory. Because
there are different types of memory and storage, an example of this could be a program being
moved from a solid-state drive (SSD) to RAM. Because primary storage is accessed faster,
the opened program will be able to communicate with the computer's processor at quicker
speeds. The primary memory can be accessed immediately from temporary memory slots or
other storage locations.
Memory is volatile, which means that data in memory is stored temporarily. Once a
computing device is turned off, data stored in volatile memory will automatically be deleted.
When a file is saved, it will be sent to secondary memory for storage.
There are multiple types of memory available to a computer. It will operate differently
depending on the type of primary memory used, but in general, semiconductor-based memory
is most associated with memory. Semiconductor memory will be made of integrated circuits
with silicon-based metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) transistors.
Types of computer memory
In general, memory can be divided into primary and secondary memory; moreover, there are
numerous types of memory when discussing just primary memory. Some types of primary
memory include the following
Cache memory. This temporary storage area, known as a cache, is more readily available to
the processor than the computer's main memory source. It is also called CPU
memory because it is typically integrated directly into the CPU chip or placed on a separate
chip with a bus interconnect with the CPU.
● RAM. The term is based on the fact that any storage location can be accessed directly by
the processor.
● Dynamic RAM. DRAM is a type of semiconductor memory that is typically used by the
data or program code needed by a computer processor to function.
● Static RAM. SRAM retains data bits in its memory for as long as power is supplied to it.
Unlike DRAM, which stores bits in cells consisting of a capacitor and a transistor, SRAM
does not have to be periodically refreshed.
● Double Data Rate SDRAM. DDR SRAM is SDRAM that can theoretically improve
memory clock speed to at least 200 MHz.

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 ● Double Data Rate 4 Synchronous Dynamic RAM. DDR4 RAM is a type of DRAM
that has a high-bandwidth interface and is the successor to its previous DDR2 and DDR3
versions. DDR4 RAM allows for lower voltage requirements and higher module density.
It is coupled with higher data rate transfer speeds and allows for dual in-line memory
modules (DIMMS) up to 64 GB.
● Rambus Dynamic RAM. DRDRAM is a memory subsystem that promised to transfer
up to 1.6 billion bytes per second. The subsystem consists of RAM, the RAM controller,
the bus that connects RAM to the microprocessor and devices in the computer that use it.
● Read-only memory. ROM is a type of computer storage containing nonvolatile,
permanent data that, normally, can only be read and not written to. ROM contains the
programming that enables a computer to start up or regenerate each time it is turned on.
● Programmable ROM. PROM is ROM that can be modified once by a user. It enables a
user to tailor a microcode program using a special machine called a PROM programmer.
● Erasable PROM. EPROM is programmable read-only memory PROM that can be
erased and re-used. Erasure is caused by shining an intense ultraviolet light through a
window designed into the memory chip.
● Electrically erasable PROM. EEPROM is a user-modifiable ROM that can be erased
and reprogrammed repeatedly through the application of higher than normal electrical
voltage. Unlike EPROM chips, EEPROMs do not need to be removed from the computer
to be modified. However, an EEPROM chip must be erased and reprogrammed in its
entirety, not selectively.
● Virtual memory. A memory management technique where secondary memory can be
used as if it were a part of the main memory. Virtual memory uses hardware and software
to enable a computer to compensate for physical memory shortages by temporarily
transferring data from RAM to disk storage.

✔ Output Unit
An output device can receive data from another device and generate output with that data, but
it cannot send data to another device.There are many outputs created by a computer system.
These include printed documents, on-screen data and sound. An output device allows data to
be transmitted by the computer in a human-friendly form, for example, sound being played
through a speaker.

● Monitor - The main output device of a computer. It forms images by converting electrical
energy into light in the form of tiny dots on the screen called pixels. The sharpness of the
image depends upon the number of pixels.
● Printer - Used to print information on paper. Commonly uses either lasers or inkjets to
precisely place ink onto the page to recreate text and high-quality images.
● Speaker - Converts digital signals into audible sound waves.
● Projector - A device that is used to project video output from the computer onto a wall or
screen.
Examples of Output Devices

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Monitor – This is the most common computer output device. It creates a visual display by
the use of which users can view processed data. Monitors come in various sizes and
resolutions.
Common Types of Monitors

● Cathode Ray Tube – this uses phosphorescent dots to generate the pixels that
constitute displayed images.
● Flat Panel Screen – this makes use of liquid crystals or plasma to produce output.
Light is passed through the liquid crystals in order to generate pixels.
All monitors depend on a video card, which is positioned either on the computer motherboard
or in a special expansion slot. The video card sorts out the computer data into image details
that the monitors can then show.

Printer – this device generates a hard copy version of processed data, like documents and
photographs. The computer transmits the image data to the printer, which then physically
recreates the image, typically on paper.
Types of Printers

● Ink Jet – this kind of printer sprays tiny dots of ink onto a surface to form an image.
● Laser – this type utilises toner drums that roll through magnetized pigment, and then
transfers the pigment onto a surface.
● Dot Matrix – dot matrix printers utilise a print head to set images on a surface, using
an ink ribbon. These printers were commonly used between 1980 and
Speakers – speakers are attached to computers to facilitate the output of sound; sound cards
are required in the computer for speakers to function. The different kinds of speakers range
from simple, two-speaker output devices right the way up to surround-sound multi-channel
units.
Headset – this is a combination of speakers and a microphone. It is mostly used by gamers
and is also a great tool for communicating with family and friends over the internet using
some VOIP program or other.
Projector – this is a display device that projects a computer-created image onto another
surface: usually some sort of whiteboard or wall. The computer transmits the image data to
its video card, which then sends the video image to the projector. It is most often used for
presentations, or for viewing videos.
Plotter – this generates a hard copy of a digitally depicted design. The design is sent to the
plotter through a graphics card, and the design is formed by using a pen. It is generally used
with engineering applications and essentially draws a given image using a series of straight
lines.
Input/Output Devices
Input/Output devices don’t only produce output, but can also be used
as storage and input devices. The computer transmits data to the drive, where it is saved and
can be later accessed.
Examples of I/O devices are CD drives, DVD drives, USB drives, hard disk drives (HDDs),
and floppy disk drives.

CDs and DVDs are two kinds of optical disc that save data in a digital format. Data is written
onto the disc using a laser writer that embeds the data directly into the disc’s coating.

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A floppy disk is a magnetic storage device. A layer of a magnetised material is placed within
a proactive plastic casing. The computer then embeds the data into the magnetized material,
by using a writing head.

Difference between Input and Output Devices of Computer

The computer operates smoothly with the help of both input and output devices. CPU plays a
vital role in making a bridge between the input and output devices. Here the complete
comparison of input and output devices of computers is explained below.

Indicative content 1.3: Connection of computer peripherals

✔ Identification of computer peripherals

What is a peripheral device?

A peripheral device is a device that either enters information into a computer system or
receives information from the computer system. The normal workflow of a computer
system is the following.
It receives data and commands from the user, processes the data according to the given
commands, presents the processed data to the user, and stores or prints the processed data if
the user gives a command to save or print. Except for the components that process the given
data, all other components of a computer system are known as peripheral devices
In simple words, if a hardware component is not part of the core components and is used either
to put information into the computer system or to get information from the computer system,
then it is a peripheral device. The core components of a computer system are the components
that control the computer system and process the data.

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 ✔ A computer system can function without peripheral devices but it cannot
function without core components. Examples of core components are CPU,
motherboard, power supply, RAM, and ROM. Keyboard, mouse, monitor,
printer, scanner, and USB drive are examples of peripheral devices.
Types of peripheral devices
Peripheral devices are classified into three types. These types are input devices, output devices,
and input/output devices.

An input device inserts data or commands into the computer system. A keyboard, mouse,
scanner, barcode reader, digital pen, webcam, microphone are some examples of input devices.

An output device receives the processed data from the computer system and presents that data
to the user. A monitor, printer, speaker, headphone, and projector are some examples of output
devices.

An input/output device can perform both input and output functions. A hard drive, USB drive,
memory card, tape drive, and NIC are some examples of input/output devices.

Examples of peripheral devices

So far we have discussed what a peripheral device is and how many types of peripheral device
are. Now, let's discuss some most common peripheral devices and their functions

Keyboard
A keyboard is the most common and important input device. It allows the user to enter letters,
numbers, and symbols. When a user presses a key on a keyboard, the keyboard sends a
unique signal to the computer. The processing unit of the computer receives the signal and
translates the signal to know which key is pressed.

22
 Mouse
A mouse is another important input9;; device. It uses point-and-click technology to
interact with the system. Most mice have two buttons and a scroll wheel between
them. To track motion, a ball was used in older mice. Modern mice use laser light to
track motion.

Webcam
A webcam is a popular input device. It captures live videos and photos. Usually, it is
inbuilt on laptops and tablets. Mostly, it is used for video calls and live presentations

23
 Scanner

A scanner is another popular input device. It is used to scan documents. Normally, it is

used to save and use a soft copy of the document.

Monitor: A monitor is one of the most important output devices. It receives output from the
processing unit and displays that output. The output displayed on the monitor is temporary.
Because of this, the output displayed on the monitor is called the soft copy of the output. To
make it permanent, you have to store it on other output devices.

24
 Printer
A printer is another important output device. It prints the given output. After printing, the
output is permanently stored on the paper. Because of this, the output printed on the paper
is called the hard copy of the output. There are mainly three types of printers: dot-matrix,
inkjet, and laser. A dot printer uses pins and an ink-coated ribbon for printing. An inkjet
printer uses liquid ink for printing while a laser printer uses a laser toner for printing
Speaker
A speaker is a popular output device. It plays the audio output signals. Laptops and
tablets have inbuilt speakers. On desktop computers, they can be attached via ports

Hard disk
A hard disk is the most important input/output device. It provides both input and
output functionalities. When a computer reads data from the hard disk, the hard disk
provides input functionality. When the computer stores data on the hard disk, the hard
disk provides output functionality.

STORAGE DEVICES (Non-Volatile)

Device Type
hard drive magnetic disk
SSD flash memory
USB drive flash memory
SD Card flash memory
CompactFlash flash memory
CD-R optical disc
DVD-R optical disc
DVD-RAM optical disc
magnetic tape tape cartridge

MEMORY CHIPS (Volatile)

Type Chip Type

dynamic RAM DRAM chips
static RAM SRAM chips

25
 USB drive:
USB drives are another popular input/output device. They are compact and small. They
are mostly used to transfer data between computers that are not connected. When
you transfer data from a computer to the USB drive, the USB drive provides output
functionality. When you transfer data from a USB drive to the computer, the USB drive
provides input functionality.

NIC
NIC stands for the network interface card. A NIC is an input/output device. A computer
uses a NIC to connect the network. When the computer sends data to the network, it
uses the output function of the NIC. When the computer receives data from the
network, it uses the input function of the NIC.

26
 ✔ Identification of computer ports and connectors

✔ Computer Ports and Their Functions

A Computer Port is an interface or a point of connection between the
computer and its peripheral devices. Some of the common peripherals are
mouse, keyboard, monitor or display unit, printer, speaker, flash drive etc.

The main function of a computer port is to act as a point of attachment,

where the cable from the peripheral can be plugged in and allows data to
flow from and to the device.

27
A computer port is also called as a Communication Port as it is responsible
for communication between the computer and its peripheral device.
Generally, the female end of the connector is referred to as a port and it
usually sits on the motherboard.

In Computers, communication ports can be divided into two types based

on the type or protocol used for communication. They are Serial Ports and
Parallel Ports.

A serial port is an interface through which peripherals can be connected

using a serial protocol which involves the transmission of data one bit at a
time over a single communication line. The most common type of serial
port is a D-Subminiature or a D-sub connector that carry RS-232 signals.

A parallel port, on the other hand, is an interface through which the

communication between a computer and its peripheral device is in a
parallel manner i.e. data is transferred in or out in parallel using more
than one communication line or wire. Printer port is an example of
parallel port.

A brief introduction to different types of ports along with their applications

PS/2
PS/2 connector is developed by IBM for connecting mouse and keyboard.
It was introduced with IBM’s Personal Systems/2 series of computers and
hence the name PS/2 connector. PS/2 connectors are color coded as
purple for keyboard and green for mouse.

28
PS/2 is a 6-pin DIN connector. The pin out diagram of a PS/2 female
connector is shown below

Even though the pinout of both mouse and keyboard PS/2 ports are same,
computers do not recognize the devise when connected to wrong port.

PS/2 port is now considered a legacy port as USB port has superseded it
and very few of the modern motherboards include it as a legacy port.

Serial Port
Even though the communication in PS/2 and USB is serial, technically, the
term Serial Port is used to refer the interface that is compliant to RS-232
standard. There are two types of serial ports that are commonly found on
a computer: DB-25 and DE-9.

DB-25
DB-25 is a variant of D-sub connector and is the original port for RS-232
serial communication. They were developed as the main port for serial
connections using RS-232 protocol but most of the applications did not
require all the pins.

Hence, DE-9 was developed for RS-232 based serial communication while
DB-25 was rarely used as a serial port and often used as a parallel printer
port as a replacement of the Centronics Parallel 36 pin connector.

29
DE-9 or RS-232 or COM Port
DE-9 is the main port for RS-232 serial communication. It is a D-sub
connector with E shell and is often miscalled as DB-9. A DE-9 port is also
called as a COM port and allows full duplex serial communication between
the computer and it’s peripheral.

Some of the applications of DE-9 port are serial interface with mouse,
keyboard, modem, uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) and other
external RS-232 compatible devices.

The pinout diagram of DE-9 port is shown below.

The use of DB-25 and DE-9 ports for communication is in decline and are
replaced by USBs or other ports.

30
 Parallel Port or Centronics 36 Pin Port
Parallel port is an interface between computer and peripheral devices like
printers with parallel communication. The Centronics port is a 36 pin port
that was developed as an interface for printers and scanners and hence a
parallel port is also called as a Centronics port.

Before the wide use of USB ports, parallel ports are very common in
printers. The Centronics port was later replaced by DB-25 port with
parallel interface.

Audio Ports
Audio ports are used to connect speakers or other audio output devices
with the computer. The audio signals can be either analogue or digital and
depending on that the port and its corresponding connector differ.

Surround Sound Connectors or 3.5 mm TRS Connector

It is the most commonly found audio port that can be used to connect
stereo headphones or surround sound channels. A 6 connector system is
included on majority of computers for audio out as well as a microphone
connection.

The 6 connectors are color coded as Blue, Lime, Pink, Orange, Black and
Grey. These 6 connectors can be used for a surround sound configuration
of up to 8 channels.

31
 S/PDIF / TOSLINK
The Sony/Phillips Digital Interface Format (S/PDIF) is an audio interconnect
used in home media. It supports digital audio and can be transmitted
using a coaxial RCA Audio cable or an optical fiber TOSLINK connector.

Most computers home entertainment systems are equipped with S/PDIF

over TOSLINK. TOSLINK (Toshiba Link) is most frequently used digital
audio port that can support 7.1 channel surround sound with just one
cable. In the following image, the port on the right is an S/PDIF port.

32
 Video Ports
VGA Port
VGA port is found in many computers, projectors, video cards and High
Definition TVs. It is a D-sub connector consisting of 15 pins in 3 rows. The
connector is called as DE-15.

VGA port is the main interface between computers and older CRT
monitors. Even the modern LCD and LED monitors support VGA ports but
the picture quality is reduced. VGA carries analogue video signals up to a
resolution of 648X480.

With the increase in use of digital video, VGA ports are gradually being
replaced by HDMI and Display Ports. Some laptops are equipped with on-
board VGA ports in order to connect to external monitors or projectors.
The pinout of a VGA port is shown below.

33
 Digital Video Interface (DVI)
DVI is a high speed digital interface between a display controller like a
computer and a display device like a monitor. It was developed with an
aim of transmitting lossless digital video signals and replace the analogue
VGA technology.

34
There are three types of DVI connectors based on the signals it can carry:
DVI-I, DVI-D and DVI-A. DVI-I is a DVI port with integrated analogue and
digital signals. DVI-D supports only digital signals and DVI-A supports only
analogue signals.

The digital signals can be either single link or dual link where a single link
supports a digital signal up to 1920X1080 resolution and a dual link
supports a digital signal up to 2560X1600 resolution. The following image
compares the structures of DVI-I, DVI-D and DVI-A types along with the
pinouts.

Mini-DVI
Mini-DVI port is developed by Apple as an alternative to Mini-VGA port and
is physically similar to one. It is smaller than a regular DVI port.

It is a 32 pin port and is capable of transmitting DVI, composite, S-Video

and VGA signals with respective adapters. The following image shows a
Mini-DVI port and its compatible cable.

35
Micro-DVI
Micro-DVI port, as the name suggests is physically smaller than Mini-DVI
and is capable of transmitting only digital signals.

This port can be connected to external devices with DVI and VGA
interfaces and respective adapters are required. In the following image, a
Micro-DVI port can be seen adjacent to headphone and USB ports.

36
 Display Port
Display Port is a digital display interface with optional multiple channel
audio and other forms of data. Display Port is developed with an aim of
replacing VGA and DVI ports as the main interface between a computer
and monitor.

The latest version DisplayPort 1.3 can handle a resolution up to 7680 X

4320.

The Display Port has a 20 pin connector, which is a very less number when
compared to DVI port and offers better resolution. The pin out diagram of
a Display Port is shown below.

37
Update: DisplayPort 1.4a is the latest (in production) version of
DisplayPort Specification with support for 4K (3840 x 2160) at 120 Hz or 8K
(7680 x 4320) at 60 Hz. An improved DisplayPort version 2.0 specification
is released in June of 2019 with an increased bandwidth of 77.37 Gbps
(approximately).

Mini DisplayPort
Apple introduced a miniature version of DisplayPort and called it Mini
DisplayPort (mDP or Mini DP). Even though Mini DisplayPort has 20 pins,
the physical size of the connector is smaller than a regular DisplayPort and
the pin out is also different.

Most laptops provide Mini DisplayPort as an additional video out option in

addition to HDMI.

RCA Connector
RCA Connector can carry composite video and stereo audio signals over
three cables. Composite video transmits analogue video signals and the
connector is as yellow colored RCA connector.

The video signals are transmitted over a single channel along with the line
and frame synchronization pulses at a maximum resolution of 576i
(standard resolution).

The red and white connectors are used for stereo audio signals (red for
right channel and white for left channel).

38
 Component Video
Component Video is an interface where the video signals are split into
more than two channels and the quality of the video signal is better that
Composite video.

Like composite video, component video transmits only video signals and
two separate connectors must be used for stereo audio. Component video
port can transmit both analogue and digital video signals.

The ports of the commonly found Component video uses 3 connectors

and are color coded as Green, Blue and Red.

39
 S-Video
S-Video or Separate Video connector is used for transmitting only video
signals. The picture quality is better than that of Composite video but has
a lesser resolution than Component video.

The S-Video port is generally black in color and is present on all TVs and
most computers. S-Video port looks like a PS/2 port but consists of only 4
pins.

Out of the 4 pins, one pin is used to carry the intensity signals (black and
white) and other pin is used to carry color signals. Both these pins have
their respective ground pins. The pinout diagram of an S-Video port is
shown below.

40
 HDMI
HDMI is an abbreviation of High Definition Media Interface. HDMI is a
digital interface to connect High Definition and Ultra High Definition
devices like Computer monitors, HDTVs, Blu-Ray players, gaming consoles,
High Definition Cameras etc.

HDMI can be used to carry uncompressed video and compressed or

uncompressed audio signals. The HDMI port of type A is shown below.

41
The HDMI connector consists of 19 pins and the latest version of HDMI i.e.
HDMI 2.0 can carry digital video signal up to a resolution of 4096×2160
and 32 audio channels. The pinout diagram of an HDMI port is as follows.

42
Update: The latest version of HDMI is 2.1 with much improved bandwidth,
resolution and support from video card manufacturers. While HDMI 2.0
has a data bandwidth of 18 Gbps, the HDMI 2.1 has a staggering 48 Gbps
of bandwidth. Coming to the display resolution, HDMI 2.1 supports 4K and
8K at 120 Hz refresh rate. Most modern (at least high end) graphics cards
like Nvidia RTX 3090 provide at least a couple of HDMI 2.1 Ports to connect
with monitors and TVs.

43
Mini HDMI
With HDMI 1.3 Version, a new HDMI Port and Connector combination is
released called the Mini HDMI. Physically, it is smaller than a regular HDMI
Port but has same 19 Pin. Intended for portable devices like laptops,
cameras, camcorders, the Mini HDMI Port isn’t that popular.

Micro HDMI
HDMI developers introduced a new HDMI Connector and Port called Micro
HDMI with HDMI Version 1.4. Micro HDMI also has 19 pins (just like
regular HDMI and Mini HDMI) but the pinout is different.

Micro HDMI is often used in cameras, single board computers (like

Raspberry Pi 4), etc. where physically it is difficult to include a regular
HDMI port.

The size of Micro HDMI is significantly smaller than regular HDMI and has
some resemblance to a micro–USB Port (sometimes people confuse
among the two). The port on the left is a micro USB port and the one on
the right is a micro HDMI Port.

44
 USB
Universal Serial Bus (USB) replaced serial ports, parallel ports, PS/2
connectors, game ports and power chargers for portable devices.

USB port can be used to transfer data, act as an interface for peripherals
and even act as power supply for devices connected to it. There are three
kinds of USB ports: Type A, Type B or mini USB and Micro USB.

USB Type A
USB Type-A port is a 4 pin connector. There are different versions of Type
– A USB ports: USB 1.1, USB 2.0 and USB 3.0. USB 3.0 is the common
standard and supports a data rate of 400MBps.

USB 3.1 is also released and supports a data rate up to 10Gbps. Usually,
but not all the times, the USB 2.0 is Black color coded and USB 3.0 is Blue.
The following image shows USB 2.0 and USB 3.0 ports.

The pinout diagram of USB Type – A port is shown below. The pinout is
common to all standards of Type – A.

45
USB Type C
USB Type – C is the latest specification of the USB and is a reversible
connector. USB Type – C is supposed to replace Types A and B and is
considered future proof.

The port of USB Type – C consists of 24 pins. The pinout diagram of USB
Type – C is shown below. The latest USB Specifications (USB4) is an USB-C
only specification i.e., only USB type C devices can be used with USB4
specifications.

46
In the latest USB4 specification, USB Type C Devices can support speeds
up to 40 Gbps.

USB Power Delivery specifications allow USB devices to supply power to

devices connected to the USB Port. USB Type – C can handle a current of
5A at 20V (only Power Delivery certified USB Type-C Ports).

This feature of handling high current is used in the latest Fast Charging
Technology where a Smart Phone’s battery will reach its full charge is very
less time. So, USB Type C Ports can provide up to 100W of power (which
can be used for charging mobile phones and laptops).

In fact, the latest Apple M1 Mac Books use 61W USB C Power Adapter.

47
 RJ-45
Ethernet is a networking technology that is used to connect your
computer to Internet and communicate with other computers or
networking devices.

The interface that is used for computer networking and

telecommunications is known as Registered Jack (RJ) and RJ – 45 port in
particular is used for Ethernet over cable. RJ-45 connector is an 8 pin – 8
contact (8P – 8C) type modular connector.

The latest Ethernet technology is called Gigabit Ethernet and supports a

data transfer rate of over 10Gigabits per second. The Ethernet or a LAN
port with 8P – 8C type connector along with the male RJ-45 cable is shown
below.

The un-keyed 8P – 8C modular connector is generally referred to the

Ethernet RJ-45. Often, RJ-45 ports are equipped with two LEDs for
indicating transmission and packet detection.

As mentioned earlier, an Ethernet RJ-45 port has 8 pins and the following
picture depicts the pinout of one.

48
 RJ-11
RJ-11 is another type of Registered Jack that is used as an interface for
telephone, modem or ADSL connections. Even though computers are
almost never equipped with an RJ-11 port, they are the main interface in
all telecommunication networks.

RJ-45 and RJ11 ports look alike but RJ-11 is a smaller port and uses a 6
point – 4 contact (6P – 4C) connector even though a 6 point – 2 contact (6P

49
– 2C) is sufficient. The following is a picture of an RJ-11 port and its
compatible connector.

The following image can be used to compare RJ-45 and RJ-11 ports.

e-SATA
e-SATA is an external Serial AT Attachment connector that is used as an
interface for connecting external mass storage devices. Modern e-SATA
connector are called e-SATAp and stands for Power e-SATA ports.

50
They are hybrid ports capable of supporting both e-SATA and USB. Neither
the SATA organization nor the USB organization has officially approved the
e-SATAp port and must be used at user’s risk.

The above image is of an e-SATAp port. It shows that both e-SATA and USB
devices can be connected.

A connector is a device that terminates a segment of cabling or provides a point of entry for
networking devices such as computers, hubs, and routers.
With so many types of Connectors/Ports, it’s hard to find a singular source of information
that highlights the important differences between them all.
Here’s an overview of the most common computer
Connectors/Ports types you’ll encounter when dealing with computers.
1. VGA (Video Graphic Array)
Also known as D-sub cable, analog video cable

Connect one end to: computer monitor, television (PC input port)

51
2. DVI connector

Connect one end to: computer monitor

Connect other end to: DVI port on computer (see image below)

However there are 2 types of DVI, DVI-I and DVI-D.

DVI-D does not have the extra pins around the long pin, this is also a pure digital signal over
DVI-I.
3. HDMI connector

Connect one end to: computer monitor, television

Connect other end to: HDMI port on computer (see image below)
✔ Power connection

Computer Power Cord (Kettle Plug)

52
Alternatively known as a power cable, mains cable or flex, a power cord is the primary cable
that provides power to the computer, printer, monitor, and components within a computer.
The image is an example of the power cord that is commonly used with computers,
monitors, printers, and other peripherals.
DATA CABLES
Data cables: are an important part of a computer, as they provide a connection between
various hardware components. This enables a computer to communicate with its own
various parts. A data cable also enables a computer to communicate with additional
computers Basics

A data cable is, essentially, any type of media capable of carrying a binary electrical
communication signal. Binary data is a series of ones and zeros which are sent as an
electrical signal between two locations as following:
Inner Communication
A data cable allows communication between hardware components within a
computer. One example is a cable for a hard drive that connects a hard drive to a
motherboard. This enables the electrical transfer of data to and from the hard drive.
Network Communication
A data cable also allows communication between multiple computers across a
network. One example is an Ethernet cable that is used for connecting computers via a
network interface card connected to the computer.
Peripheral Cabling
Peripherals, such as printers and scanners and cameras, are also connected via a data
cable. These data cables may be USB or occasionally firewire. Other types of data
cables may also be used.

Theoretical learning Activity

✔ ………………………………. (example: ask trainees to brainstorm about……….
within groups)
✔ ……………………………….
✔ ……………………………….

Practical learning Activity

✔ …………………………………… (Example: Trainees in pair perform
…………………)

Points to Remember (Take home message)

53
 Indicative content 1.4. Perform computer system hardware testing

Theoretical learning Activity

✔ ………………………………. (example: ask trainees to brainstorm about……….
within groups)
✔ ……………………………….
✔ ……………………………….

Practical learning Activity

✔ …………………………………… (Example: Trainees in pair perform
…………………)

Points to Remember (Take home message)

Indicative content 1.4: Perform computer system hardware testing

54
Perform computer system hardware testing
Functionality testing can be performed on hardware or software products to verify that your
product functions as designed. The general purpose of hardware and software functionality
testing is to verify if the product performs as expected and documented, typically in
technical or functional specifications.
● Black box testing
● White box testing
● Grey Box Testing
A. Black-box testing
Black-box testing is a method of software testing that examines the functionality of an
application without peering into its internal structures or workings. This method of test can
be applied virtually to every level of software testing: unit, integration, system and
acceptance.
Black box testing involves testing a system with no prior knowledge of its internal workings.
A tester provides an input, and observes the output generated by the system under test. ...
Black box testing is a powerful testing technique because it exercises a system end-to-end.
Black box testing involves testing a system with no prior knowledge of its internal workings.
A tester provides an input, and observes the output generated by the system under test.
This makes it possible to identify how the system responds to expected and unexpected
user actions, its response time, usability issues and reliability issues.
Black box testing is a powerful testing technique because it exercises a system end-to-end.
Just like end-users “don’t care” how a system is coded or architected, and expect to receive
an appropriate response to their requests, a tester can simulate user activity and see if the
system delivers on its promises. Along the way, a black box test evaluates all relevant
subsystems, including UI/UX, web server or application server, database, dependencies, and
integrated systems. An example of a security technology that performs black box testing is
Dynamic Application Security Testing (DAST), which tests products in staging or production
and provides feedback on compliance and security issues.

Types of Black Box Testing

Black box testing can be applied to three main types of tests: functional, non-functional, and
regression testing.
1. Functional Testing

55
Black box testing can test specific functions or features of the software under test. For
example, checking that it is possible to log in using correct user credentials, and not possible
to log in using wrong credentials.
Functional testing can focus on the most critical aspects of the software (smoke
testing/sanity testing), on integration between key components (integration testing), or on
the system as a whole (system testing).
2. Non-Functional Testing
Black box testing can check additional aspects of the software, beyond features and
functionality. A non-functional test does not check “if” the software can perform a specific
action but “how” it performs that action.
Black box tests can uncover if software is:

● Usable and easy to understand for its users

● Performant under expected or peak loads
● Compatible with relevant devices, screen sizes, browsers or operating systems
● Exposed to security vulnerabilities or common security threats
Hardware testing is one of the final phases in the product development process that
validates the complete integration of the product. The purpose of the test is to
evaluate the end-to-end system specifications and provide information about the
quality of a product.
Hardware testing
Testing is needed to ensure that every component of a system is operating as it
should, and that the system is performing exactly in accordance with the specific
local requirements. A comprehensive structured testing program is one that ensures
that all aspects of a system are tested.

Equipment Tools Materials

PPEs, UPS, Computer, Multimeter, Tool Kits, Internet bundles,
Projector, Scanner, Electricity, Data cables,
Printer, Digital Camera. Cable ties, Power
extensions

56
 Theoretical learning Activity
✔ ………………………………. (example: ask trainees to brainstorm about……….
within groups)
✔ ……………………………….
✔ ……………………………….

Practical learning Activity

✔ …………………………………… (Example: Trainees in pair perform
…………………)

Points to Remember (Take home message)

Learning Outcome 2: Install computer firmware

Indicative contents (headings of indicative content from the module of the curriculum)
2.1. Description of computer firmware
2.2. Performing computer firmware installation
2.3. Maintain Computer firmware

57
 Duration: 15hrs

Learning outcome 2 objectives: (Performance criteria in affirmative form)

By the end of the learning outcome, the trainees will be able to:
1. Identify computer firmware based on hardware compatibility
2. Install Computer firmware based on hardware compatibility
3. Maintain effectively computer firmware based on hardware compatibility

Resources

Equipment Tools Materials

Power supply, USB 2.0,firmware,internet - Computer
Motherboard bundles

Indicative content 1.1: Description of computer firmware

✔ BIOS
What Does Firmware Mean?
What is firmware? Firmware is programming that's written to a hardware device's
non-volatile memory. Non-volatile...
Firmware is software that provides basic machine instructions that allow the
hardware to function and communicate with other software running on a device.
Firmware provides low-level control for a device's hardware.

58
Firmware is nothing but software that has been permanently installed in a
microchip, device, or machine, usually done by the manufacturer. Unlike the
usual standard software, to maintain, control or operate hardware in the
background, Firmware is required. Firmware is stored in ROM (Read Only
Memory) and without which basic computer devices would not work such as
keyboards, hard drives etc.

Introduction to Firmwares

Embedded software or embedded systems are also called Firmwares since

they are planted into the hardware. Hardware and software are different by
Firmwares, i.e., it exists between them. Like Hardware and Software, the
word Firmware can be used for indicating one or many. To implement
machine instructions, it uses lower-level instructions. Any computer program
tightly linked to hardware is referred to as Firmware, including processor
machine instructions for simple devices like remote controls, microwave
ovens, or computer peripherals. Firmwares are used in many devices found
in most people’s homes like consumer products, computer peripherals,
personal computers, automobiles, etc. Non-volatile memory devices like flash
memory, ROM, EPROM, EEPROM hold the Firmware.

For updating Firmware, physical replacement of ROM Integrated Circuits is

required, or through a special procedure, EPROM or flash memory are to be
reprogrammed. Some Firmware devices cannot be changed after
manufacturing, and they are permanently installed. Fixing bugs or adding
new features to the device are common reasons for updating the Firmware.

Let’s understand it with some examples. To detect a hard drive or video card
in a computer, Firmwares are required. For a hard drive to know how fast to
spin or when to stop, Embedded Firmwares are required. For a wireless
network card, Firmware is required to understand how to use a particular
radio frequency to connect to Wi-Fi.

Types of Firmware
Depending on the complexity of functionality and on where it is stored, there
are three types of Firmwares, listed below:

● Low-level Firmware
● High-level Firmware
● Subsystems
Low-level Firmwares
This software is stored on non-volatile memory chips like ROM, PROM, and
PLA. This level is considered an intrinsic part of the hardware since low-level
Firmware are stored on read-only chips that cannot be updated.

59
 High-level Firmwares
To allow for updates, this Firmwares are used with flash memory chips.
Compared to Low-level Firmware, they have often more complex instructions
and makes it closer to software than hardware.

Subsystems
Semi-independent unit of a larger system is called a Subsystem. Since this
level has its microcode embedded in CPU, LCD units, and flash chips, like
High-level Firmwares.

✔ Basic Input/output System (BIOS)

What Does Basic Input/output System (BIOS) Mean?
A basic input/output system (BIOS) is a preinstalled program used during
startup on Windows-based computers. The CPU initially accesses the
BIOS, after which the operating system is loaded.

A basic input/output system is also known as system BIOS or ROM BIOS.

The BIOS is built-in software that contains generic code required to

control the keyboard, display screens, disk drives and other functions.
The primary purpose of the BIOS is to set up hardware and further load
and start an operating system. BIOS is placed in a nonvolatile ROM chip
inside the computer, ensuring the availability of BIOS at all times and
preventing accidental disk failure. The BIOS checks every hardware
connection and locates the devices, after which the operating system is
loaded into computer memory.

BIOS software is designed to work with the various devices that make up
a complimentary system chipset. The BIOS library has certain functions
used to operate and control system peripherals, which can be initiated by
an external software.

Users using the BIOS user interface can perform functions such as:

● Setting the system clock

● Enabling and disabling certain system components
● Hardware configuration
● Selecting boot drives
● Set password prompts for secured access to BIOS user interface
function

Modern PCs have BIOS stored in rewritable memory, permitting contents

to be rewritten or replaced. Such content rewriting is called flashing and
is executed through a special program provided by system manufacturers.

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This also requires a test called a POST (Power-On Self-Test) to verify
whether the device meets the needs of booting correctly.

If the POST is not passed by the computer, a combination of beeps is

received which shows something is wrong with the machine.

The BIOS firmware is non-volatile, which means it saves and restores its
settings even after power from the system is disconnected.

The OS is mid-range software because it communicates with both high-

level software and hardware components directly via the drivers and BIOS.

In other words, the BIOS provides a variety of services that allow users to
configure and get direct information from hardware components inside
computers.

The BIOS serves as a mediator between the Input / Output devices (I / O

devices) and the CPU until the booting cycle is complete.

It is not necessary to have all the hardware details attached for the
Operating System or the process running on your computer.

All computer hardware specifics are known to the BIOS and are handled
by it.

The information must be communicated to the BIOS, whenever the IO

interface’s information changes.

Types of BIOS (Basic Input Output System)

There are two different types of BIOS –

● UEFI – UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) can

accommodate 2.2 TB or larger drives by using the Master Boot
Record (MBR) approach in place of the more modern GUID Partition
Table (GPT) technology. Although Intel PCs migrate away from
Legacy BIOS and towards UEFI firmware, BIOS has never been used
by Apple’s Mac PCs.

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 ● Legacy BIOS – Older motherboards have legacy firmware on the
BIOS to turn the PC on. Although it governs how the CPU and the
components communicate, like UEFI, Legacy BIOSes have other
limitations. These can’t identify drives bigger than 2.1 TB, and their
setup programs have text-only menus.
✔ Functions of BIOS (Basic Input Output System)
The BIOS is responsible for loading the OS and it contains various
instructions that are required to load the hardware.

Some of the major functions of BIOS are –

● POST–The first and foremost task of BIOS is to ensure the proper

functioning of the computer hardware, and there is no hardware
problem. Power-On Self-Check (POST) does this task efficiently. If the
POST test fails, the computer produces different forms of beeps to
show the error type. If the POST test is passed then it continues to
boot.
● Booting – Upon successfully running POST, the BIOS locates and
recognizes the operating system. The BIOS then transfers access to
Operating System when it detects one. This is called Booting.
● BIOS drivers – BIOS drivers are a set of programs that are stored in
the erasable memory chips which are non-volatile. The BIOS Drivers
supplies basic computer hardware information.
● BIOS Setup – Configuration software that allows you to configure
hardware settings including the device settings, computer
passwords, time and date. BIOS setup is also called a CMOS setup.
Advantages of updating the BIOS

Some of the reasons to update the BIOS are –

● Hardware updates – New BIOS updates would allow the

motherboard to correctly recognize new hardware including
processors, RAM, etc. If you have updated your processor, and the
BIOS does not recognize it, the answer could be a BIOS flash.
● Security updates – The new BIOS updates come with security
upgrades that help your BIOS withstand tampering and increase
awareness of viruses in the boot sector (if your motherboard
supports boot sector scanning).
● Increased stability – As bugs and other problems with
motherboards are discovered, the manufacturer will release BIOS
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 updates to address and rectify those bugs. This can directly affect
the data transfer and processing speed.
How to navigate to BIOS (Basic Input Output System)?

The BIOS is accessed via the BIOS Setup Utility and configured there.

All options available in BIOS are configurable via the BIOS Setup Utility.

Unlike an operating system such as Windows, which is often downloaded

or accessed on a disk and needs to be installed by the user or
manufacturer, BIOS comes installed as soon as the computer is
manufactured.

Depending on the make and model of your machine or motherboard the

BIOS Configuration Function is accessed in various ways.

1. Start your computer.

2. Monitor the first few seconds after turning on your machine for a
“Setup” alert. This message varies widely from computer to
computer and often contains the key or keys to access the BIOS that
you need to press. Here are some of the ways you might see this
message about BIOS access:
3. Press [key] to enter setup
4. Setup: [key]
5. Enter BIOS by pressing [key]
6. Press [key] to enter BIOS setup
7. Press [key] to access BIOS
8. Press [key] to access system configuration
9. We need to quickly press the instructed key.
10. BIOS setup utility can be used as required.
Note: To enter BIOS, you would need to click several times on the BIOS
access key. Do not hold the down key or press it too many times or your
device can mistake or lock up. If it does, just restart and try again.

How important is BIOS in a computer system?

The BIOS is the basic and essential portion of the Motherboard Firmware
and is in charge of checking and booting the hardware attached to the
device, thereby passing the computer control to the Operating system.

✔ Performing computer firmware installation

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 How to Install Firmware
Follow the steps below to install the Firmwares. Non-removal of the USB
Flash drive or not turning off the instrument’s power is necessary.

1. Download the Firmware.

2. Connect the device to the USB flash drive
3. Install it.
The zip file is downloaded to the computer. The computer is connected to a
USB flash drive and *.prg file is extracted and copied to the root directory of
your device. This is where you can find the downloaded files of the USB.
Now, install the Firmware by following the on screen instructions as series of
different messages will be displayed. Once the update is completed, you will
see a pop-up window which confirms that it is installed successfully. You can
now remove the USB drive from the slot.

How to Uninstall Firmware

Non-volatile memory like ROM, EPROM, PROM needs Firmware for operation
and functioning. Most devices get Firmwares updates regularly, but if
something goes wrong when you run an update, you cannot just uninstall it.
Instead of removing the Firmwares, you must replace it with another version
of the Firmware. So, the steps are shown below:

1. Another version of Firmwares are searched for your device on the internet.
Firmwares can be any version created by a third party like an older
version, a newer version, or an alternate version.
2. Download the required version onto your device or computer if possible.
3. The device is connected to your computer if needed, and the new
Firmware is made to run. The Firmware to run is double-clicked on it.
Select the location of its installation and click OK. The old Firmware will no
longer be on your system once the new Firmware finishes the installation.
How to Update Firmware on Mac OS
For the hardware on your Mac to run correctly, the instructions are provided
by the Firmwares. The instructions control many low-level functionalities like
thermal, power, and sleep management features. To improve the reliability
of the hardware and to add additional new features to your device, updates
to the Firmwares are essential.

New software and including updates to the Firmwares of Apple are provided
through the app store. If you are not sure about the current version of your
Mac Firmware, you can check the version number. Suppose the version is
outdated and a current update is not available in the app store updates

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section, then you can download and install the current version manually and
automatically, as shown below:

Automatic Update
To run the update automatically, follow the steps below:

1. From the drop-down menu, click the Apple menu and select “Software
Update”. This sends you to the updates section automatically by launching
the App Store. If requested for information, the administrator username
and password are provided.
2. In the update section click the “More” button next to any OS update
package and read the update description to see if it has the latest
Firmware.
3. Select the “Update” button next to the options containing the firmwares
updates. To update all available software, click the “Update All” button.
The administrator password and username are provided again. The update
of Firmwares on Mac OS are done automatically.
Manual Update
To run the update manually, follow the steps below:

1. Click the Apple menu, and from the drop-down menu, select “About this
Mac”.
2. Click the button “More Info” and select the “System Report” button.
3. In the sidebar, select the “Hardware” option, and in the “Model Identifier”
and “Boot ROM version” sections, note down the information. The Boot
ROM version information refers to the EFI (Extensible Firmware Interface)
Firmware version.
4. On the Apple support website, check the available Firmwares updates
table to determine if the EFI firmware new version is needed. Click the link
to download the Firmwares if the number for your Boot ROM version is
earlier than the one listed on the website for your Mac.
5. When it finishes downloading, double click the installation package and
update your Mac Firmwares; follow the prompts in the installer.
6. The “Shutdown” button is clicked. Hold down the power button until the
power indicator light blinks after the computer shuts down. The Apple logo
display and a long tone sound are heard with a progress bar indicating the
update progress after releasing the power button. The computer is
restarted and displays the message that the update is complete.
How to Update Firmware on Windows
When your computer gets an update, Microsoft has been installing drivers for
your device. By going to Computer Management, a user can update the
system firmwares manually. Also, some computer models may need to go to

65
their support page and manually install the Firmwares. Follow the steps
below to achieve the same.

1. Go to Computer Management by pressing Windows key+X. Select the

computer management. It can also be done by right clicking the Windows
Icon and then selecting Computer Management.
2. Select Device Manager. On the right side, go to the Firmware option. If
you do not find this, then your computer model is old, and you have to do
the update process manually. Then Right-click on System Firmware>
Select Update driver.
3. Then select the option Search automatically for updated driver software.
4. Now the windows will download automatically and search the Firmware for
you, then finish the install and restart your computer.
5. You should now see the new firmware version and model of your computer
after the firmware update.

Firmware is a type of software that is embedded directly in a piece

of hardware to make the hardware work as intended. Firmware is
programmed by the manufacturer and is installed on a digital device right
in the factory. All computing devices have firmware.

Firmware microcode comes in various complexities and can be found in

simple digital devices, like keyboards and more complex devices like
connected vehicles.

When a device is powered on, firmware sends instructions to the device's

processor to execute. If the device is as simple as a keyboard, the
firmware continues to execute as there is no software to replace it.
However, in more complex devices, such as PCs, laptops and tablets,
multiple firmware sets interact to achieve a common goal; load
the operating system.

Without firmware, the most basic digital devices will not function. That is
why firmware is often stored on a Read-Only Memory (ROM) chip,
ensuring it does not get erased by accident, while remaining as close as
possible to the metal of the device.

Regardless of the type of device, firmware can only work with a basic or
low level, binary language known as machine language. While the
firmware's code could be written in a high level language for ease and
versatility, it needs to be translated into a low level language before
getting etched into the device.

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Learning outcome 3: Deploy Operating system

Indicative contents (headings of indicative content from the module of the

curriculum)
3.1. Description of Operating system
3.2. Specification of software and hardware compatibility
3.3. Preparation of OS installation
3.4 Performing OS installation

Duration: 30hrs

Learning outcome 3 objectives: (Performance criteria in affirmative form)

By the end of the learning outcome, the trainees will be able to:

1. prepare properly Operating System according to the installation requirement

2. i install successfully Operating System based on functionalities

3. customize Operating system according to user preferences

Resources

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 Equipment Tools Materials
Power supply, Motherboard USB - Computer
2.0,firmware,internet
bundles

Indicative content 1.1 Description of Operating system

Introduction to OS

An Operating System (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer

hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs. When
you start using a Computer System then it's the Operating System (OS) which acts
as an interface between you and the computer hardware. The operating system is
really a low level Software which is categorised as a System Software and
supports a computer's basic functions, such as memory management, tasks
scheduling and controlling peripherals etc
What is Operating System?

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer

hardware. An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like
file management, memory management, process management, handling input and
output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
Generally, a Computer System consists of the following components:

● Computer Users are the users who use the overall computer system.
● Application Softwares are the softwares which users use directly to perform
different activities. These softwares are simple and easy to use like Browsers,
Word, Excel, different Editors, Games etc. These are usually written in high-level
languages, such as Python, Java and C++.
● System Softwares are the softwares which are more complex in nature and they
are more near to computer hardware. These software are usually written in low-
level languages like assembly language and includes Operating
Systems (Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux), Compiler, and Assembler etc.

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 ● Computer Hardware includes Monitor, Keyboard, CPU, Disks, Memory, etc.

So now let's put it in simple words:

If we consider a Computer Hardware is body of the Computer System, then we can say
an Operating System is its soul which brings it alive ie. Operational. We can never use a
Computer System if it does not have an Operating System installed on it.

✔ Components of Operating System

There are various components of an Operating System to perform well defined tasks.
Though most of the Operating Systems differ in structure but logically they have similar
components. Each component must be a well-defined portion of a system that
appropriately describes the functions, inputs, and outputs.
There are following 8-components of an Operating System:

1. Process Management
2. I/O Device Management
3. File Management
4. Network Management
5. Main Memory Management
6. Secondary Storage Management
7. Security Management
8. Command Interpreter System

Process Management

A process is program or a fraction of a program that is loaded in main memory. A

process needs certain resources including CPU time, Memory, Files, and I/O devices
to accomplish its task. The process management component manages the multiple
processes running simultaneously on the Operating System.
A program in running state is called a process.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with
process management:

● Create, load, execute, suspend, resume, and terminate processes.

● Switch system among multiple processes in main memory.
● Provides communication mechanisms so that processes can communicate with
each others
● Provides synchronization mechanisms to control concurrent access to shared
data to keep shared data consistent.
● Allocate/de-allocate resources properly to prevent or avoid deadlock situation.

I/O Device Management

One of the purposes of an operating system is to hide the peculiarities of specific

hardware devices from the user. I/O Device Management provides an abstract level
of H/W devices and keep the details from applications to ensure proper use of devices,
to prevent errors, and to provide users with convenient and efficient programming
environment.

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Following are the tasks of I/O Device Management component:

● Hide the details of H/W devices

● Manage main memory for the devices using cache, buffer, and spooling
● Maintain and provide custom drivers for each device.

File Management

File management is one of the most visible services of an operating system.

Computers can store information in several different physical forms; magnetic tape,
disk, and drum are the most common forms.
A file is defined as a set of correlated information and it is defined by the creator of the
file. Mostly files represent data, source and object forms, and programs. Data files can
be of any type like alphabetic, numeric, and alphanumeric.
A files is a sequence of bits, bytes, lines or records whose meaning is defined by its
creator and user.
The operating system implements the abstract concept of the file by managing mass
storage device, such as types and disks. Also files are normally organized into
directories to ease their use. These directories may contain files and other directories
and so on.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with file
management:

● File creation and deletion

● Directory creation and deletion
● The support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
● Mapping files onto secondary storage
● File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media

Network Management

The definition of network management is often broad, as network management

involves several different components. Network management is the process of
managing and administering a computer network. A computer network is a collection
of various types of computers connected with each other.
Network management comprises fault analysis, maintaining the quality of service,
provisioning of networks, and performance management.
Network management is the process of keeping your network healthy for an efficient
communication between different computers.
Following are the features of network management:

● Network administration
● Network maintenance
● Network operation
● Network provisioning
● Network security

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 Main Memory Management

Memory is a large array of words or bytes, each with its own address. It is a repository
of quickly accessible data shared by the CPU and I/O devices.
Main memory is a volatile storage device which means it loses its contents in the case
of system failure or as soon as system power goes down.
The main motivation behind Memory Management is to maximize memory utilization on
the computer system.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with
memory management:

● Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
● Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes available.
● Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed.

Secondary Storage Management

The main purpose of a computer system is to execute programs. These programs,

together with the data they access, must be in main memory during execution. Since
the main memory is too small to permanently accommodate all data and program, the
computer system must provide secondary storage to backup main memory.
Most modern computer systems use disks as the principle on-line storage medium,
for both programs and data. Most programs, like compilers, assemblers, sort routines,
editors, formatters, and so on, are stored on the disk until loaded into memory, and
then use the disk as both the source and destination of their processing.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with disk
management:

● Free space management

● Storage allocation

Disk scheduling
Security Management

The operating system is primarily responsible for all task and activities happen in the
computer system. The various processes in an operating system must be protected
from each other’s activities. For that purpose, various mechanisms which can be used
to ensure that the files, memory segment, cpu and other resources can be operated
on only by those processes that have gained proper authorization from the operating
system.
Security Management refers to a mechanism for controlling the access of programs,
processes, or users to the resources defined by a computer controls to be imposed,
together with some means of enforcement.
For example, memory addressing hardware ensure that a process can only execute
within its own address space. The timer ensure that no process can gain control of the

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CPU without relinquishing it. Finally, no process is allowed to do it’s own I/O, to protect
the integrity of the various peripheral devices.
Command Interpreter System

One of the most important component of an operating system is its command

interpreter. The command interpreter is the primary interface between the user and
the rest of the system.
Command Interpreter System executes a user command by calling one or more
number of underlying system programs or system calls.
Command Interpreter System allows human users to interact with the Operating System
and provides convenient programming environment to the users.
Many commands are given to the operating system by control statements. A program
which reads and interprets control statements is automatically executed. This program
is called the shell and few examples are Windows DOS command window, Bash of
Unix/Linux or C-Shell of Unix/Linux.

Operating System - Examples

There are plenty of Operating Systems available in the market which include paid and
unpaid (Open Source). Following are the examples of the few most popular Operating
Systems:

● Windows: This is one of the most popular and commercial operating systems
developed and marketed by Microsoft. It has different versions in the market like
Windows 8, Windows 10 etc and most of them are paid.
● Linux This is a Unix based and the most loved operating system first released on
September 17, 1991 by Linus Torvalds. Today, it has 30+ variants available like
Fedora, OpenSUSE, CentOS, UBuntu etc. Most of them are available free of
charges though you can have their enterprise versions by paying a nominal
license fee.
● MacOS This is again a kind of Unix operating system developed and marketed
by Apple Inc. since 2001.
● iOS This is a mobile operating system created and developed by Apple Inc.
exclusively for its mobile devices like iPhone and iPad etc.
● Android This is a mobile Operating System based on a modified version of the
Linux kernel and other open source software, designed primarily for touchscreen
mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets.

Some other old but popular Operating Systems include Solaris, VMS, OS/400, AIX,
z/OS, etc.
Operating System - Functions

To brief, Following are some of important functions of an operating System which we

will look in more detail in upcoming chapters:

● Process Management
● I/O Device Management

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 ● File Management
● Network Management
● Main Memory Management
● Secondary Storage Management
● Security Management
● Command Interpreter System
● Control over system performance
● Job Accounting
● Error Detection and Correction
● Coordination between other software and users
● Many more other important tasks

Categories of OS and their features

Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they keep
evolving with time. In this chapter, we will discuss some of the important types of
operating systems which are most commonly used.
Batch operating system

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each
user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the
computer operator. To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched
together and run as a group. The programmers leave their programs with the operator
and the operator then sorts the programs with similar requirements into batches.
The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

● Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

● CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower
than the CPU.
● Difficult to provide the desired priority.
Time-sharing operating systems

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals,

to use a particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is
a logical extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among
multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing
Systems is that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to
maximize processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to
minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches
occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example,
in a transaction processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst
or quantum of computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a
time quantum. When the user submits the command, the response time is in few
seconds at most.

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The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each
user with a small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as
batch systems have been modified to time-sharing systems.
Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

● Provides the advantage of quick response.

● Avoids duplication of software.
● Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

● Problem of reliability.
● Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
● Problem of data communication.
Distributed operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time

applications and multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the
processors accordingly.
The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines
(such as high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely
coupled systems or distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary
in size and function. These processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and
so on.
The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

● With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the
resources available at another.
● Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
● If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially
continue operating.
● Better service to the customers.
● Reduction of the load on the host computer.
● Reduction of delays in data processing.
Network operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability
to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions.
The primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer
access among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN),
a private network or to other networks.
Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003,
Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.
The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

● Centralized servers are highly stable.

● Security is server managed.

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 ● Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the
system.
● Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of
systems.
The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −

● High cost of buying and running a server.

● Dependency on a central location for most operations.
● Regular maintenance and updates are required.
Real Time operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval
required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment.
The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated
information is termed as the response time. So in this method, the response time is
very less as compared to online processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation
of a processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control
device in a dedicated application. A real-time operating system must have well-
defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific
experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems,
robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems

Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-
time systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM.
In these systems, virtual memory is almost never found.

Soft real-time systems

Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over
other tasks and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have
limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality,
Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.
Learning outcome 4: Install application software

Description of Application software

An application program (software application, or application, or app for short) is a
computer program designed to carry out a specific task other than one relating
to the operation of the computer itself, typically to be used by end-users. Word
processors, media players, and accounting software are examples
What is application software?

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 Application software is a type of computer program that performs a specific personal,
educational, and business function. Each application is designed to assist end-users in
accomplishing a variety of tasks, which may be related to productivity, creativity, or
communication

Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute
specific tasks. It is the opposite of hardware, which describes the physical aspects of a
computer. Software is a generic term used to refer to applications, scripts and programs
that run on a device. It can be thought of as the variable part of a computer, while hardware
is the invariable part.

The two main categories of software are application software and system software. An
application is software that fulfills a specific need or performs tasks. System software is
designed to run a computer's hardware and provides a platform for applications to run on
top of.

Other types of software include programming software, which provides the programming
tools software developers need; middleware, which sits between system software and
applications; and driver software, which operates computer devices and peripherals.

Early software was written for specific computers and sold with the hardware it ran on. In
the 1980s, software began to be sold on floppy disks, and later on CDs and DVDs. Today,
most software is purchased and directly downloaded over the internet. Software can be
found on vendor websites or application service provider websites.

Examples and types of software

Among the various categories of software, the most common types include
the following:

● Application software. The most common type of software, application

software is a computer software package that performs a specific
function for a user, or in some cases, for another application. An
application can be self-contained, or it can be a group of programs that
run the application for the user. Examples of modern
applications include office suites, graphics software, databases and
database management programs, web browsers, word processors,
software development tools, image editors and communication
platforms.
● System software. These software programs are designed to run a
computer's application programs and hardware. System software

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 coordinates the activities and functions of the hardware and software. In
addition, it controls the operations of the computer hardware and
provides an environment or platform for all the other types of software to
work in. The OS is the best example of system software; it manages all
the other computer programs. Other examples of system software
include the firmware, computer language translators and system utilities.
● Driver software. Also known as device drivers, this software is often
considered a type of system software. Device drivers control the devices
and peripherals connected to a computer, enabling them to perform
their specific tasks. Every device that is connected to a computer needs
at least one device driver to function. Examples include software that
comes with any nonstandard hardware, including special game
controllers, as well as the software that enables standard hardware,
such as USB storage devices, keyboards, headphones and printers.
● Middleware. The term middleware describes software that mediates
between application and system software or between two different kinds
of application software. For example, middleware enables Microsoft
Windows to talk to Excel and Word. It is also used to send a remote
work request from an application in a computer that has one kind of OS,
to an application in a computer with a different OS. It also enables
newer applications to work with legacy ones.
● Programming software. Computer programmers use programming
software to write code. Programming software and programming tools
enable developers to develop, write, test and debug other software
programs. Examples of programming software include assemblers,
compilers, debuggers and interpreters.

How does software work?

All software provides the directions and data computers need to work and
meet users' needs. However, the two different types -- application software
and system software -- work in distinctly different ways.

Application software
Application software consists of many programs that perform specific
functions for end users, such as writing reports and navigating websites.
Applications can also perform tasks for other applications. Applications on
a computer cannot run on their own; they require a computer's OS, along
with other supporting system software programs, to work.

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These desktop applications are installed on a user's computer and use the
computer memory to carry out tasks. They take up space on the computer's
hard drive and do not need an internet connection to work. However,
desktop applications must adhere to the requirements of the hardware
devices they run on.

Web applications, on the other hand, only require internet access to work;
they do not rely on the hardware and system software to run.
Consequently, users can launch web applications from devices that have a
web browser. Since the components responsible for the application
functionality are on the server, users can launch the app from Windows,
Mac, Linux or any other OS.

System software
System software sits between the computer hardware and the application
software. Users do not interact directly with system software as it runs in
the background, handling the basic functions of the computer. This
software coordinates a system's hardware and software so users can run
high-level application software to perform specific actions. System software
executes when a computer system boots up and continues running as long
as the system is on

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 Learning out come 1.1 : formative assessment

Please mix different assessment instruments/tools for triangulation

and relevancy of assessment
Written assessment
● Assessment instruments/tools
✔ True or false questions
✔ Multiple choice
✔ Essay: Question with short responses and Open ended questions
✔ Case studies

Practical assessment
● Assessment instruments/tools

✔ Task to be performed with performance checklist/quality product

checklist

References:

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