What you already know

Welcome to
▪ Geometrical optics

BYJU’S ▪ Simple harmonic

motion
▪ Electromagnetic

Classes
waves

What you will learn

WAVE OPTICS
▪ Why wave optics?
S1: Introduction to ▪ Huygens' principle
wave optics ▪
▪
Concept of wavefront
Explanation of
reflection and
refraction of light
 WAVE OPTICS

Rectilinear propagation of
Ray optics light:
Reflection
Refraction
Dispersion

According to the Ray optics, as light travels in a straight line, a person

looking through the third hole should not be able to see the light from
the source as the second hole is not in line with the other two holes.
2
 WAVE OPTICS

Ray optics

According to the rectilinear propagation of light, the bright spot on the

screen should be of same size as the size of the hole. But, the bright spot
is much larger than the size of the hole in reality.
3
 WAVE OPTICS

Can light really bend?

Arago spot/
Poisson spot

When light is incident on a

finely polished disc, it is
seen that there is a bright
spot at the centre of the
circular shadow formed by
the disc. Therefore, it is
evident that the light can
bend from the edges.
 WAVE OPTICS

Explanation for bending of light

Wave theory of light

CHRISTIA AN HUYGENS
Huygens Principle

When a stone is dropped

in still water, ripples
are formed on the
surface of the water.
All the particles on
the crest or on the
trough of these ripples
are in the same phase
and the locus of all
such particles is
called ‘wavefront’.
Here, the wavefront is
circular.
 Huygens Principle

All points on the circle will oscillate with same phase.

CIRCULAR
WAVE FRONT

Wavefront is the locus of all points of a medium which are vibrating in the same phase
at a given instant.
 Huygens Principle

The direction of propagation of light wave is perpendicular to the

wavefront.

Ray
 Huygens Principle

Point Source Linear source

𝑌

𝑍 𝑋

Spherical Wavefront Cylindrical Wavefront

 Huygens Principle
At large distances from the source, the radius of the
wavefront is large (infinity) and hence the wavefront can be
𝑌 assumed to be a plane wavefront.

Source at infinity

Plane Wavefront
 Huygens Principle

𝑑1 , 𝑡1 , 𝑣1

𝑑2 , 𝑡2 , 𝑣2

The direction of propagation of light wave is perpendicular to the wavefront.

Time taken by each ray from one wavefront to another wavefront remains same even if
the wave is travelling from one medium to the other. But we cannot say the same
regarding the distance and the speed.
 Huygens Principle
Let’s understand Huygens Principle using an example.
Let’s take a fish tank filled with water.
If we start tapping on the surface of water with
our hand, waves or ripples formed travels from
one end of the tank to the other as shown.
Now, put a partition at the middle of tank and start tapping
again. In this case, the waves are only present in portion
A of the tank and in portion B, wave is not present.
Now, make a hole in the partition and again start tapping.
In this case waves are present in both the portions. But, if
we look from the left side of the tank, it seems as if the
hole itself acts as a source for waves in portion B .
Thus, we can say that each point on a wavefront acts as a
source for the new wavefront.
 Huygens Principle

Every point on wavefront acts as a point source

called secondary wave source and generates
secondary wavelets.
Primary The common tangent to the secondary wavelets in
Source the forward direction gives the secondary
wavefront.
Secondary
Wavelets

Primary Secondary
Wavefront Wavefront
 Huygens Principle

Intensity of spherical wavelets is not uniform

in all the directions.
𝑌
But the intensity is maximum in the forward
direction, and zero in the backward direction.

𝑣𝑡
 Huygens Principle

Object at infinity for convex lens

Spherical wavefront

Plane wavefront
 Huygens Principle

Object at infinity for concave lens

Spherical wavefront

The light rays from the object at

infinity after passing through a
concave lens seems to be
𝑓 𝑓
diverging from the focus.
Therefore, focus behaves as a
Plane wavefront point source and hence the
wavefronts are spherical.
 Huygens Principle

Object at infinity for concave mirror

Spherical wavefront

𝑓 After reflection from the concave mirror, the

parallel light rays converges at the focus
and therefore the focus behaves as a point
source and hence the wavefronts are
spherical.
 Huygens Principle

Object at infinity for prism

Plane wavefront
 What you already know

Welcome to ▪ Huygens’ Principle

BYJU’S
▪ Wave front, types of
wavefront and direction
of Wave

Classes What you will learn

WAVE OPTICS
▪ Proof of laws of
S2: General discussion on reflection and refraction
using Huygens’ principle
waves- 1 ▪ Superposition Principle
▪ Interference
 RECAP

All points on the circle will oscillate with same phase.

❖ Wavefront

CIRCULAR
WAVE FRONT
𝑥
All the points at any distance
𝑥 from the source oscillate
with same phase.
All points oscillating with same
phase forms a circular locus as
shown because this wave is
travelling in 2𝐷.
Wavefront is the locus of all points of a medium which are vibrating in the same
phase at a given instant.
 RECAP

❖ Types of wavefront
Point Source
𝑌

𝑍 𝑋 A point source forms spherical wavefront.

At large distances from the source, the radius of the
wavefront becomes large (infinity) and hence, the
Spherical Wavefront wavefront can be assumed as a plane wavefront..
 RECAP

❖ Types of wavefront
Source at infinity Linear source
Parallel rays are formed when source is at When the source is linear, cylindrical
infinity. Thus, it produces planar wavefront. wavefront forms.

Plane Wavefront Cylindrical Wavefront

 RECAP
Every point on wavefront acts as a point
source called secondary wave source and
❖ Wavefront generates secondary wavelets.

The common tangent to the secondary

Primary
wavelets in the forward direction gives
Source
the secondary wavefront.

Secondary
Wavelets

Primary Secondary
Wavefront Wavefront
 HUYGENS PRINCIPLE
𝑄

Let the light from infinity falls on the

reflecting surface 𝐴𝐶 . Thus, the
𝐸 𝐵
wavefront will be planar and one of these 𝑁
incident planar wavefront is shown by 𝐴𝐵. 𝑣𝑡 𝑣𝑡
𝑃
If the velocity of light in the medium is
𝑣 and the time elapsed for a point on the 𝐴 𝐶
wavefront to go from point 𝐵 to point 𝐶 is Reflection of a plane
𝑡, then, 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑣𝑡. wave by a plane surface

The ‘𝐴’ end of the wavefront is already touched the reflecting surface when the
‘𝐵’ end is 𝑣𝑡 distance away from the reflecting surface. Thus, point 𝐴 will act
as the source of secondary wavelets and in time 𝑡 , it will generate secondary
wavelets of radius 𝑣𝑡 and the wavefront at this instant will be 𝐶𝐸. The wavefront
𝐶𝐸 is the reflected wavefront at time 𝑡.
 HUYGENS PRINCIPLE
𝑄

𝑁 𝑃 𝑁 𝐸 𝐵
𝑁
𝑣𝑡 𝑣𝑡
𝑃

𝐴 𝐶
The angle of incidence, ∠𝑁𝐴𝑃 = 𝑖. Since incident ray and the incident wavefront is
perpendicular to each other, ∠𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 90°. Therefore, ∠𝑁𝐴𝐵 = 90° − 𝑖.
Since 𝐴𝑁 is the normal to the reflecting surface, ∠𝑁𝐴𝐶 = 90°. We have: ∠𝑁𝐴𝐵 = 90° −
𝑖. Thus, ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = ∠𝑁𝐴𝐶 − ∠𝑁𝐴𝐵 = 𝑖.
The angle of reflection, ∠𝑁𝐴𝐸 = 𝑟 and ∠𝑁𝐴𝐶 = 90°. Thus,∠𝐸𝐴𝐶 = ∠𝑁𝐴𝐶 − ∠𝑁𝐴𝐸 = 90° − 𝑟.
Since reflected ray and the reflected wavefront 𝐶𝐸 is perpendicular to each
other, ∠𝐴𝐸𝐶 = 90°. For triangle ∆𝐴𝐸𝐶, ∠𝐸𝐴𝐶 = 90° − 𝑟 and ∠𝐴𝐸𝐶 = 90°. Thus, ∠𝐴𝐶𝐸 = 𝑟.
 HUYGENS PRINCIPLE
From ∆𝐴𝐸𝐶 and ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶
𝐸
∠𝐴𝐸𝐶 = ∠ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 90 °

𝑟 𝐴𝐸 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑣𝑡
𝐶
𝐴
𝐵 ∆𝐴𝐸𝐶 ~ ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶(CONGRUENT(RHS))
Therefore, ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = ∠𝐴𝐶𝐸

𝑖=𝑟
𝑖
𝐴 𝐶
LAW OF REFLECTION
 HUYGENS PRINCIPLE
Medium 1
(Rarer medium) 𝐵
𝑁
Let the light from infinity falls on the 𝑃 𝑖 𝑣1𝑡
refracting surface 𝑋𝑌. Thus, the wavefront
will be planar and one of these incident 𝑣1 , 𝑛1
𝑋 𝐴 𝑟 𝑌
planar wavefront is shown by 𝐴𝐵. 𝑣2𝑡 𝐶

If the velocity of light in the medium 1 𝑣2 , 𝑛2

is 𝑣1 and the time elapsed for a point on 𝑁′ 𝐸
the wavefront to go from point 𝐵 to point Medium 2
𝐶 is 𝑡, then, 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑣1𝑡. (Denser Medium)

End ‘𝐴’ of the wavefront is already touched the refracting surface when end ‘𝐵’
is 𝑣1𝑡 distance away from the refracting surface. Thus, point 𝐴 will act as the
source of secondary wavelets. If the velocity of light in the medium 2 is 𝑣2, then
in time 𝑡, it will generate secondary wavelets of radius 𝑣2𝑡 and the wavefront at
this instant will be 𝐶𝐸. The wavefront 𝐶𝐸 is the refracted wavefront at time 𝑡.
The angle of incidence, ∠𝑁𝐴𝑃 = 𝑖. Since incident ray and the incident wavefront is
perpendicular to each other, ∠𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 90°. Therefore, ∠𝑁𝐴𝐵 = 90° − 𝑖.
 HUYGENS PRINCIPLE
Medium 1
(Rarer medium)
𝐵
Since 𝑁′𝐴𝑁 is the normal to the refracting 𝑁
𝑃 𝑖 𝑣1𝑡
surface, ∠𝑁𝐴𝐶 = 90°. We have: ∠𝑁𝐴𝐵 = 90° − 𝑖.
Thus, ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = ∠𝑁𝐴𝐶 − ∠𝑁𝐴𝐵 = 𝑖. 𝑣1 , 𝑛1
The angle of refraction, ∠𝑁′𝐴𝐸 = 𝑟 and 𝑋 𝐴 𝑟 𝑌
𝑣2𝑡 𝐶
∠𝑁′𝐴𝐶 = 90°. Thus,∠𝐸𝐴𝐶 = ∠𝑁′𝐴𝐶 − ∠𝑁′𝐴𝐷 = 90° − 𝑟.
𝑣2 , 𝑛2
Since refracted ray and the refracted 𝑁′ 𝐸
wavefront 𝐶𝐸 is perpendicular to each Medium 2
other, ∠𝐴𝐸𝐶 = 90°. (Denser Medium)

For triangle ∆𝐴𝐸𝐶, ∠𝐸𝐴𝐶 = 90° − 𝑟 and ∠𝐴𝐸𝐶 = 90°. Thus, ∠𝐴𝐶𝐸 = 𝑟.
 HUYGENS PRINCIPLE
From ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶
𝐵𝐶 𝑣1 𝑡
sin 𝑖 = =
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶

From ∆𝐴𝐸𝐶
𝐴𝐸 𝑣2 𝑡
sin 𝑟 = =
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶

𝑣1 𝑡
sin 𝑖 𝐴𝐶 𝑣1
∴ = ൘𝑣2 𝑡 =
sin 𝑟 𝑣2
𝐴𝐶

We know that the refractive index of a medium is inversely proportional to the

velocity of light in the medium. Therefore,

sin 𝑖 𝑣1 𝑛2
= = = Constant SNELL’S LAW OF REFRACTION
sin 𝑟 𝑣2 𝑛1
 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Visible

Radio Microwave Infrared Ultraviolet X-ray Gamma

(Wavelength in 𝑚)

Increasing frequency
L i g ht

Range of wavelength for visible light, 𝜆𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 360 𝑛𝑚 − 780 𝑛𝑚

L i g ht 𝜆𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 360 𝑛𝑚 − 780 𝑛𝑚

Hole dimensions ≫ 𝜆𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

➢ When light passes through a hole having dimension greater
than the wavelength of light, the light travels in straight
lines without changing directions.
➢ The straight-line motion of the light is known as the
rectilinear propagation of light.
➢ The part of the optics in which light propagates in a
straight-line path is known as “Geometrical optics”.

Hole dimensions ≈ 𝜆𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

➢ When light passes through a hole having dimension of the
order of wavelength of light, the light don’t follow the
straight-line path. Example: When sunlight falls upon the
floor via a tiny hole on the roof, it produces a circular spot
of a diameter larger than the actual diameter of the hole.

➢ To describe this behavior of light, we need to consider

wave nature of light i.e., from the source, the light emits as
spherical waves, as shown in the figure. The part of the
optics deals with the wave nature of light is known as
“Wave optics”.
 General discussion On Waves

➢ Suppose a coke can is placed on the surface of a

still water and a small stone is dropped on the
right side of the can. Because of this, circular
waves are generated on the water surface.
➢ Since the wave is nothing but a collection of
SHMs, it has crest (the maximum amplitude) and
trough (the minimum amplitude). Here, the crest
is 4 𝑐𝑚.

➢ If a stone of slightly heavier than the

previous one is dropped on the left side of
the can, let the can is raised up by 8 𝑐𝑚 due
to the waves generated by the stone.
 General discussion On Waves

➢ Now, if both the stones, that

were dropped individually in the
water in the previous cases, are
now dropped simultaneously on
either side of the can, as shown
in the figure. Consequently, the
waves generated by the stones
will reach at the location of the
can at the same time and their
resultant effect is expected to
be observed.
➢ It is observed that the can is
raised up by 4 𝑐𝑚 + 8 𝑐𝑚 = 12 𝑐𝑚.
 General discussion On Waves

When two or more waves cross at a point, the displacement at that point is
equal to the vector sum of the displacements of the individual waves.
𝑦Ԧ𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑦Ԧ1 + 𝑦Ԧ2 + 𝑦Ԧ3 … … + 𝑦Ԧ𝑛 𝑦
𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡
From the figure, we can say: 𝑦2
𝑦Ԧ𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑦Ԧ1 + 𝑦Ԧ2 𝑦1
𝑥
𝑂
 General discussion On Waves

➢ If two wave pulses, one having amplitude 1 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

and other having amplitude 0.75 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 , are moving
towards each other from opposite side with same
velocity, they will superimpose at some point
and the amplitude of the resultant wave will be
(1 + 0.75) = 1.75 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡.
➢ After the superposition, the shape of wave
pulses remain unaffected.

➢ If two wave pulses, one having amplitude

+ 0.5 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 and other having amplitude −0.5 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 ,
are moving towards each other from opposite side
with same velocity, at the instant of
superposition, the amplitude of the resultant
wave will be (0.5 − 0.5) = 0 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡.
➢ Therefore, the pulses cancel each other at the
instant of superposition and after the
superposition, the shape of wave pulses remain
unaffected.
 What you already know

Welcome to ▪ Huygens’ Principle

BYJU’S
▪ Wave front, types of
wavefront and direction
of Wave
▪ Superposition Principle

Classes
▪ Interference

What you will learn

WAVE OPTICS
S3: General discussion on ▪ Constructive interference
▪ Destructive interference
waves - 2 ▪ Questions based on
superposition principle
 RECAP

𝑟
𝐶
𝐴 𝐵

𝑖
∆𝐴𝐸𝐶 ~ ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶(CONGRUENT(RHS))
𝐴 𝐶
𝑖 = Angle of incidence
𝑖=𝑟
𝑟 = Angle of reflection
LAW OF REFLECTION
 RECAP
𝐵 Medium 1
𝐵

𝑣1𝑡 𝐴′ 𝑖 𝑣1𝑡

𝑣1 , 𝑛1
𝑖 𝑋 𝑟 𝑌
𝐴
𝐴 𝐶 𝑣2𝑡 𝐶
𝐴 𝐶 𝑣2 , 𝑛2
𝐸
𝑟
𝑣2𝑡
Medium 2
𝑣1 𝑡 𝑣2 𝑡
𝐸 sin 𝑖 = , sin 𝑟 = 𝑣1 = Speed of light in medium 1
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
𝑣2 = Speed of light in medium 2
sin 𝑖 𝑣1 𝑛2
= = = Constant 𝑛1 = Refractive index of medium 1
sin 𝑟 𝑣2 𝑛1
𝑛2 = Refractive index of medium 2

SNELL’S LAW OF REFRACTION

 RECAP

When two or more waves cross at a point, the displacement at that point is
equal to the vector sum of the displacements of the individual waves.
𝑦 𝑦Ԧ𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑦Ԧ1 + 𝑦Ԧ2 + 𝑦Ԧ3 … … + 𝑦Ԧ𝑛
𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑦2
𝑦1
𝑥
𝑂
 RECAP

When the crest of two interfering When the crest and trough of two
waves meet, then the amplitude of interfering waves of same amplitude
the resultant wave is the sum of meet, then the amplitude of the
the amplitudes of the two waves. resultant wave is zero.
 General discussion On Waves

Coherent Waves

Two sources are said to be coherent sources

Same frequency if they produce two waves having same
frequency, same wavelength and have constant
Same wavelength
phase difference between them which does not
Constant phase difference change with time.
General discussion On Waves

The waves emitted by incoherent sources can have

different frequencies, different wavelengths and
a varying phase difference.
 General discussion On Waves

𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥
Source 𝑆1 ➢ 𝑦1 is the equation of SHM of particle 𝑃 at distance 𝑥1
from source 𝑆1 under the influence of source 𝑆1 only.
𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥1
𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 According to superposition principle
𝑃 𝑦2 = 𝐴2 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥2 + 𝜙

➢ 𝑦2 is the equation of SHM of particle 𝑃 at distance 𝑥2

Source 𝑆2 from source 𝑆2 under the influence of source 𝑆2 only.
𝑦2 = 𝐴2 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜙
General discussion On Waves

𝑦 𝑣

𝑂 𝑥
𝑦 𝑣
𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

+ ≡ 𝑂 𝑥
𝑦 𝑣

𝑦 = 𝑦1+𝑦2

𝑂 𝑥

𝑦2= 𝐴2 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜙)
 General discussion On Waves
𝑦 𝑣

𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) 𝑦2 = 𝐴2 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜙) 𝑂 𝑥

𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 𝑦 = 𝑦1+𝑦2

NOTE:-
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos 𝜙 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 Amplitude is not a
vector quantity.
𝛼 But for the sake
𝐴2 sin 𝜙 𝜙
tan 𝛼 = of shortcut trick
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 cos 𝜙 𝐴1 we treat them as
vectors and solve
them just as solve
𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝛼 the resultant of
two vectors.
 General discussion On Waves

𝑦 𝑣

𝑂 𝑥
𝑦𝑦
𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

+ ≡ 𝑂 𝑥
𝑦 𝑣

𝑂 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2

𝑦2= 𝐴2 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜙) 𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝛼

 Simplify; 𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 4 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 30° + 3 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 120°)

Solution

Between two given wave equations, choose any one equation 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡
as 1st whose phase is less than the other. 3
𝑦1 = 4 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 30° 𝑦2 = 3 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 120°
𝛼
𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 + 120° − 𝜔𝑡 + 30° = 90° 𝜙
4
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos 𝜙 = 42 + 32 + 2 × 3 × 4 × cos 90°

𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 5
3 sin 90° 𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 sin 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦1 + 𝛼 = 5 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 30° + 37°
tan 𝛼 = ⇒ 𝛼 = 37°
4 + 3 cos 90°
𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 5 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 67°

𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 5 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 67°

Simplify; 𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 6 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 30° + 6 cos(𝜔𝑡)

Solution
6 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑦1 = 6 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 30°
𝑦2 = 6 cos(𝜔𝑡) = 6 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 90°
𝛼
𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 + 90° − 𝜔𝑡 + 30° = 60° 𝜙
6
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 62 + 62 + 2 × 6 × 6 × cos 60°

𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 6 3
6 sin 60°
tan 𝛼 = ⇒ 𝛼 = 30° 𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 30° + 𝛼 = 6 3 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 60°
6 + 6 cos 60°

𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 6 3 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 60°

 General discussion On Waves

Net amplitude for the resultant wave is,

𝐴2 sin 𝜙
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos 𝜙 tan 𝛼 =
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 cos 𝜙
Special case 1 : Constructive interference
Interference that produces the greatest possible amplitude is called
Constructive interference.
For maximum amplitude of the resultant wave,

cos 𝜙 = 1 ⇒ 𝜙 = 2𝑛𝜋

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 2 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2

 General discussion On Waves

Constructive interference
Constructive interference is resulted when crest of one wave is overlapped
with crest of other wave and same for trough.
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2
Path difference for constructive interference:
2𝜋
Phase difference = ×(Path difference)
𝜆

2𝜋
2𝑛𝜋 = × (∆𝑥)
𝜆

Path difference = ∆𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆
 General discussion On Waves

As shown in figure, when two waves with same

amplitude superimpose to form constructive
Constructive interference interference, amplitude of resultant wave
𝑦 𝑣 becomes twice.
𝑦 𝑣
𝑂
𝑥

𝑦1 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
+ ≡ 𝑂
𝑥
𝑦 𝑣

𝑂 𝑥 𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

𝑦2 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
 General discussion On Waves

Net amplitude for the superimposed wave is,

2 2
𝐴2 sin 𝜙
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos 𝜙 tan 𝛼 =
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 cos 𝜙
Special case 2 : Destructive interference

Interference that produces the minimum possible amplitude is called

Destructive interference
For minimum amplitude of the resultant wave,

cos 𝜙 = −1 ⇒ 𝜙 = 2𝑛 + 1 𝜋

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 (−1) = 𝐴1 − 𝐴2 2 = 𝐴1 − 𝐴2

 General discussion On Waves

Destructive interference
Constructive interference is resulted when crest of one wave is overlapped
with trough of other wave and vice-versa.

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴1 − 𝐴2
Path difference for destructive interference:
2𝜋
Phase difference= ×(Path difference)
𝜆

2𝜋
2𝑛 + 1 𝜋 = × (∆𝑥)
𝜆
𝜆
Path difference = ∆𝑥 = 2𝑛 + 1
2
 General discussion On Waves

As shown in figure, when two waves with same

amplitude superimpose to form destructive
Destructive interference interference, amplitude of resultant wave
𝑦 𝑣 becomes zero.
𝑦
𝑂
𝑥

𝑦1 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
+ ≡ 𝑂
𝑥
𝑦 𝑣

𝑂 𝑥 𝑦=0

𝑦2 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜋)
 What you already know

Welcome to ▪ Huygens’ Principle

BYJU’S
▪ Superposition Principle
▪ Constructive interference
▪ Destructive interference

Classes What you will learn

WAVE OPTICS
S4: Doppler effect in light ▪ Intensity of wave
▪ Doppler effect in light
 RECAP

Coherent Waves

Same frequency ➢ Two sources are said to be coherent sources if

they produce two waves having same frequency,
Same wavelength same wavelength and have constant phase
Constant phase difference
difference between them which does not change
with time.
 RECAP

➢ The waves emitted by incoherent sources can have different frequencies,

different wavelengths and a varying phase difference.
➢ Two independent sources are always incoherent.
 RECAP
𝑦 𝑣

𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) 𝑦2 = 𝐴2 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜙) 𝑂 𝑥

𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 𝑦 = 𝑦1+𝑦2

𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos 𝜙

𝐴2 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝐴2 sin 𝜙
tan 𝛼 =
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 cos 𝜙
𝛼
𝜙
𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝛼 𝐴1

➢ Amplitude is not a vector quantity

 RECAP

Constructive interference
Interference that produces the greatest possible amplitude (or, maximum intensity) is
called constructive interference.
cos 𝜙 = 1 ⇒ 𝜙 = 2𝑛𝜋

𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos 𝜙

2𝜋
Phase difference= ×(Path difference)
𝜆

2𝜋
2𝑛𝜋 = × (∆𝑥)
𝜆

Path difference = ∆𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆
 RECAP
When the crest and trough of one wave overlaps with the
crest and trough respectively of another wave of same
𝑦 amplitude, then the amplitude of resulting wave becomes
twice the amplitude of superimposing waves.

𝑦
𝑂 𝑥

𝑦1 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
+ ≡
𝑦 𝑂 𝑥

𝑂 𝑥

𝑦 = 2𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

𝑦2 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
 RECAP

Destructive interference
Interference that produces the minimum possible amplitude (or, minimum intensity) is called
destructive interference.
cos 𝜙 = −1 ⇒ 𝜙 = 2𝑛 + 1 𝜋

𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴1 − 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos 𝜙

2𝜋
Phase difference= ×(Path difference)
𝜆

2𝜋
2𝑛 + 1 𝜋 = × (∆𝑥)
𝜆
𝜆
Path difference = ∆𝑥 = 2𝑛 + 1
2
 RECAP
When the crest one wave overlaps with the trough of
another wave of same amplitude, then the amplitude of
𝑦 resulting wave becomes zero.

𝑦
𝑂 𝑥

𝑦1 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
+ ≡ 𝑂 𝑥
𝑦

𝑂 𝑥 𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0

𝑦2 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜋)
 General discussion On Waves

Intensity of resultant wave 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐼2 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡

𝐼= 2𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝜌𝑣𝐴2
𝑓 = Frequency of coherent sources, 𝜌 = Density of medium,
𝑣 = Velocity of the wave
𝜙
If 𝑓, 𝜌 and 𝑣 are constant, then, 𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2
𝐼1
For superposition of two waves having amplitude 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 ,
we have:
𝐼 = 𝑘𝐴2 ➢ Intensity is also not
𝐴2 = 𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos 𝜙 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝜙
a vector quantity
❖ If 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼
𝜙
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2𝐼 1 + cos 𝜙 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 4𝐼 cos 2
2
 General discussion On Waves

Intensity of resultant wave 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡

𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝜙

For constructive Interference Condition for constructive interference:

cos 𝜙 = 1 Path difference = 𝑛𝜆 (where 𝑛 is an integer)
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 Phase difference 𝜙 = 0, ±2𝜋, ±4𝜋, ±6𝜋 … . .
2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

If 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4𝐼
 INTERFERENCE

Suppose a point 𝑃 is at a distance 2𝜆

from source 𝑆1 and at a distance 3𝜆 from
source 𝑆2 . Thus, the path difference
between the waves reaching the point 𝑃
is,
Path difference: 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃
Path difference = 3𝜆 − 2𝜆 = 𝜆
Since the path difference is integer
multiple of 𝜆, constructive interference
will be taken place at 𝑃.
Since the path difference is 𝜆 , the phase difference will be given by:
2𝜋
𝜙= × 𝜆 = 2𝜋
𝜆
 General discussion On Waves

Intensity of resultant wave 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡

𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝜙

For destructive Interference Condition for destructive interference :

𝜆
cos 𝜙 = −1 Path difference = 2𝑛 + 1 (where 𝑛 is an integer)
2
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 Phase difference 𝜙 = ±𝜋, ±3𝜋, ±5𝜋, ±7𝜋 … . .
2
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2

If 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼

𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0
 INTERFERENCE

Suppose a point 𝑃 is at a distance

7.25𝜆 from source 𝑆1 and at a
distance 9.75𝜆 from source 𝑆2 . Thus,
the path difference between the waves
reaching the point 𝑃 is,
Path difference: 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃

Path difference = 9.75𝜆 − 7.25𝜆

5𝜆
= 2.5𝜆 =
2

Since the path difference is the odd

𝜆
multiple of , destructive interference
2
will be taken place at 𝑃.
 General discussion On Waves
Source 𝑆1 Source 𝑆2
𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin(𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥) 𝑦2 = 𝐴2 sin(𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥)

Two independent sources can never

be coherent
𝑥1 𝑥2

𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin(𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥1 ) 𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin(𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥2 )

𝑃
Δ𝜙 = (𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥1 ) − (𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥2 ) ➢ The phase difference between the waves at any point
(here, point 𝑃 ) becomes time dependent when two
independent light sources are used.
Δ𝜙 = 𝜔1 − 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝑘 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ➢ Due to this, at point 𝑃 , sometimes maxima and
sometimes minima forms but that happens so fast that
Time – dependent quantity our eye cannot see it.
 DOPPLER EFFECT
When a source of sound and a listener
DIRECTION OF WAVE
are in relative motion to each other,
the frequency of sound heard by the
listener is not the same as the
source frequency.
Wavelength
The apparent frequency is given by
Frequency

𝑛𝑜 = frequency of stationary
source
Observer 𝑣 = speed of sound in air
𝑣𝑜 = speed of the observer

𝑣𝑠 = speed of the source

 DOPPLER EFFECT

➢ When the source and the observer are relatively coming closer, the apparent
frequency should increase.

➢ When the source and the observer are relatively going away, the apparent
frequency should decrease.
 DOPPLER EFFECT
WAVELENGTH

The distance between two consecutive crests or Distance b/w crests

two consecutive troughs is called wavelength.
In case of light waves, the wavelength can
also be defined as the distance between two
consecutive wavefronts.
Distance b/w trough

FREQUENCY

It is defined as the number of waves passing a given

point in 1𝑠𝑒𝑐.
 DOPPLER EFFECT
WHEN THE SOURCE MOVES AWAY FROM THE OBSERVER

The wavefronts must travel greater

distance to reach the observer.

The time taken by two successive

wavefronts to reach the observer
will become more.

The wavelength increases, while the

frequency and the pitch decreases.
 DOPPLER EFFECT
WHEN THE SOURCE MOVES TOWARDS THE OBSERVER

The time taken by two successive

wavefronts to reach the observer will
become less.

The wavelength decreases, while the

frequency and the pitch increases.
 DOPPLER EFFECT

Wavelength decreases Wavelength increases

Observer Observer

The apparent change in frequency of the wave caused by relative motion

b/w source of the wave and the observer is called Doppler Effect.
 DOPPLER EFFECT
The spectral line shift towards the blue end of the spectrum when the source
and observer are moving towards each other, this is called as blue shift.

𝑣
𝑆
 DOPPLER EFFECT
The spectral line shift towards the red end of the spectrum when the source
and observer are moving away from each other, this is called red shift.

Wavelength increases
𝑣

𝑆
DOPPLER EFFECT
Δ𝑓 → change in frequency
Δ𝑓 Δ𝜆 −𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙
=− =
Δ𝜆 → change in wavelength 𝑓 𝜆 𝑐
𝑓 → original frequency

𝜆 → original wavelength

𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 → relative velocity of the source relative

to the observer
𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (when the source is moving away
from the observer)

𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (when the source is moving towards

from the observer)
Note: These formulas are applicable only
when the velocity of source is far less
than the velocity of light.
 What you already know

Welcome to ▪ Huygens’ Principle

BYJU’S
▪ Superposition Principle
▪ Constructive interference
▪ Intensity of wave
▪ Doppler effect in light

Classes What you will learn

WAVE OPTICS
S5: YDSE ▪ Path difference
▪ Phase difference
▪ Condition for constructive
interference
▪ Condition for destructive
interference
 RECAP

Intensity of resultant wave 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐼2 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡

𝐼 = 2𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝜌𝑣𝐴2 ⇒ 𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2

𝐴2 = 𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos 𝜙 𝜙

𝐼1
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝜙

If 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼

𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2𝐼 1 + cos 𝜙

𝜙
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 4𝐼 cos 2
2
 RECAP

For constructive Interference Condition for constructive interference :

cos 𝜙 = 1
2
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 Path difference = 𝑛𝜆 (where 𝑛 is an integer)

𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼 Phase difference 𝜙 = 0, ±2𝜋, ±4𝜋, ±6𝜋 … . .

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4𝐼

For destructive Interference Condition for destructive interference :

cos 𝜙 = −1 𝜆
2 Path difference = 2𝑛 + 1 (where 𝑛 is an integer)
2
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2
Phase difference 𝜙 = ±𝜋, ±3𝜋, ±5𝜋, ±7𝜋 … . .
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0
 RECAP

Wavelength decreases Wavelength increases

Observer Observer

The apparent change in frequency of the wave caused by relative motion

b/w source of the wave and the observer is called Doppler Effect.
 RECAP
Blue shift
Δ𝑓 Δ𝜆 −𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙
=− =
𝑓 𝜆 𝑐

𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 → relative velocity of the

source relative to the observer
𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (when the source is
Red shift moving away from the observer)

𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (when the source is

moving towards from the observer)
What speed should a galaxy move with respect to us so that the
sodium line at 589.0 𝑛𝑚 is observed at 589.6 𝑛𝑚.

A 306 𝑚/𝑠

B 280 𝑚/𝑠

C 306 𝑘𝑚/𝑠

D 280 𝑘𝑚/𝑠
Since the wavelength of the sodium
line is increased, it can be concluded Wavelength increases
that it is a case of red shift. So, it
can be said that the galaxy is moving
away from us.
The shift in wavelength is given by,
Δ𝜆 = 589.6 − 589 = 0.6 𝑛𝑚
By doppler effect, we know:
Δ𝑓 Δ𝜆 𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑
= − = −
𝑓 𝜆 𝑐
As source is moving away from observer so 𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑 is taken as positive. Now,
∆𝜆 = 0.6 𝑛𝑚, 𝜆 = 589 𝑛𝑚 and 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠. Thus, by substituting these values
in the above expression, we get,
0.6 𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑 0.6
− =− ⇒ 𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 3 × 108 = 306 𝑘𝑚/𝑠
589 𝑐 589

C 306 𝑘𝑚/𝑠
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
Thomas Young established the principle of interference of light
with the help of an experiment known as “Young’s double slit
experiment”.

THOMAS YOUNG
Monochromatic
line source
Obeying rectilinear propagation of light, it was expected that when
light from monochromatic line source (e.g., Sodium light) passes through
two narrow vertical slits, it will produce two bright spots on the
screen, as shown in the figure. This observation is perfectly fine if
the width of the slits is large which meets the condition “slit width ≫
𝜆”.
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
But, practically we have seen alternate
bright and dark spots on the screen. We
can’t explain this using rectilinear
propagation of light only rather this can be
explained with the help of “wave theory of
light”.

Monochromatic line source

To observe proper fringe pattern on the
screen, the necessary conditions are:
1. The light should be monochromatic
(If white light is used, the
fringe pattern except the central
fringe will be a mixture of all
seven colours).
2. Sources 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 should be
coherent.
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
Two independent sources can not be coherent.
Thus, using two narrow slits, a single source
is divided into two coherent sources having
same frequency and wavelength as that of the
primary source. 𝑑
This is possible because every point on a
wavefront acts as a new source and that’s
why the slits can behave as a new source.

Sources 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 should be coherent in YDSE.

Conditions for light waves to be coherent:

• Constant phase difference
• Same wavelength and frequency
Other necessary conditions for which proper fringe pattern will be observed on the screen are as
follows:
1. The distance between the slits (𝑑) << the distance (𝐷) between the slits and the screen.
2. The wavelength (𝜆) of the monochromatic light ≈ The width of the slit.
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
In this experiment, the path difference
at any given point on the screen is
constant. Hence, the phase difference
at any instant remains constant.
At centre 𝐶 :
𝑆1 𝐶 = 𝑆2 𝐶
Thus, path difference between the rays
coming from the slits is zero. So,
there will be constructive interference at
the centre and it is called central bright
fringe. 𝑆1
At any point 𝑃:
Path difference,∆𝑥 = 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = 𝑆2 𝑅 𝜃
𝜃
From triangle 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑅, we have: Δ𝑥 𝑅
∆𝑥
sin 𝜃 = ∆𝑥 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 𝑆2
𝑑
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

PATH DIFFERENCE Δ𝑥 𝑃
𝑥

∆𝑥 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 ………(1) λ (𝑖𝑛 𝐴ሶ ) 𝑆1 𝑦

𝑥 + Δ𝑥
𝑑 𝜃
From triangle 𝑃𝑂𝐶 𝑂 𝐶
(𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚) 𝜃 𝜃
𝑦 𝑅
tan 𝜃 = ………(2) 𝑆2 Δ𝑥
𝐷
As 𝑑 ≪ 𝐷 and 𝜃 → 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐷
𝐷 ≫≫ 𝑑
tan 𝜃 ≈ sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
𝑦
Hence, equation (2) can be written as, sin 𝜃 = . So, equation (1) becomes:
𝐷

𝑦𝑑
Δ𝑥 ≈
𝐷
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

PHASE DIFFERENCE 𝜙
𝑥 𝑃
The path difference between the rays
is given by, λ (𝑖𝑛 𝐴ሶ ) 𝑆1 𝑦
𝑥 + Δ𝑥
𝑑 𝜃 𝐶
𝑦𝑑 𝑂
Δ𝑥 ≈ (𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚) 𝜃 𝜃
𝐷 Δ𝑥 𝑅
𝑆2
Therefore, the phase difference between 𝐷
the rays will be,
𝐷 ≫≫ 𝑑
2𝜋
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝜙) = × 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜆
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑦𝑑
𝜙= × Δ𝑥 𝜙=
𝜆 𝜆 𝐷
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

CONDITION FOR CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

The equation of the light waves coming

from the slits 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are respectively
given by,
𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
𝑦2 = 𝐴2 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
Therefore, the phase difference between
the waves is 𝜙 . So, the condition of
constructive interference is,

𝜙 = 2𝑛𝜋 (where 𝑛 is an integer)

In terms of path difference, the condition of constructive interference

becomes:
2𝜋 2𝜋 Δ𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆 𝑛 → 0, ±1, ±2, …
𝜙= × Δ𝑥 2𝑛𝜋 = × Δ𝑥
𝜆 𝜆
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

For intensity maxima/bright fringe

Δ𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆 (where 𝑛 is an integer)
∆𝑥 = 0, ±𝜆, ±2𝜆,±3𝜆,±4𝜆

𝑃 → 1𝑠𝑡 Bright 𝑃 → 2𝑛𝑑 Bright

∆𝑥 = ±𝜆 ∆𝑥 = ±2𝜆

𝑦𝑑 𝑦𝑑
Δ𝑥 = Δ𝑥 = Similarly, the distance of 𝑛𝑡ℎ
𝐷 𝐷 bright fringe from the central
bright is given by,
𝐷𝜆 2𝐷𝜆
𝑦1𝑠𝑡 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =± 𝑦2𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =±
𝑑 𝑑 𝑛𝐷𝜆 Where,
𝑦𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3 …
𝑑
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

CONDITION FOR DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

The equation of the light waves coming

from the slits 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are respectively
given by,
𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
𝑦2 = 𝐴2 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
Therefore, the phase difference between
the waves is 𝜙 . So, the condition of
destructive interference is,

𝜙 = 2𝑛 − 1 𝜋 (where 𝑛 is an integer)

In terms of path difference, the condition of destructive interference

becomes:
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜆
𝜙= × Δ𝑥 2𝑛 − 1 𝜋 = × Δ𝑥 Δ𝑥 = 2𝑛 − 1 𝑛 → , ±1, ±2, …
𝜆 𝜆 2
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

For intensity minima/dark fringe

𝜆
Δ𝑥 = 2𝑛 − 1 (where 𝑛 is an integer)
2
𝜆 3𝜆 5𝜆 7𝜆
∆𝑥 = ± , ± ,± ,±
2 2 2 2

𝑃 → 1𝑠𝑡 Dark fringe 𝑃 → 2𝑛𝑑 Dark fringe

𝜆 3𝜆
∆𝑥 = ± ∆𝑥 = ± Similarly, the distance of 𝑛𝑡ℎ
2 2 dark fringe from the central
𝑦𝑑 𝑦𝑑 bright is given by,
Δ𝑥 = Δ𝑥 =
𝐷 𝐷
2𝑛 − 1 𝐷𝜆
𝐷𝜆 3𝐷𝜆 𝑦𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 =
𝑦1𝑠𝑡 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑘 =± 𝑦2𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑘 =± 2𝑑
2𝑑 2𝑑
where 𝑛 = ±1, ±2, ±3 …
 What you already know
▪ Huygens’ Principle
Welcome to ▪ Intensity of wave

BYJU’S
▪ Doppler effect in light
▪ Condition for constructive
interference
▪ Condition for destructive

Classes interference

What you will learn

WAVE OPTICS
▪ Fringe width
S6: YDSE - 2 ▪ Angular position of
fringes
▪ Angular fringe width
▪ Shape of interference
fringes
 RECAP
Blue shift
Δ𝑓 Δ𝜆 −𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙
=− =
𝑓 𝜆 𝑐

𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 → relative velocity of the

source relative to the observer
𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (when the source is
moving away from the observer)

𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (when the source is

Red shift moving towards the observer)
 RECAP
’

It was expected that, on passing Instead, alternative bright and

light through two narrow slits, dark fringes were observed when the
only two bright patches would be light was passed through two narrow
seen on the screen, directly in slits.
front of the respective slits.
 RECAP
’

At centre 𝐶 :
𝑆1 𝐶 = 𝑆2 𝐶
Path difference ∆𝑥 = 0
So, constructive interference will be
taken place at the centre and it is
called central bright (𝐶. 𝐵. ) fringe.
𝑆1
At any point 𝑃

Path difference,∆𝑥 = 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = 𝑆2 𝑅
𝜃
From triangle 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑅, we have:
∆𝑥
sin 𝜃 = ∆𝑥 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 𝑅
𝑑
Δ𝑥
𝑆2
 RECAP
’

Constructive Interference
For intensity maxima/bright fringe
Δ𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆 (where 𝑛 is an integer)
∆𝑥 = 0, ±𝜆, ±2𝜆,±3𝜆,±4𝜆
The distance of 𝑛𝑡ℎ bright fringe from the
central bright is given by,
𝑛𝐷𝜆
𝑦𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
𝑑

Destructive Interference The distance of 𝑛𝑡ℎ bright fringe from

For intensity minima/dark fringe the central bright is given by,
𝜆
Δ𝑥 = 2𝑛 − 1 (where 𝑛 is an integer) 2𝑛 − 1 𝐷𝜆
2
𝜆 3𝜆 5𝜆 7𝜆 𝑦𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 =
∆𝑥 = ± , ± ,± ,± 2𝑑
2 2 2 2
A star, which is emitting radiation at a wavelength of 5000Å ,
m
is approaching the earth with a velocity of 1.5 × 106 . The
s
change in wavelength of the radiation as received on the earth
is

A 25 Å

B 100 Å

C zero

D 2.5 Å
Wavelength of the radiation emitted by the star, 𝜆 = 5000 𝐴ሶ
m
Velocity of the star, 𝑣 = 1.5 × 106 s

By doppler effect, we know

Δ𝑓 Δ𝜆 𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑
=− =−
𝑓 𝜆 𝑐
𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑
Δ𝜆 = 𝜆 ×
𝑐

1.5 × 106
∆𝜆 = 5000 × 8 = 25 Å
3 × 10
Since, the star is approaching the earth, there will be blue shift in the emitted
radiation reaching the earth.

𝐴 25 Å
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

FRINGE WIDTH
5𝐷𝜆
We have:
2𝑑
2𝐷𝜆
𝑛𝐷𝜆 2𝑛 − 1 𝐷𝜆 3𝐷𝜆
𝑦𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑦𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 = 𝑑
𝑑 2𝑑
2𝑑 𝐷𝜆
𝐷𝜆
𝑑
2𝑑
Width of dark fringe is equal to the distance b/w 𝐶. 𝐵.
two consecutive maxima/bright fringes.
2𝐷𝜆 𝐷𝜆 𝐷𝜆
𝑦2𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑦1𝑠𝑡 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = − =
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
Width of bright fringe is equal to the distance b/w
two consecutive minima/dark fringes.
3𝐷𝜆 𝐷𝜆 𝐷𝜆
𝑦2𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑘 − 𝑦1𝑠𝑡 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑘 = − =
2𝑑 2𝑑 𝑑
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

FRINGE WIDTH 5𝐷𝜆

2𝑑

𝐷𝜆 3𝐷𝜆
2𝐷𝜆
Width of bright fringe = 2𝑑
𝑑
𝑑 𝐷𝜆
𝐷𝜆
𝐷𝜆 2𝑑 𝑑
Width of dark fringe =
𝑑
𝐶. 𝐵.

Therefore, in this case, the width of both bright

and dark fringe becomes equal. Therefore,

𝐷𝜆
Fringe width = 𝛽 =
𝑑
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

ANGULAR POSITION OF FRINGES 𝑃

It is the angle subtended λ (𝑖𝑛 𝐴ሶ ) 𝑆1 𝑦𝑛

by the bright/dark fringe
at the centre. 𝑑 𝜃 𝐶. 𝐵.
𝑂
(𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚)
For bright fringe: 𝑆2
𝑛𝐷𝜆 𝐷
𝑦𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
𝑑
𝑦 𝑡ℎ
𝐷 ≫≫ 𝑑
𝑛
tan 𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ =
𝐷 Alternative method:
Since 𝜃 is very small, tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃.
Thus,
Since 𝜃 is very small,
𝑛𝜆𝐷 𝑛𝜆
𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ × 𝐷 = 𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = Thus, ∆𝑥 ≈ 𝜃 ∙ 𝑑
𝑑 𝑑
For bright fringe:
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

ANGULAR POSITION OF FRINGES 𝑃

For dark fringe: λ (𝑖𝑛 𝐴ሶ ) 𝑆1 𝑦𝑛
(2𝑛 − 1)𝐷𝜆 𝑑 𝜃
𝑦𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑘 = 𝑂 𝐶. 𝐵.
2𝑑 (𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚)
𝑦 𝑡ℎ 𝑆2
𝑛
tan 𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ = 𝐷 ≫≫ 𝑑
𝐷
Since 𝜃 is very small, tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃. 𝐷
Thus,
Alternative method:
(2𝑛 − 1)𝜆𝐷
𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ × 𝐷 =
2𝑑
Since 𝜃 is very small,
(2𝑛 − 1)𝜆 Thus, ∆𝑥 ≈ 𝜃 ∙ 𝑑
𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑘 =
2𝑑 For bright fringe:
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
𝑃
ANGULAR FRINGE WIDTH 𝑦𝑛

It is the angle between λ (𝑖𝑛 𝐴ሶ ) 𝑆1 𝑦𝑛−1

two consecutive bright 𝜃𝑛 𝜃𝑛−1
𝑑 𝐶. 𝐵.
or dark fringes at the 𝑂
(𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚)
centre.
𝑆2 𝐷 ≫≫ 𝑑
𝐷
Between two consecutive bright fringes:

𝑛𝜆
𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
𝑑

𝑛𝜆
𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ = 𝜆
𝑑 𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ − 𝜃(𝑛−1)𝑡ℎ =
𝑑 Angular fringe width of
𝑛−1 𝜆 dark fringes
𝜃(𝑛−1)𝑡ℎ =
𝑑
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
𝑃
ANGULAR FRINGE WIDTH 𝑦𝑛

λ (𝑖𝑛 𝐴ሶ ) 𝑆1 𝑦𝑛−1
It is the angle between
𝜃𝑛 𝜃𝑛−1
two consecutive bright 𝑑 𝐶. 𝐵.
𝑂
or dark fringes at the (𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚)
centre. 𝑆2
𝐷
Between two consecutive dark fringes:
𝐷 ≫≫ 𝑑
(2𝑛 − 1)𝜆
𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑘 =
2𝑑

(2𝑛 − 1)𝜆
𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ =
2𝑑 𝜆
𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ − 𝜃(𝑛−1)𝑡ℎ = Angular fringe width of
2(𝑛 − 1) − 1 𝜆 𝑑 bright fringes
𝜃(𝑛−1)𝑡ℎ =
2𝑑
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

INTENSITY

Assume 𝑆1 (𝐴1 sin 𝜔𝑡) → 𝐼1 , Maxima/Bright

𝑆2 (𝐴2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)) → 𝐼2 𝜙 = 0°, 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4𝐼
The resultant intensity is, C.I.

𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝜙
𝜙
𝐼𝑅 = 4𝐼 cos 2
For 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼 (Monochromatic and 2
coherent light waves)
𝐼𝑅 = 2𝐼 + 2𝐼 cos 𝜙 D.I.
𝜙 2 Minima/Dark
𝐼𝑅 = 2𝐼 1 + cos 𝜙 ⇒ 2𝐼 × 2 cos
2 𝜙 = 𝜋, 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0
𝜙
𝐼𝑅 = 4𝐼 cos 2 ▪ C.I. = Constructive interference
2
▪ D.I. = Destructive interference
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

INTENSITY vs PATH DIFFERENCE

𝐼
∆𝑥 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃
4𝐼

Path
𝑑 sin 𝜃 difference
5𝜆 −2𝜆 3𝜆 −𝜆 𝜆 0 𝜆 𝜆 3𝜆 2𝜆 5𝜆
− − −
2 2 2 2 2 2
The variation of intensity with path difference is similar to the graph of cos 2 𝜃.
Negative path difference refers the fringes below the central bright on the
screen.
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

SHAPE OF INTERFERENCE FRINGES

If the slits are rectangular, the If the slits are circular (i.e., the
fringes formed on the screen are also pin holes), the fringes formed on the
rectangular in shape. screen are hyperbolic in shape.
 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

What will happen if light sources are incoherent?

If we use two different sources of

light, they will become incoherent
which means that the phase difference
between them will not be constant for a
certain instant. Thus, although the
fringe pattern may form on the screen
at an instant, it changes so frequently
that human eye can’t see it and we see
only the bright illumination on the
screen.
The interference pattern is obtained with two coherent light
sources of intensity ratio 𝑛 . In the interference pattern, the
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
ratio will be
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛

A √𝑛
𝑛+1

2√𝑛
B
𝑛+1

√𝑛
C
(𝑛 + 1)2

2√𝑛
D
(𝑛 + 1)2
It is given that the intensity ratio
of two coherent light sources is 𝑛 . 𝑃′
Thus, we can write, 𝐼2 = 𝑛𝐼1
𝐼1 𝑆1 𝑦
Maximum intensity of interference: 𝑑 𝑂 𝑃
2 2 (𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚)
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 + 𝑛𝐼1 𝑆2
𝐼2
= 1 + 𝑛 2 𝐼1 𝐷

= (1 + 𝑛 + 2 𝑛)𝐼1 λ (𝑖𝑛 𝐴ሶ ) 𝐷 ≫≫ 𝑑 Screen

Minimum intensity of interference: Therefore, the required ratio is
2 2 given by,
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 − 𝑛𝐼1
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 𝑛 − (−2 𝑛) 2 𝑛
= =
= 1 − 𝑛 2 𝐼1 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 2(1 + 𝑛) 1+𝑛
= (1 + 𝑛 − 2 𝑛)𝐼1 Hence, option (𝐵) is correct.
In Young’s double slit experiment, if the separation between
coherent sources is halved and the distance of the screen from
the coherent sources is doubled, then the fringe width becomes

A double

B half

C four times

D one-fourth
Let 𝑑 be the initial distance between the
coherent sources and 𝐷 be the initial distance 𝑃
of the screen from the coherent sources.
𝑆1 𝑦
If the distance b/w the sources is halved, its
𝑑 𝑑 𝑂 𝐶. 𝐵.
new distance becomes, 𝑑′ =
2
𝑆2
If the distance of the screen from the coherent
𝐷
sources is doubled, the new distance becomes,
𝐷′ = 2𝐷 𝐷 ≫≫ 𝑑
Screen
In general, the fringe width is given by,
𝜆𝐷
𝑦=
𝑑
𝜆𝐷′ λ 2𝐷 4λ𝐷
∴ New fringe width, 𝑦′ = = 𝑑 = = 4𝑦
𝑑′ 𝑑
2

Therefore, the fringe width becomes four times in the new set up.

Hence, option (𝐶) is correct.

 In Young’s double slit experiment, the separation 𝑑 between the
slits is 2 𝑚𝑚, the wavelength 𝜆 of the light is 5896 Å and
distance 𝐷 between the screen and slits is 100 𝑐𝑚. It is found
that the angular width of the fringe is 0.20°. To increase the
angular fringe width to 0.21° (with same 𝜆 and 𝐷), the separation
between the slits needs to be changed to

A 1.8 𝑚𝑚

B 1.9 𝑚𝑚

C 2.1 𝑚𝑚

D 1.7 𝑚𝑚
Given : Type equation here.
𝜆 = 5896𝐴ሶ 𝐷 = 100 𝑐𝑚 𝑑 = 2 𝑚𝑚
𝑥 𝑃
𝜃 = 0.20° 𝜃′ = 0.21°
𝑆1 𝑦
We know that the angular fringe width 𝑥
𝑑 𝜃 𝜃 + Δ𝑥
is given by, 𝑂 C. 𝐵.
(𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚)
𝑦 𝜆 𝜃
𝜃(𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠) = = 𝜃𝑑 = 𝜆 𝑆2
𝐷 𝑑 λ (𝑖𝑛 𝐴)ሶ
Since it is given that the wavelength 𝐷

(𝜆) remains constant, we can write: 𝐷 ≫≫ 𝑑

Screen
𝜃𝑑 = 𝜃 ′ 𝑑′
𝜋
𝜃𝑑 0.20 × ×2
𝑑′ = ′ = 180 = 1.9 𝑚𝑚
𝜋
𝜋 [Since 1° = 𝑟𝑎𝑑]
𝜃 0.21 × 180
180
Hence, option (𝐵) is correct.
The intensity at the maximum in a Young’s double slit
experiment is 𝐼0 . Distance between two slits is 𝑑 = 5𝜆 ,where 𝜆
is the wavelength of light used in the experiment. What will be
the intensity in front of one of the slits on the screen placed
at a distance 𝐷 = 10𝑑 ?

A 3
𝐼
40

B 𝐼0
2

C 𝐼0

𝐼0
D
4
It is given that:
The wavelength is light used = 𝜆
Distance between two slits, 𝑑 = 5𝜆
𝐼0 𝑆1 𝑃′
The distance of the screen from the slits,
𝐷 = 10𝑑 = 50𝜆 𝑦
𝑑 = 5𝜆 𝑂
The distance of a point ( 𝑃′ ), which is
𝑆2
in front of one of the slits (let 𝑆1 ), 𝐼0
from the central line is, 𝐷
𝑑 5𝜆 λ (𝑖𝑛 𝐴ሶ )
𝑦= 𝑦= 𝐷 = 10𝑑 Screen
2 2
Therefore, the path difference between the rays at 𝑃′ is given by,
𝑦𝑑 5𝜆 5𝜆 𝜆
∆𝑥 = = × =
𝐷 2 50𝜆 4 Therefore, the intensity will be,
𝜙 𝜋 𝛪0
So, corresponding path difference 𝛪 = 𝛪0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 = 𝛪0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 =
2 4 2
is,
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜆 𝜋
𝜙= × ∆𝑥 = × =
𝜆 𝜆 4 2 Hence, option (𝐵) is correct.
 What you already know
▪ Condition for constructive
Welcome to and destructive interference

BYJU’S
▪ Fringe width
▪ Angular position of fringes
▪ Angular fringe width
▪ Shape of interference

Classes fringes

What you will learn

WAVE OPTICS
▪ YDSE using microwaves
S7: Optical path ▪ Optical path difference
▪ Effect of placing a thin
transparent film in YDSE
▪ Shift in central maxima
▪ No. of fringes shifted
 RECAP

5𝐷𝜆
The distance of 𝑛𝑡ℎ bright fringe and 𝑛𝑡ℎ dark 2𝑑
fringe from the central bright is,
2𝐷𝜆
3𝐷𝜆 𝑑
𝑛𝐷𝜆 2𝑛 − 1 𝐷𝜆
𝑦𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑦𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 = 2𝑑
𝑑 2𝑑 𝐷𝜆
𝐷𝜆
𝑑
Width of dark fringe is equal to the distance 2𝑑
b/w two consecutive maxima/bright fringes.
𝐶. 𝐵.
2𝐷𝜆 𝐷𝜆 𝐷𝜆
𝑦2𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑦1𝑠𝑡 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = − =
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
Width of bright fringe is equal to the distance
b/w two consecutive minima/dark fringes.
3𝐷𝜆 𝐷𝜆 𝐷𝜆
𝑦2𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑘 − 𝑦1𝑠𝑡 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑘 = − =
2𝑑 2𝑑 𝑑
 RECAP

5𝐷𝜆
2𝑑
2𝐷𝜆
𝑛𝐷𝜆 3𝐷𝜆 𝑑
𝑦𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
𝑑 2𝑑
𝐷𝜆
𝐷𝜆
𝑑
2𝑑
2𝑛 − 1 𝐷𝜆
𝑦𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 =
2𝑑
𝐶. 𝐵.

𝐷𝜆
Fringe width = 𝛽 =
𝑑
 RECAP

𝑃
It is the angle subtended
λ (𝑖𝑛 𝐴ሶ ) 𝑆1 𝑦𝑛
by the bright/dark fringe
at the centre. 𝑑 𝜃
𝑂 𝐶. 𝐵.
(𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚)
𝑛𝜆
𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑆2
𝑑
𝐷
𝐷 ≫≫ 𝑑
(2𝑛 − 1)𝜆
𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑘 =
2𝑑
 RECAP
𝑃
𝑦𝑛

It is the angle between λ (𝑖𝑛 𝐴ሶ ) 𝑆1 𝑦𝑛−1

two consecutive bright 𝜃𝑛 𝜃𝑛−1
𝑑 𝐶. 𝐵.
or dark fringes at the 𝑂
(𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚)
centre (𝑂).
𝑆2
Between two consecutive
bright fringes: 𝐷
𝐷 ≫≫ 𝑑
𝑛𝜆 𝜆
𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ − 𝜃(𝑛−1)𝑡ℎ =
𝑑 𝑑

Between two consecutive dark fringes :

(2𝑛 − 1)𝜆 𝜆
𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑘 = 𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ − 𝜃(𝑛−1)𝑡ℎ =
2𝑑 𝑑
 RECAP

Maxima/Bright
𝜙 = 0°, 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4𝐼

C.I.

2
𝜙
𝐼𝑅 = 4𝐼 cos
2
The variation of intensity with path difference is
D.I. similar to the graph of cos 2 𝜃.

Minima/Dark
𝜙 = 𝜋, 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0
 YDSE USING MICROWAVES

2𝐷
𝑥
1𝐵
λ 𝑆1 1𝐷
𝑥 + Δ𝑥 Frequency: 3 × 1010 𝐻𝑧 − 1012 𝐻𝑧
𝑑 𝜃
(𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚) 𝑂 𝜃 𝐶. 𝐵. Wavelength:Roughly 0.1𝑚𝑚 − 1 𝑚𝑚
𝑆 𝑑 sin 𝜃
2
1𝐷
1𝐵
𝐷
2𝐷

These waves are produced by special vacuum tubes.

Due to their shorter wavelengths, they are suitable for

the radar system used in aircraft navigation .
We know that the required condition for proper fringe
pattern is: 𝑑 ≪ 𝐷 and 𝜆 ≪ 𝑑 . If we use microwave in YDSE,
then, we will have: 𝜆 ≈ 𝑑 .
 YDSE is carried out using microwaves as shown in figure. Find
the 𝑦 −coordinate of all possible maxima formed on the screen.

Solution

It is given that: 𝑑 = 2 𝑚𝑚, 𝐷 = 1 𝑚 and λ = 0.5 𝑚𝑚 𝑆

1
𝜆 = 0.5 𝑚𝑚.
𝑑 = 2 𝑚𝑚 𝑂
Therefore, we can say that 𝐷 ≫ 𝑑 but 𝑑 ≈ 𝜆.
Thus, 𝜃 ≠ small. 𝑆2
Since 𝐷 ≫ 𝑑 is valid, the path difference 1𝑚
between the rays can be written as,
∆𝑥 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃
Since sin 𝜃 < 1, we can write:
Sin ce 𝜃 ≠ small, we have: sin 𝜃 ≠ tan 𝜃 ≄ 𝜃.
Hence, condition for maxima becomes, 𝑛
<1 𝑛<4 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3
4
∆𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆 𝑛 × 0.5 𝑛
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 sin 𝜃 = = Hence, total number of bright
∆𝑥 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 2 4 fringes or maxima = 7
 𝑥
𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3
λ = 0.5 𝑚𝑚 𝑆 𝑦
1 𝑥 + Δ𝑥
Total maxima(Bright) = 7 𝑑 = 2 𝑚𝑚 𝜃
𝑂
𝑆2 𝑑 sin 𝜃
Y co-ordinate for central maxima: 𝑦𝐶𝐵 = 0
1𝑚
Y co-ordinate for first maxima (𝑛 = 1):
𝑛 1
sin 𝜃 = =
4 4
1
Triangle for sin 𝜃 = 4
𝑦1
tan 𝜃 =
𝐷
4
1
1 𝜃
y1 = tan 𝜃 × 𝐷 = ×1𝑚
15
15
1
𝑦1 = ± 𝑚
15
 𝑥
𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3
λ = 0.5 𝑚𝑚 𝑆 𝑦
1 𝑥 + Δ𝑥
Total maxima(Bright) = 7 𝑑 = 2 𝑚𝑚 𝜃
𝑂
𝑆2 𝑑 sin 𝜃
Y co-ordinate for central maxima: 𝑦𝐶𝐵 = 0
1𝑚
1
Y co-ordinate for first maxima: 𝑦1 = ± 𝑚
15
Y co-ordinate for second maxima (𝑛 = 2):
𝑛 2 1 1
sin 𝜃 = = = Triangle for sin 𝜃 = 2
4 4 2

1 2
y2 = tan 𝜃 × 𝐷 = ×1𝑚 1
3 𝜃
3
1
𝑦2 = ± 𝑚
3
 𝑥
𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3
λ = 0.5 𝑚𝑚 𝑆 𝑦
1 𝑥 + Δ𝑥
Total maxima(Bright) = 7 𝑑 = 2 𝑚𝑚 𝜃
𝑂
𝑆2 𝑑 sin 𝜃
Y co-ordinate for central maxima: 𝑦𝐶𝐵 = 0
1𝑚
1
Y co-ordinate for first maxima: 𝑦1 = ± 𝑚
15
1
Y co-ordinate for second maxima: 𝑦2 = ± 𝑚
3
3
Y co-ordinate for third maxima (𝑛 = 3): Triangle for sin 𝜃 = 4
𝑛 3
sin 𝜃 = =
4 4
4
3 3
y3 = tan 𝜃 × 𝐷 = ×1𝑚
7 𝜃
3 7
𝑦3 = ± 𝑚
7
 OPTICAL PATH

𝑡=0 𝑡1 If a glass slab is placed

𝐼 in the path of ray 𝐼𝐼, then
it is seen that the ray 𝐼𝐼
gets slowed down from the
ray 𝐼.

𝐿 This leads to the phase

𝐼𝐼 difference between them.
But, the geometrical path
length is same for both
the rays.
𝑡=0 𝑡2
 OPTICAL PATH
We know that the frequency of light
doesn’t depend on the refractive index
of the medium and we also know:
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 ⇒ 𝑣 ∝ 𝜆 [Since 𝑓 remains constant]

Now, when the light travels from rarer

to denser medium, its speed decreases
which in turn decreases the wavelength
of the light.
Speed of light in a medium of refractive index 𝜇 is,

𝑐
𝑣=
𝜇
where 𝑐 is the speed of light in vacuum.
OPTICAL PATH

Because of the difference in speed,

there is a difference in phase of
arriving waves.

To find the phase difference, we need

path difference between the two
waves.
 OPTICAL PATH
PATH DIFFRERENCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL WAVES DUE TO A DENSER MEDIUM
𝑡=0 𝑡
In medium:
𝐿
𝐿 𝜇𝐿 𝜇
𝑡= = [Since ]
𝑣 𝑐
In vacuum distance travel by light in 𝐿′
same time 𝑡:
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑡
𝜇𝐿
𝐿′ = 𝑐𝑡 = 𝑐 = 𝜇𝐿
𝑐

optical path = 𝜇𝐿

Covering the distance 𝐿 in medium of refractive index 𝜇 is equivalent to

a distance 𝜇𝐿 in vacuum which we call optical path length.
 OPTICAL PATH DIFFERENCE

PATH DIFFRERENCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL WAVES DUE TO A DENSER MEDIUM

𝑡=0 𝑡
𝐿
optical path = 𝜇𝐿
𝐼 𝜇 ∆𝑥
Optical path difference between
ray 𝐼 and ray 𝐼𝐼 is, 𝐿′
𝐼𝐼
∆𝑥 = 𝐿′ − 𝐿 = 𝜇𝐿 − 𝐿 𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑡

Path difference = 𝜇 − 1 𝐿

2𝜋 2𝜋
Phase difference = × Path difference 𝜙= × 𝜇−1 𝐿
𝜆 𝜆
 OPTICAL PATH DIFFERENCE

EFFECT OF PLACING A THIN TRANSPARENT FILM IN YDSE

In absence of the glass slab, the optical

path difference at point 𝐵 between the 𝑡, 𝜇
rays coming from the slits will be: 𝑆1
[as point 𝐵 is symmetric
w.r.t the slits] 𝑑 𝑂 𝐵
If a glass slab of thickness 𝑡 and R.I. 𝜇 𝑆2
is introduced in the path 𝑆1 𝐵 , extra 𝜇𝑡
amount of optical path is created in the 𝐷
path 𝑆1 𝐵 whereas the optical path on 𝑆2 𝐵 Screen
parallel to the location of slab in 𝑆1 𝐵
is 1 × 𝑡 = 𝑡.
In presence of the glass slab, the optical path difference at point 𝐵
between the rays coming from the slits will be:
 OPTICAL PATH DIFFERENCE

EFFECT OF PLACING A THIN TRANSPARENT FILM IN YDSE

Therefore, we can conclude that: 𝑃

𝑥
Introduction of slab causes change in OPD by 𝑡, 𝜇
𝜇 − 1 𝑡. 𝑆1 𝑦
𝑥 + Δ𝑥
Since the glass slab is placed in the 𝜃
path of the ray coming from 𝑆1 , OPL for 𝑑 𝑂 𝐵
the ray coming from 𝑆1 will be greater
than that coming from 𝑆2 . 𝑆2
Therefore, to get OPD = 0, we have to 𝐷
move upwards from the central line OB so
that OPL for the ray coming from 𝑆2 Screen
becomes equal to that coming from 𝑆1 .
Hence, the central bright fringe will
shift upwards.
 OPTICAL PATH DIFFERENCE

SHIFT IN CENTRAL MAXIMA 𝑥 𝑃

𝑡, 𝜇
𝑆1 𝑦
At central maxima, OPD = 0 𝑥 + Δ𝑥
𝜃
𝑑 𝑂 𝐵
𝑆1𝐵 ray travels extra distance of
∆𝑥1 = 𝜇 − 1 𝑡 𝑆2

𝑆2𝐵 ray travels extra distance of 𝐷

∆𝑥2 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 Screen

If ∆𝑥1 = ∆𝑥2 → OPD = 0

𝜇 − 1 𝑡 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 θ is very small → sin 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃

𝑦𝑑
𝜇 − 1 𝑡 = 𝑑 tan 𝜃 =
𝐷
 OPTICAL PATH DIFFERENCE

SHIFT IN CENTRAL MAXIMA

At central maxima OPD = 0 𝑥 𝑃

𝑡, 𝜇
𝑦𝑑 𝑆1 𝑦
𝜇 − 1 𝑡 = 𝑑 tan 𝜃 = 𝑥 + Δ𝑥
𝐷
𝜃
𝑑 𝑂 𝐵
𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
𝑦=
𝑑 𝑆2 𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝐷
𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 = Screen
𝑑
 OPTICAL PATH DIFFERENCE

SHIFT IN CENTRAL MAXIMA 𝑥 𝑃

𝑡, 𝜇
𝑆1 𝑦
𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷 𝑥 + Δ𝑥
𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 𝜃
𝑑 𝑑 𝑂 𝐵
𝜇−1 𝑡𝐷 𝑆2 𝑑 sin 𝜃
Central maxima shift by 𝑑
in the
direction of slit having slab. 𝐷
Screen
𝜇−1 𝑡𝐷
Each bright and dark fringes shift by .
𝑑
𝑛𝐷𝜆 𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
y𝑛B = +
𝑑 𝑑
2𝑛 − 1 𝐷𝜆 𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
y𝑛D = +
2𝑑 𝑑
 OPTICAL PATH DIFFERENCE

NUMBER OF FRINGES SHIFTED 𝑥 𝑃

𝑡, 𝜇
The fringe width for an ideal YDSE setup 𝑆1 𝑦
𝜆𝐷 𝑥 + Δ𝑥
is: 𝛽 = 𝜃
𝑑
𝑑 𝑂 𝐵
The shift of central maxima is:
𝑆2
𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 𝐷
𝑑
Therefore, the number of fringes shifted will be: Screen

𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
shift of central maxima 𝑑 𝜇−1 𝑡
𝑛= = =
fringe width λ𝐷 𝜆
𝑑

𝜇−1 𝑡
𝑛=
𝜆
 OPTICAL PATH DIFFERENCE

𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
𝑆=
𝑑 𝑃
𝑡, 𝜇
𝑆1 𝑆

𝜇−1 𝑡 𝑑 𝑂
𝑛= 𝐵
𝜆
𝑆2
𝐷
Screen
 OPTICAL PATH DIFFERENCE

𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
𝑆=
𝑑
𝑆1
The central maxima will get
shifted in downward direction
𝑑 𝑂 𝐵
from the central line by this
amount if we place a glass 𝑆2 𝑆
slab of thickness 𝑡 and R.I. 𝜇
in the path of the ray coming 𝑡, 𝜇
from 𝑆2 . 𝐷 𝑃
Screen
The number of fringes shifted will be:

𝜇−1 𝑡
𝑛=
𝜆
 What you already know

Welcome to ▪ YDSE using microwaves

▪ Optical path difference

BYJU’S ▪ Effect of placing a thin

transparent film in YDSE
▪ Shift in central maxima

Classes
▪ No. of fringes shifted

What you will learn

WAVE OPTICS
▪ Numericals on optical path
S8: Problems on optical difference

path difference
 RECAP
2𝐷
𝑥
1𝐵
λ 𝑆1 1𝐷
Frequency: 3 × 1010 𝐻𝑧 − 1012 𝐻𝑧 𝑥 + Δ𝑥
𝑑 𝜃 𝐶. 𝐵.
(𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚) 𝑂 𝜃
Wavelength:Roughly 0.1𝑚𝑚 − 1 𝑚𝑚
𝑆 𝑑 sin 𝜃
2
1𝐷
1𝐵
Condition 1 : 𝐷
2𝐷
𝑑≪𝐷
Condition 2 :

𝜆≈𝑑
⇒ 𝜃 is not very small

∴ sin 𝜃 ≠ tan 𝜃

In this case, we get finite number of fringes on the screen.

 RECAP

The frequency of light doesn’t depend on

the refractive index of the medium and
we also know:
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 ⇒ 𝑣 ∝ 𝜆 [Since 𝑓 remains constant]
Now, when the light travels from rarer
to denser medium, its speed decreases
which in turn decreases the wavelength
of the light.

Speed of light in a medium of refractive index 𝜇 is:

𝑐
𝑣=
𝜇
where 𝑐 is the speed of light in vacuum.
 RECAP

PATH DIFFRERENCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL WAVES DUE TO A DENSER MEDIUM

𝑡=0 𝑡
optical path = 𝜇𝐿 𝐿
𝜇 ∆𝑥
Covering the distance 𝐿 in medium of
refractive index 𝜇 is equivalent to a
distance 𝜇𝐿 in vacuum which we call optical 𝐿′
path length. 𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑡
Path difference ∆𝑥 = 𝐿′ − 𝐿 = 𝜇𝐿 − 𝐿

Path difference = 𝜇 − 1 𝐿
 RECAP

PHASE DIFFRERENCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL WAVES DUE TO A DENSER MEDIUM

Path difference = 𝜇 − 1 𝐿 𝑡=0 𝑡

𝐿
𝜇 ∆𝑥
2𝜋
Phase difference = × Path difference
𝜆 𝐿′
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑡
2𝜋
𝜙= × 𝜇−1 𝐿
𝜆
 RECAP

EFFECT OF PLACING A THIN TRANSPARENT FILM IN YDSE

In absence of the thin film, the path

𝑡, 𝜇
difference between the rays at point 𝐵
𝑆1
is,
∆𝑥 𝐵 =0 𝑑 𝑂 𝐵
Placing a thin transparent film in 𝑆2
YSDE makes
𝐷
∆𝑥 𝐵 ≠0
Screen
𝑆1𝐵 ray travels extra distance of ∆𝑥 = 𝜇 − 1 𝑡
Therefore, introduction of slab causes change in OPD by 𝜇 − 1 𝑡
 RECAP
𝑥 𝑃
𝑡, 𝜇
𝑆1 𝑦
SHIFT IN CENTRAL MAXIMA 𝑥 + Δ𝑥
𝜃
𝑑 𝑂 𝐵
At central maxima OPD = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑆2 𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝜇 − 1 𝑡 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝑑 tan 𝜃 =
𝐷 𝐷

𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷 Screen
𝑦=
𝑑

𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 =
𝑑
 RECAP
𝑥 𝑃
𝑡, 𝜇
𝑆1 𝑦
SHIFT IN CENTRAL MAXIMA 𝑥 + Δ𝑥
𝜃
𝑑 𝑂 𝐵
𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 𝑆2 𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝑑
𝐷
𝜇−1 𝑡𝐷 Screen
Each bright and dark fringes shift by
𝑑

𝑛𝐷𝜆 𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
ynB = +
𝑑 𝑑

2𝑛 − 1 𝐷𝜆 𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
ynD = +
2𝑑 𝑑
 RECAP

𝑥 𝑃
NUMBER OF FRINGES SHIFTED 𝑡, 𝜇
𝑆1 𝑦
𝑥 + Δ𝑥
shift of central maxima 𝜃
𝑛= 𝑑 𝑂 𝐵
fringe width
𝑆2 𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
𝑑 𝐷
𝑛=
λ𝐷
Screen
𝑑

𝜇−1 𝑡
𝑛=
𝜆
 The frequency of a light wave in a material is 2 × 1014 Hz and
ሶ The refractive index of material will be
wavelength is 5000 𝐴.

A 1.50 B 3.00 C 1.33 D 1.40

Solution

Given :
𝑐
𝑓 = 2 × 1014 𝐻𝑧 ∴𝜇=
𝑓𝜆
𝜆 = 5000 𝐴ሶ
3 × 108
Velocity of light in the material, ⇒𝜇= 14 −10 = 3.00
2 × 10 × 5000 × 10
𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓
Refractive index of the material, Hence, option (𝐵) is the correct answer.
𝑐
𝜇=
𝑣
An electromagnetic radiation of frequency 𝑛 , wavelength 𝜆,
travelling with velocity 𝑣 in air, enters a glass slab of
refractive index 𝜇. The frequency, wavelength and velocity of
light in the glass slab will be respectively.

𝑣
A 𝑛 , 2 𝜆 and
𝜇

2𝑛 𝜆
B ,
𝜇 𝜇
and 𝑣

𝑛 𝜆 𝑣
C ,
𝜇 𝜇
and
𝜇

𝜆 𝑣
D 𝑛, and
𝜇 𝜇
 Solution
𝑎𝑖𝑟
Given : Frequency of radiation in air = 𝑛
Wavelength of radiation in air = 𝜆
𝜇
Velocity of radiation in air = 𝑣
Refractive index of glass = 𝜇

The frequency of radiation does not change when it enters the glass medium.
Only the velocity and the wavelength changes.
𝑐 𝑐
∴ 𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑛 As 𝜇 = = , we can write:
𝑣 𝑓𝜆
𝑐
As 𝜇 = , we can write: 𝜇𝜆 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 [∵ 𝑐, 𝑓 = constant]
𝑣

𝜇𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 [∵ 𝑐 = constant] ∴ 𝜆𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝜇𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝜆𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟

∴ 𝑣𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝜇𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟 ⇒ 𝜆𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝜆/𝜇 [∵ 𝜆𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝜆]

⇒ 𝑣𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑣/𝜇 [∵ 𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑣, 𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1 and Hence, option (𝐷) is the correct
𝜇𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝜇] answer.
A beam of monochromatic light is refracted from vacuum into a
medium of refractive index 1.5 . The wavelength of refracted
light will be

A depend on intensity of
refracted light

B same

C smaller

D larger
 Solution

The light is travelling from vacuum (𝜇 = 1) 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚

to a medium (𝜇 = 1.5) .
We know that:
𝜇 = 1.5
and

Combining these two equations, we get,

∴ Wavelength in refracted medium will

⇒
Assuming the wavelength of the light to be smaller.
be 𝜆 and 𝜆′ in vacuum and in the medium
Hence, option (𝐶) is the correct answer.
respectively, we can write:

⇒
In a double slit experiment, when light of wavelength 400 𝑛𝑚 was used, the
angular width of the first minima formed on a screen placed 1𝑚 away, was
found to be 0.2°. What will be the angular width of the first minima, if
4
the entire experimental apparatus is immersed in water? (𝜇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = )
3

A 0.1°

B 0.266°

C 0.15°

D 0.05°
 Solution
𝑥 𝑃
Given :
4 𝑆1 𝑥 𝑦
𝜆 = 400 𝑛𝑚 𝐷 = 1𝑚 𝜇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑑 𝜃 𝜃 + Δ𝑥
3 (𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚)
𝑂 C. 𝐵.
𝜃
Angular width of first minima in air 𝑆2
is, 𝜃 = 0.2° λ (𝑖𝑛 𝐴)ሶ
𝐷
Formula of angular fringe width in air is,
𝑦 𝜆 𝐷 ≫≫ 𝑑
Screen
𝜃0 = =
𝐷 𝑑
Wavelength 𝜆′ in water is given by,
𝜆′ = 𝜆/𝜇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Therefore, the angular fringe width of 1st minima in water is given by,
𝜆′ 𝜆 𝜃0 0.2°
𝜃𝑤 = = = ⇒ 𝜃𝑤 = 4 = 0.15°
𝑑 𝜇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑 𝜇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
3

Hence, option (𝐶) is the correct answer.

In YDSE, find the thickness of a glass slab (𝜇 = 1.5) which
should be kept in front of upper slit 𝑆1 so that the central
maxima is formed at a place where 5𝑡ℎ bright fringe was lying
earlier (before inserting slab). 𝜆 = 5000𝐴ሶ

A 10 𝜇𝑚

B 5 𝜇𝑚

C 1 𝜇𝑚

D 0.5 𝜇𝑚
 Solution 5𝑡ℎ 𝐵
𝐶𝐵
Given : 𝜆 = 5000 𝐴ሶ 𝑡
𝑆1 𝑦
𝜇 = 1.5
The position of 5th bright fringe in 𝑑 𝑂 𝑃𝑂
absence of the slab is, 𝜆
𝑆2
5𝐷𝜆 th bright, y 𝑛𝐷𝜆
y5B = [∵ for n nB = ] 𝐷
𝑑 𝑑 Screen

Because of the insertion of the slab, the shift in central maxima is,
𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
𝑦=
𝑑
Since the central maxima is formed at a place where 5𝑡ℎ bright fringe was lying
earlier (before inserting slab), we should have:
𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷 5𝐷𝜆 5𝜆 5000 × 10−10
= ⇒ 𝑡= =5× ⇒ 𝑡 = 5 𝜇𝑚
𝑑 𝑑 𝜇−1 1.5 − 1

Hence, option (𝐵) is the correct answer.

A plate of thickness 𝑡 made of a material of refractive index 𝜇 is placed
in front of one of the slits in a double slit experiment. Wavelength of
light used is 𝜆.
What should be the minimum thickness 𝑡 which will make the intensity at the
center of the fringe pattern zero ?

Solution

Given : Wavelength = 𝜆 𝑡
Plate thickness = 𝑡 𝑆1
Refractive index = 𝜇 𝑑 𝑂 𝑃𝑂
For the intensity to be zero at the center 𝑆2
𝜆
of the fringe pattern, there should be a
𝐷
minima at the center.
Screen
Path difference at the centre 𝑃0 is Δ𝑥 = 𝜇 − 1 𝑡
For minima, we know:

2𝑛 − 1 𝜆
Δ𝑥 =
2

⇒ 𝜇 − 1 𝑡 = 2𝑛 − 1 𝜆/2

For 𝑡 to be minimum, we have to put 𝑛 = 1. Thus,

𝜇 − 1 𝑡 = 𝜆/2
𝜆
⇒𝑡=
2 𝜇−1

𝜆
𝑡=
2 𝜇−1
Monochromatic light of wavelength 600 𝑛𝑚 is used in a Young’s double slit
experiment. One of the slits is covered by a transparent sheet of
thickness 1.8 × 10−5 𝑚 made of a material of refractive index 1.6 . How many
fringes will shift due to the introduction of the sheet ?

Solution

Given : 𝑡
−5 𝜇 =1.6
𝜆 = 600 𝑛𝑚 𝑡 = 1.8 × 10 𝑚 𝑆1
Optical path difference, ∆𝑥 = 𝜇 − 1 𝑡 𝑑 𝑂 𝑃𝑂
Therefore, the number of fringes shifted 𝑆2
due to the introduction of the sheet is, 𝜆
𝐷
𝜇−1 𝑡 1.6 − 1 × 1.8 × 10−5
𝑛= ⇒ 𝑛= 600 × 10−9
= 18 Screen
𝜆

𝑛 = 18
Two transparent slabs having equal thickness but different refractive
indices 𝜇1 and 𝜇2 𝜇1 > 𝜇2 are pasted side by side to form a composite slab.
This slab is placed just after the double slit in a Young’s experiment so
that the light from one slit goes through one material and light through
other slit goes through other material. What should be the minimum
thickness of the slab so that there is a minimum at point 𝑃𝑜 which is
equidistant from the slits ?

𝑡
𝑆1

𝑑 𝑂 𝑃𝑂
𝑆2
𝜆
𝐷
Screen
 Solution
Given : 𝑡
Wavelength = 𝜆 𝑆1
Thickness of both the slabs: 𝑑 𝑂
𝑡1 = 𝑡2 = 𝑡 𝑃𝑂
𝑆2
Path difference between the rays at 𝑃0 𝜆
due to both the slabs is, 𝐷
Δ𝑥 = 𝜇1 − 1 𝑡 − 𝜇2 − 1 𝑡 = 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 𝑡 Screen
For minima at 𝑃0 , we should have: For 𝑡 to be minimum, we must put
Δ𝑥 = 2𝑛 − 1 𝜆/2 𝑛 = 1. Thus,
𝜆
⇒ 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 𝑡 = 2𝑛 − 1 𝜆/2 ∴𝑡=
2 𝜇1 −𝜇2

𝜆
𝑡=
2 𝜇1 − 𝜇2
A thin paper of thickness 0.02 𝑚𝑚 having a refractive index 1.45 is pasted
across one of the slits in a Young’s slit experiment. The paper transmits
4/9 of the light energy falling on it. The wavelength of light used is
600 𝑛𝑚. Find the ratio of the maximum intensity to the minimum intensity
in the fringe pattern.

𝑡
𝑆1

𝑑 𝑂 𝑃𝑂
600 𝑛𝑚 𝑆2

𝐷
Screen
 Solution
𝑡
Given : 𝑡 = 0.02 𝑚𝑚 and 𝜇 = 1.45 600 𝑛𝑚 𝑆1
Intensity of light through 𝑆2 slit = 𝐼0
𝑑 𝑂 𝑃𝑂
Since the paper transmits 4/9 of the
𝑆2
light energy falling on it, the intensity
4
of light through 𝑆1 slit = 𝐼0 𝐷
9

Maximum intensity at 𝑃0 : Screen

Minimum intensity at 𝑃0 :
2 2
2 4 2 4
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼0 + 𝐼0 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 𝐼0 − 𝐼
9 9 0
2 2 5 2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼0 1+3
9
Therefore, the required ratio is, = 2 2
= 1 2
= 25
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼0 1−3
9

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 25
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
 What you already know

Welcome to ▪ YDSE using microwaves

▪ Optical path difference

BYJU’S ▪ Effect of placing a thin

transparent film in YDSE
▪ Shift in central maxima

Classes
▪ No. of fringes shifted

What you will learn

WAVE OPTICS
S9: Diffraction ▪
▪
Fresnel diffraction
Fraunhofer diffraction
▪ Condition for dark fringe
▪ Condition for bright fringe
 RECAP

PATH DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL WAVES DUE TO A DENSER MEDIUM

𝑡=0 𝑡
optical path = 𝜇𝐿 𝐿
𝜇 ∆𝑥
Covering the distance 𝐿 in medium of
refractive index 𝜇 is equivalent to a
distance 𝜇𝐿 in vacuum which we call optical 𝐿′
path length. 𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑡
Path difference, ∆𝑥 = 𝐿′ − 𝐿 = 𝜇𝐿 − 𝐿

Path difference = 𝜇 − 1 𝐿
 RECAP

PHASE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL WAVES DUE TO A DENSER MEDIUM

Path difference = 𝜇 − 1 𝐿 𝑡=0 𝑡

𝐿
𝜇 ∆𝑥
2𝜋
Phase difference = × Path difference
𝜆 𝐿′
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑡
2𝜋
𝜙= × 𝜇−1 𝐿
𝜆
 RECAP

EFFECT OF PLACING A THIN TRANSPARENT FILM IN YDSE

In absence of the thin film, the path

𝑡, 𝜇
difference between the rays at point 𝐵
𝑆1
is,
∆𝑥 𝐵 =0 𝑑 𝑂 𝐵
Placing a thin transparent film in 𝑆2
YSDE makes,
𝐷
∆𝑥 𝐵 ≠0
Screen
𝑆1𝐵 ray travels extra distance, ∆𝑥 = 𝜇 − 1 𝑡.
Therefore, introduction of slab causes change in OPD by 𝜇 − 1 𝑡.
 RECAP

SHIFT IN CENTRAL MAXIMA

𝑥 𝑃
At central maxima, OPD = 0 𝑡, 𝜇
𝑑𝑦 𝑆1 𝑦
𝑥 + Δ𝑥
𝜇 − 1 𝑡 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝑑 tan 𝜃 =
𝐷 𝜃
𝑑 𝑂 𝐵
𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
𝑦= 𝑆2 𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝑑
𝐷
Screen
𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 =
𝑑
 RECAP

SHIFT IN CENTRAL MAXIMA

𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷 𝑥 𝑃
𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 𝑡, 𝜇
𝑑 𝑦
𝑆1 𝑥 + Δ𝑥
Each bright and dark fringes 𝜃
𝑑 𝑂 𝐵
𝜇−1 𝑡𝐷
shifts by .
𝑑
𝑆2 𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝑛𝐷𝜆 𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷 𝐷
ynB = +
𝑑 𝑑
Screen
2𝑛 − 1 𝐷𝜆 𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
ynD = +
2𝑑 𝑑
 RECAP

NUMBER OF FRINGES SHIFTED

𝑥 𝑃
𝑡, 𝜇
shift of central maxima 𝑆1 𝑦
𝑛= 𝑥 + Δ𝑥
fringe width 𝜃
𝑑 𝑂 𝐵
𝜇 − 1 𝑡𝐷
𝑛= 𝑑 𝑆2 𝑑 sin 𝜃
λ𝐷
𝑑 𝐷
Screen
𝜇−1 𝑡
𝑛=
𝜆
 DIFFRACTION

Suppose a man is sitting in a dark room. As the lamp outside the room
is switched on, the room also gets illuminated as the light from the
lamp spreads in all directions.

But, if we take light as a particle, it should only illuminate the area

in front of the door, as it will travel in straight line only whereas
the light enters the shadow region also, which can only be explained by
taking light as a wave.
 DIFFRACTION

The bending of light

around the
corners/obstacles, whose
dimensions are comparable
to the wavelength of
light, and hence the
encroachment of light into
the region of geometrical
shadow is called as
diffraction.

Original direction
 DIFFRACTION
Why bending occurs ?
When a plane wavefront is incident on a narrow opening, each
point on the plane wavefront acts as secondary source of
light waves. The secondary sources emit spherical wavelets
as shown in the figure and the envelope of the wavelets
denote the secondary wavefront. This explains the reason
behind the bending of light when light strikes a narrow
opening having sharp edge.

Interference is due to superposition of two distinct waves

coming from two coherent sources whereas diffraction is
produced as a result of superposition of infinite secondary
wavelets coming from the unblocked part of same wavefront at
the opening.
Condition for diffraction:
𝜆 ≈ size of obstacle
Original direction
 DIFFRACTION

The light bends from the edge of the opaque object and enters the region of geometrical
shadow and a pattern having alternative bright and dark fringes is observed between the
illuminated region and the dark region.

Illuminated
Region

Geometrical Bright & Dark

Shadow Region Fringes

Opaque
Object
 DIFFRACTION

TYPES OF DIFFRACTION

Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhofer Diffraction

For finite distance For far/infinite
observations distance observations
Observation
point

Opaque Object
Screen
 FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION

CIRCULAR APERTURE 𝑏 = diameter of aperture

𝐷 = distance of screen
from hole
𝜆 = wavelength of light

If a circular aperture is used, we get a circular bright spot at the centre and
then alternative dark and bright circular rings.
 FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION

CIRCULAR APERTURE
𝑅 → Radius of diffraction disc

Dark Fringe
𝜃 𝑅
𝑏 Bright Fringe

The size of the central bright spot obtained on the screen is larger than the
geometrical size of the circular aperture. This shows the bending of light
around the edges of the circular aperture.
 DIFFRACTION EXPERIMENT
𝑆𝑂 Point source
𝐺 Diffraction element
𝐴 1𝑠𝑡 Dark
E Screen
𝑆𝑂 Central bright (𝐶𝐵)
𝑂
According to Huygens principle, 𝐵 1𝑠𝑡 Dark
each point on the unblocked
portion of plane wavefront 𝐺
sends out secondary wavelets in E
all the directions. Single slit diffraction

The secondary waves, from points equidistant from the centre of the slit in the
upper and lower portion of wavefront travel the same distance in reaching 𝑂,
and hence the path difference b/w them is zero. These secondary waves reinforce
each other, resulting in the maximum intensity at point 𝑂 and this point is
called central bright.
 DIFFRACTION EXPERIMENT

𝑃
The Intensity at point 𝑃
𝐴
depends on the path
difference between the 𝑎 𝜃
extreme waves. S 𝐶𝐵
From diagram, it is clear 𝑁
that, 𝐴𝑃 ≈ 𝑁𝑃 𝐵 Path Difference (∆𝑥)

𝐵𝑁 Screen
= sin 𝜃
𝐴𝐵

𝐵𝑁 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃

Path difference, (∆𝑥) = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 ∵ 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎

 DIFFRACTION EXPERIMENT
Case1 ∶ If the path difference between the extreme waves is equal to 𝜆.

𝜆
Waves between 𝐴 and 𝐶 and that between 𝐶 and 𝐵 will have a path difference of or a phase
2
difference of 𝜋. Thus, Waves between 𝐴 and 𝐶 and that between 𝐶 and 𝐵 will destructively
interfere and hence intensity at that point is zero. This leads to first minima.
 DIFFRACTION EXPERIMENT
Case1 ∶ If the path difference between the extreme waves is equal to 𝜆.

The angle of diffraction 𝜃 for which the first

secondary minimum is produced is given as,
1𝑠𝑡 Min
𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝜆
𝐴
𝜆
sin 𝜃 =
𝑎 𝑎 𝜃 𝐶.𝑀

∴ 𝜃 →small, sin𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
𝑁
𝐵 𝜆
𝜆 1𝑠𝑡 Min
𝜃=
𝑎

It is evident from above equation that, as the width of slit decreases, the angle of
diffraction increases i.e. the bending of light around the corners is more prominent when
the slit size is smaller.
 DIFFRACTION EXPERIMENT
Case1 ∶ If the path difference between the extreme waves is equal to 𝜆.

For 1𝑠𝑡 dark: 𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝜆

𝜆 (∴ 𝜃 → small,
sin 𝜃 = 1𝑠𝑡 Min
𝑎 sin 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃)
𝐴
𝜆 𝑦
𝜃1 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 = 𝜃 Central
𝑎 𝑎 Bright
𝑦 𝑦
tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 = 𝑁
𝐷 𝐵 𝜆 1𝑠𝑡 Min
𝑦 𝜆 𝐷
=
𝐷 𝑎

𝐷𝜆 2𝐷𝜆
𝑦1 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 = Width of central bright =
𝑎 𝑎
 DIFFRACTION EXPERIMENT

Case2 ∶ If the path difference between the extreme waves is equal to 2𝜆.

𝐴
This can be understood by dividing 𝐴𝐵 in four equal
parts. As the path difference b/w 𝐴 and 𝐵 is 2𝜆 ,
therefore, for each portion, the path difference will
𝜆
be . 𝑎
2
The corresponding waves of the upper two portions
(yellow and red portion as shown in figure) and the
corresponding waves of the bottom two portions (blue 𝑁
and indigo portion as shown in figure) interfere 𝐵 2𝜆
destructively, obtaining the second minima on the
screen.
 DIFFRACTION EXPERIMENT

Case2 ∶ If the path difference between the extreme waves is equal to 2𝜆.
For 2𝑛𝑑 dark: 𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 2𝜆

𝑎𝜃2 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 = 2𝜆 𝐴

2𝜆 2𝐷𝜆
𝜃2 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 = 𝑦2 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 =
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

The angle of diffraction 𝜃𝑛 for 𝑛𝑡ℎ minimum (dark)

is given by, 𝑁
𝐵 2𝜆
𝑛𝜆 𝑛𝐷𝜆
𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 = 𝑦𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 =
𝑎 𝑎
where, 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3,4 … … . .
 DIFFRACTION EXPERIMENT
3𝜆
Case3 ∶ If the path difference between the extreme waves is equal to .
2
This can be understood as follows :
Divide 𝐴𝐵 in three equal parts. As the path difference
b/w 𝐴 and 𝐵 is
3𝜆
, therefore, for each portion the path 𝐴
2
𝜆
difference will be .
2

The corresponding waves of the upper two portions

𝜆
𝑎
because of a path difference of or a phase
2
difference of 𝜋, interfere destructively and there will
not be any intensity due to the upper two portions. 𝑁
There will be a bright spot on the screen as the 3𝜆
𝐵
bottom portion is not interfering, but the intensity
of this bright fringe will be less as it is only due 2
to the one third portion and hence intensity of this
bright fringe will be one third of the central bright.
 DIFFRACTION EXPERIMENT
3𝜆
Case3 ∶ If the path difference between the extreme waves is equal to .
2

For 1𝑠𝑡 bright: 𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 3𝜆/2

3𝜆
sin 𝜃 = (∵ 𝜃 → small, sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃) 𝐴
2𝑎
3𝜆
𝜃1 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
2𝑎
3𝜆 3𝐷𝜆 𝑎
𝜃1 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑦1 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
2𝑎 2𝑎
The angle of diffraction 𝜃𝑛 for which secondary 𝑁
maximum (bright) are produced is given as,
𝐵 3𝜆
2
2𝑛 + 1 𝜆 2𝑛 + 1 𝐷𝜆
𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑦𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
2𝑎 2𝑎
where, 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3,4 … … . .
 DIFFRACTION EXPERIMENT
3𝜆
Case3 ∶ If the path difference between the extreme waves is equal to .
2

Second secondary maxima

𝐴
First secondary maxima

Central maxima
𝑎
First secondary maxima

𝑁 Second secondary maxima

𝐵 3𝜆 Screen
2
 What you already know

Welcome to ▪ Optical path difference

▪ Effect of placing a thin

BYJU’S transparent film in YDSE

▪ Fresnel and Fraunhofer
diffraction

Classes
▪ Condition for dark and
bright fringe

What you will learn

WAVE OPTICS
▪ Polarized and unpolarized
S10: Polarization light
▪ Polarizer
▪ Law of Malus
▪ Brewster’s law
 RECAP
The bending of light around the
corners/obstacles of which dimensions
are comparable to the wavelength of
light, and the encroachment of light
into the region of geometrical shadow
is called as diffraction.

Interference is due to superposition

of two distinct waves coming from two
coherent sources whereas diffraction
is produced as a result of
superposition of infinite secondary
wavelets coming from the unblocked
part of same wavefront at the
Original direction
opening.
 RECAP

FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION

𝑏 = diameter of aperture 𝑏
𝐷 = distance of screen from hole
𝜆 = wavelength of light

If a circular aperture is used, the diffraction pattern on the screen consists

of a circular bright spot at the centre and then alternative dark and bright
circular rings, as shown in the figure above.
 RECAP

IF THE PATH DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE EXTREME WAVES IS EQUAL TO 𝑛𝜆

Path difference 𝐵𝑁 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃

For 𝑛𝑡ℎ dark: 𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 1𝑠𝑡 Min

𝐴
𝑦
𝑛𝜆 𝑎 𝜃
𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 = 𝐶.𝑀.
𝑎 𝑦
𝑁
𝐵 𝜆
𝑛𝐷𝜆 1𝑠𝑡 Min
𝑦𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 =
𝑎

where, 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3,4 … … . .
 RECAP

2𝑛+1 𝜆
IF THE PATH DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE EXTREME WAVES IS EQUAL TO 2

Path difference 𝐵𝑁 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃

2𝑛+1 𝜆
For 𝑛𝑡ℎ bright: 𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝐴
2

2𝑛 + 1 𝜆
𝜃𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
2𝑎 𝑎

2𝑛 + 1 𝐷𝜆 𝑁
𝑦𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
2𝑎 𝐵 (2𝑛 + 1)𝜆
2
where, 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3,4 … … . .
 RECAP

2𝑛𝑑 secondary maxima

2𝑛𝑑secondary minimum
1𝑠𝑡 secondary maxima
1𝑠𝑡secondary minimum
Central maxima Central maxima

1𝑠𝑡secondary minimum
1𝑠𝑡 secondary maxima
2𝑛𝑑secondary minimum
2𝑛𝑑 secondary maxima

Screen Screen

In a diffraction pattern, the intensity of the central bright is maximum and

as we move away from central bright, the intensity of secondary maxima keep
on decreasing.
 ANGULAR WIDTH OF THE CENTRAL MAXIMUM

2𝑛𝑑secondary minimum
For Bright fringe:
Angular fringe width is equal to the 1𝑠𝑡secondary minimum
difference b/w the angular positions S
of two consecutive dark fringes.
𝑊𝜃𝐵 = 𝜃2𝐷 − 𝜃1𝐷 1𝑠𝑡secondary minimum
2𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
𝑊𝜃𝐵 = − ⇒ 𝑊𝜃𝐵 = 2𝑛𝑑secondary minimum
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
For Dark fringe:
Angular fringe width is equal to the
difference b/w the angular positions Central angular fringe:2𝜃
of two consecutive bright fringes.
𝑊𝜃𝐷 = 𝜃2𝐵 − 𝜃1𝐵
5𝜆 3𝜆 𝜆 2𝜆
𝑊𝜃𝐷 = − ⇒ 𝑊𝜃𝐷 = Angular Width of central maxima =
2𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
 INTENSITY OF DIFFRACTION PREPATTERN

𝜆 𝜆 2𝜆 2𝜆
sin 𝜃 = + , − , + , − …………
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

❖ In a diffraction pattern,
the intensity of the central
bright is maximum and as we
move away from central 2𝜆 𝜆 𝑂 𝜆 2𝜆
bright, the intensity of − − + +
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
secondary maxima keep on
decreasing.
In a diffraction pattern due to a single slit width 𝑎, the first minimum is
observed at an angle 30𝑜 when light of wavelength 5000 𝐴ሶ is incident on
the slit. The first secondary maximum is observed at an angle of
−1 1 −1 3 −1 1 −1 2
(𝑎) sin (𝑏) sin (𝑐) sin (𝑑) sin
2 4 4 3

Solution

Given: 𝑛 = 1, 𝜃1𝐷 = 30°

The condition of minima in single slit
diffraction:

𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 ⇒ 𝑎 sin 30𝑜 = 1 𝜆 ⇒ 𝑎 = 2𝜆

3𝜆
For first secondary maxima: 𝑎 sin 𝜃 =
2
3𝜆
⇒ sin 𝜃 =
2 × 2𝜆
3𝜆 3 3 Hence, option (𝑏) is the correct answer.
⇒ sin 𝜃 = ⇒ sin 𝜃 = Or −1
𝜃 = sin
4𝜆 4 4
 At the first minimum adjacent to the central maximum of a single-slit
diffraction pattern, the phase difference between the Huygens’ wavelet
from the edge of the slit and the wavelet from the midpoint of the slit is
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
(𝑎) 𝜋 radians 𝑏 radians (𝑐) radians (𝑑) radians
8 4 2

Solution
𝑥 1𝑠𝑡 minima
The path difference b/w the
waves from the two edges of 𝑆1
the slit is, ∆𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 𝑎
𝜃 𝐶. 𝐵.
𝑎 2 𝑂 Δ𝑥 ′
The path difference b/w the
wavelets from the edge of
the slit and from midpoint 𝐷
𝑎
of the slit is, ∆𝑥 ′ = sin 𝜃
2
For first minima :
∆𝑥 = 𝑎 sin𝜃 = 𝜆 𝑥 1𝑠𝑡 minima

𝑎 𝜆 𝑆1
∴ ∆𝑥′= sin𝜃 = 𝑎
2 2 𝑎
𝜃 𝐶. 𝐵.
2 𝑂 Δ𝑥 ′
Phase difference:
2𝜋
Δ𝜙 = × ∆𝑥
𝜆 𝐷
2𝜋 𝑎
⇒ Δ𝜙 = × sin𝜃
𝜆 2
2𝜋 𝜆
⇒ Δ𝜙 = ×
𝜆 2

Δ𝜙 = 𝜋

Hence, option (𝑎) is the correct answer.

 POLARIZATION

❖ Light is a transverse wave. 𝐸

❖ Vibrations of electric field and

magnetic field are perpendicular
to direction of propagation.

Classification of light: 𝑛ො

1. Unpolarized light 𝐵

2. Polarized light Electromagnetic wave

3. Partially polarized light

 UNPOLARIZED LIGHT

Unpolarized light – The vibrations of 𝐸Ԧ field occur symmetrically in all

directions in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light.

Vibrations in plane of paper

Vibrations perpendicular
to plane of paper
 UNPOLARIZED LIGHT

How do we get unpolarized light?

In common light sources, EM waves
are produced by excited atoms, and
different atoms can have different
electric field directions. That’s
why the general light sources given
below produces unpolarized light.
Vibrations produced in atoms

General sources of unpolarized light:

Bulb Candle Sun

Light Source
 POLARIZATION

2. Polarized light

Plane of oscillation

Only the components of vibrations parallel to the pass axis of the polarizer
can pass through the polarizer and the light we get is called the plane
polarized light.
 PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT

Plane Polarized light – The vibrations of 𝐸Ԧ field occur only in one direction
in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light.

𝑥
𝑧

Plane of polarization – Plane containing electric field and direction of

propagation.
 POLARIZER

How do we get polarized light ?

When an unpolarized light is passed through a
polarizer, only the component of the electric
field parallel to the transmission axis/ pass
axis of the polarizer can pass through the
polarizer. By this way, we get polarized light. Vibrations ⊥ to plane of paper

The phenomenon of restricting the

Transmission axis
vibrations of 𝐸Ԧ to one direction
in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of light
is known as polarization of
light.
Unpolarized Polarized
light light
Polarizer
 CHARACTRISTRISTICS OF LIGHT RAYS

When an unpolarized light is passed through polarizer:

On rotating the polarizer by 90𝑜

Unpolarized Polarized
light light Unpolarize Polarized
Polarizer d light light
𝐼𝑂 Polarizer
Intensity = 𝐼𝑂 Intensity = 𝐼
2 Intensity = 𝐼𝑂 Intensity = 𝑂
2

❖ For unpolarized light, on rotating the polaroid, the intensity of the

emergent light remains same.
 CHARACTRISTRISTICS OF LIGHT RAYS

When polarized light is passed through polarizer:

On rotating the polarizer by 90𝑜

Polarized Polarized Polarized Polarized

light light light light
Polarizer Polarizer
Intensity = 𝐼𝑂 Intensity = 0
Intensity = 𝐼𝑂 Intensity = 𝐼0

❖ For Polarized light, on rotating the polaroid the intensity of the emergent
light varies from maximum to zero.
 CHARACTRISTRISTICS OF LIGHT RAYS

When partially polarized light is passed through polarizer:

On rotating the polarizer by 90𝑜

Partially Polarized Polarized

Partially
polarized light light light
Polarizer polarized light
𝐼𝑂 Polarizer
Intensity = 𝐼𝑂 Intensity =
2 Intensity = 𝐼𝑂 Intensity, 0 < 𝐼 < 𝐼0

❖ For partially Polarized light, on rotating the polaroid, the intensity of

the emergent light varies between maximum to minimum but never becomes
zero.
 LAW OF MALUS

❖ When a completely plane polarized light is incident on

an analyzer, the intensity of emergent light varies as
the square of the cosine of the angle between the
transmission axis and axis of light that passes
through the analyzer.
1775 − 1812
𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos 2 𝜃 Étienne-Louis Malus

❖ We know that intensity is proportional Transmission

axis 𝜃
to the square of the amplitude. Thus,

Polarized light (𝐼0)

 LAW OF MALUS

Angle between 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 is zero Angle between 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 is 90°

Angle between 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 is 𝜃 where, 𝜃 ≠ 90𝑜

 Unpolarised light with intensity 𝐼0 passes through a polarizer and then
through a second polarizing filter (analyzer) with an angle of 30° relative
to the first one. What is the final intensity of light?
3𝐼0 2𝐼0 3𝐼0 4𝐼0
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
8 3 4 3

Solution

Given: 𝐼 = 𝐼0 , 𝜃 = 30°
Intensity of light after passing through
polarizer 𝑃1 is,
𝐼0
𝐼1 =
2
Intensity of light after passing through polarizer 𝑃2 is given by,
2
2
𝐼0 2 𝐼0 3 𝐼0 3 3𝐼0
𝐼2 = 𝐼1 cos 𝜃 𝐼2 = cos 30° 𝐼2 = = 𝐼2 =
2 2 2 2 4 8
Hence, option (𝑎) is the correct answer.
 Unpolarised light with amplitude 𝐴0 passes through two polarizers. The
first one has an angle of 30° clockwise to vertical and second one has an
angle of 15° counterclockwise to vertical. What is the amplitude of light
emitting from the second polarizer?
𝐴0 𝐴0 𝐴0 𝐴0
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
8 3 4 2

Solution

Given: 𝐴 = 𝐴0
We know, intensity is proportional to
the square of amplitude. Therefore,
𝐴1 𝐼1
𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2 𝐴∝ 𝐼 =
𝐴2 𝐼2
Intensity of light after passing
through polarizer 𝑃1,
𝐼0
𝐼1 =
2
Therefore, the ratio of the amplitude
of the light after crossing 𝑃1 to the
incident light is given by,

𝐴1 𝐼1 𝐼0 1 𝐴0
= = = 𝐴1 =
𝐴0 𝐼0 2𝐼0 2 2
Intensity of light after passing
through polarizer 𝑃2 is,
𝐼2 = 𝐼1 cos2 𝜃
Here, 𝜃 = 30° − −15° = 45°. Therefore, we get,
2
𝐼0 𝐼0 1 𝐼0
𝐼2 = cos2 45° = =
2 2 2 4
Therefore, the ratio of the amplitude of the light after crossing 𝑃1 to the final emergent
light is given by,
𝐴1 𝐼1 𝐴2 𝐼2 𝐼0 1 𝐴0
= = = = 𝐴2 =
𝐴2 𝐼2 𝐴0 𝐼0 4𝐼0 4 2
Hence, option (𝑑) is the correct answer.
 Use of polarizer

The sunlight, which is an unpolarized light, after passing

through the polaroids of sunglasses becomes polarized and the
intensity of sunlight coming into the eyes decreases.
 POLARIZATION BY REFLECTION
❖ When light is reflected in going from one medium to other medium, the
reflected light becomes partially polarized.

Unpolarized light

Partially polarized

Air
Medium (𝝁)

Unpolarized light
 BREWSTER’S LAW

❖ The degree of polarization of reflected light depends upon the

angle of incidence.

❖ At a particular angle of incidence when reflected ray is

perpendicular to refracted ray, then reflected ray is plane
polarized.
1781 − 1868
▪ For a particular angle of incidence 𝑖𝑝:
SIR DAVID BREWSTER
Reflected light – completely plane polarized
Plane polarized

𝑖𝑝
Air

Medium (𝜇)
 BREWSTER’S LAW
❖ Applying Snell’s Law for the given Plane
configuration, we get,
polarized
1 × sin 𝑖𝑝 = 𝜇 × sin 𝑟 ………(1)
For the reflected ray to be plane
𝑖𝑝
polarized, the required condition is: Air
The reflected ray should be perpendicular to
refracted ray for a particular angle of incidence.
Medium (𝜇)
Therefore, 𝑖𝑝 + 𝑟 = 90° ⇒ 𝑟 = 90° − 𝑖𝑝
90𝑜 − 𝑖𝑝
Hence, equation (1) becomes:
1 × sin 𝑖𝑝 = 𝜇 × sin 90 − 𝑖𝑝
sin 𝑖𝑝 sin 𝑖𝑝
𝜇= 𝜇= = tan 𝑖𝑝
sin 90 − 𝑖𝑝 cos 𝑖𝑝

𝑖𝑝 = Brewster’s angle Mathematical form of

tan 𝑖𝑝 = 𝜇 𝜇 = Refractive index of medium Brewster’s Law
 The refractive index of water w.r.t air is 4/3. Find 𝑖𝑝 for air-water
interface.
𝑎 0° 𝑏 30° 𝑐 53° 𝑑 45°

Solution

Using Brewster’s law: 𝑖𝑝

Air
𝜇 = tan 𝑖𝑝
4 water (4/3)
= tan 𝑖𝑝
3

𝑖𝑝 = tan−1 4/3

𝑖𝑝 = 53°

Hence, option (𝑐) is the correct answer.

 The Brewster angle 𝑖𝑝 for an interface should be
𝑎 0° < 𝑖𝑝 < 30° 𝑏 30° < 𝑖𝑝 < 45° 𝑐 45° < 𝑖𝑝 < 90° 𝑑 𝑖𝑝 = 90°

Solution

Brewster’s law: 𝑖𝑝
Air
tan 𝑖𝑝 = 𝜇 𝑖𝑝 = tan−1 𝜇
Medium (𝜇)
Refractive index can vary between: 1 < 𝜇 < ∞

tan−1 1 tan−1 ∞
Therefore, the Brewster’s
angle should lie between:
45° 90° 45° < 𝑖𝑝 < 90°

Hence, option (𝑐) is the correct answer.