WEEK 5

HYDROGEN

Hydrogen is found in the combined form in water and organic compounds on

earth. Hydrogen was first discovered/prepared by Henry Cavendish in 1766, who
called it inflammable air but Lavoisier gave it the name hydrogen. Ability of
hydrogen to form single positive and negative ion make it fit into both group 1
and 7 respectively in the periodic table.

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN

It can be prepared by:.

1. Action of
dilute acid on zinc:.Dillute hydrochloric acid or tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid
reacts with granulated metallic zinc to liberate hydrogen gas.

the hydrogen gas is given off in a gas jar over water. If pure and dry gas is
needed then it is passed through fused calcium chloride or conc. H2SO4 and collect
the gas by upward delivery ( which is downward displacement of air ). Since it is
lighter than air.

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl(aq) + H2(g)

orZn(s) + H2SO4(aq)  ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

2. Action of
steam on red hot iron fillings: Iron at red hot liberates hydrogen from
steam
3Fe(s) + 4H2O ↔ Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g).

3. Action of
cold water on active metals: Sodium and potassium react rapidly with cold
water liberating hydrogen gas
2Na(s) +2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g).
2K(s) +2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g).
The hydrogen gas is given off by effervescence and is collected in the test
tube inverted over the metal.

Diagram

INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN

It is prepared by the process called BOSCH PROCESS.

1. It can be
prepared by passing steam over red hot coke at about 100⁰C to give a
mixture of carbon(ii)oxide and hydrogen known as water gas. Excess steam
 is then mixed with water gas and passed over a suitable catalyst, iron (iii)
oxide at 450⁰C. The carbon(ii)oxide is converted to carbon(iv)oxide and
hydrogen.
C(s) + H2O(g)  CO(g) + H2(g)

Water gas
CO(g) + H2(g) + H2O(g) ↔ CO2(g) + 2H2(g)
2. From
Methane: When methane is treated with steam in the presence of nickel
catalyst at 5000C and 30atm a mixture of carbon(ii)oxide and hydrogen is
produced. This is known as synthetic gas.
CH4(g) + H2O(g)  CO(g) + 3H2(g)
atm

(3) BY ELECTROLYTIC METHOD: hydrogen is obtained as a by-product in the electrolysis of brine.

When a
cheap source of electricity is available, hydrogen is also obtained from the electrolysis of
acidified water.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
I. It is a
colourless, odourless gas and tasteless gas
II. It is neutral
to litmus paper
III. It is lighter
than air
IV. It has a
very low boiling point of -255 C
0

V. It is
sparingly soluble in water
VI. It burns with a pale blue flame but does not support combustion.
VII. It is not poisonous

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
I. It react
with metals to form ionic hydride
 2Na(s) + H2(g) NaH(s)
Ca(s) + H2(g) CaH2(s)
ii. Hydrogen react with oxygen to form steam which condenses to form
water 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)

this reaction gives a pop sound, it is used as a test for hydrogen.

iii. Hydrogen combines directly with halogens to form halides

H2(g) + Cl2(g)  2HCl(g)

H2(g) + Br2(g)  2HBr(g)

iv. It combines with nitrogen to form ammonia

H2(g) + N2(g)  2NH3(g)

v. Reducing action: Hydrogen is a strong reducing agent and zinc. It reduces the
oxides to their metals and itself is oxidized to water.

CuO(s) + H2(g)  Cu(s) + H2O(l)

ZnO(s) + H2(g)  Zn(s) + H2O(l)

PbO(s) + H2(g)  Pb(s)+ H2O(l)

Fe2O3(s)+ H2(g)  2Fe(s) + H2O(l).

USES OF HYDROGEN

I. It is used in
the manufacture of ammonia through Haber process.
II. Small
quantity is used in oxy-hydrogen flame which produces heat high
enough to melt metals.
III. Liquid
hydrogen is used as rocket fuel.
IV. It is used in
hardening vegetable and animal oil for the manufacture of margarine.
 V. It is used in
filling balloons
VI. Due to its
low density, hydrogen is used for filling/inflate airships but used with
care because it is highly flammable.
VII. It is a
constituent of many gaseous fuel like water gas and coal gas.
TEST FOR HYDROGEN
Hydrogen gas burns with a pop sound when a lighted splinteris inserted
into a test tube containing the gas.

ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN

Isotopes of hydrogen exists in three forms namely

i. Hydrogen
or Protium 1H1

ii. Heavy
hydrogen or deuterium 21H
iii. Tritium 31H.

ASSIGNMENT
1. What are
the component of water gas
2. State three
ways hydrogen can be prepared in the laboratory
3. Which
physical property makes hydrogen useful in filling airships.
4. How can
dry hydrogen gas be obtained.

TOPIC: OXYGEN
Oxygen is the most abundant element on earth.
It belongs to the Group VI of the Periodic Table. The other
elements in the Group are sulphur, selenium,tellurium and
polonium. There is an increase inmetallic properties from oxygen
to polonium; hence the elements in oxygen family vary widely in
theirchemical properties. The following trends are seen in the Group;
- All the elements have an outer electronic configuration s2,p4
- The atomic radius increases down the Group
- The melting and boiling points increase from oxygen to tellurium
- Electronegativity decreases down the Group
Laboratory preparation of oxygen
1. By the reaction of hydrogen peroxide with acidified potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII) in
the
cold. It is a redox reaction in which KMnO4 is the oxidizing agent and H2O2 is the reducing agent.
5H2O2(aq) + 2KMnO4(aq) + 3H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2MnSO4(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 5O2(g)

2. By catalytic decomposition of potassium trioxochlorate (V). KClO3 is heated with the catalyst
MnO2. The KClO3 decomposes to oxygen and potassium chloride;
2KClO3(s)heat 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g) In both cases, oxygen is collected over water.

3. By catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide: add 10 volume or 3% hydrogen peroxide

solution very slowly to a catalyst such as manganese (IV) oxide (MnO2). Oxygen gas will be
liberated;
“H2O2(aq) O2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Industrial preparation of oxygen

Oxygen is prepared industrially by the fractional distillation of air. The following are the steps
involved’
- Cold air is compressed to about 150atm
- The compressed air is cooled by refrigeration to separate out CO2 and water vapour. The two
gases become solids and are removed by filtration.
- Cold air is allowed to expand through a nozzle. The expansion causes air to cool rapidly.
- The compression and expansion cycles are repeated until the temperature reaches about -
2000C,when liquid air is produced.
- The liquid air is warmed up and then fraction ally distilled.

Physical properties of oxygen

1. it is slightly denser than air
2. It is a colourless and odourless gas
3. It has no effect on moist litmus paper
4. It is sparingly soluble in water
5. It does not burn but support combustion
6. It is non-poisonous
Chemical properties of oxygen
A. Reaction with metals: the reaction of oxygen with metals depends on the reactivity of the
metals.
- Alkali metals react readily with oxygen; hence they are usually kept under oil e.g. sodium
4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)
- Alkali earth metals like magnesium burn vigorously in oxygen to form oxides
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
- Metals such as iron and cupper react with oxygen, only when heated strongly, to form oxides
e.g. 2Fe(s) + 2O2 (g) heat Fe3O4(s)
B. Reaction with non-metals:
- Hydrogen burns in oxygen with pale blue flame to form water
2H2 (g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
- Carbon burns in limited supply of oxygen to produce carbon (II) oxide gas;
2C(s) + O2(g) 2CO(g)
- In excess oxygen, carbon burns to produce carbon (IV) oxide;
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
- Sulphur burns with a bluish flame to produce sulphur (IV) oxide;
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
The reactions of oxygen with metals and non-metals are all oxidation reactions. Oxidation
reactions include burning of fuels, rusting o iron and respiration.
Binary compounds of oxygen
An oxide is a compound of oxygen and another element. They are grouped into five;
1. Acidic oxide
2. Basic oxide
3. Amphoteric oxide
4. Neutral oxide
5. Higher oxide
Acidic oxides: these are oxides of non-metals. They dissolve in water to form acids e.g. SO2,
CO2, SO3, NO2, P4O10 .
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
Acidic oxides do not react with acids but react with alkalis to form a salt and water.
SO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Silicon (IV) oxide, SiO2 is a solid at room temperature. It is an acidic oxide. It does not dissolve
in water but react with sodium hydroxide to form sodium trioxosilicate (IV) and water.
SiO2(s) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SiO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Properties of acidic oxides
- They are usually gases at room temperature (except P4O10 and SiO2)
- If soluble, they dissolve in water to form acidic solution
- They react with alkalis or bases to form a salt and water only.
Basic oxide: they are oxides of metals. Most of them are insoluble in water. A few of them such
as Na2O and K2O dissolve readily in water. These soluble oxides are called alkalis. Calcium oxide
(quick lime)
dissolves moderately in water (a vigorous reaction) to form lime water.
Basic oxides are solids at room temperature. They react with acids to form salts and water only,
e.g.
CaO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
Amphoteric oxide: these are metallic oxides that react with both acids and bases to form salts
and
water only e.g. zinc oxide-ZnO, aluminium-Al2O3 and lead (II) oxide – PbO.
Neutral oxides: some non-metals form oxides that show neither basic nor acidic properties.
They are called neutral oxides. They are insoluble in water (except water itself). Examples are
water, carbon (II)oxide and nitrogen (II) oxide.
Higher oxides: Higher oxides are oxides containing a higher proportion of oxygen than the
ordinary oxides. Example Perioxides (H2O2, K2O2, CaO2, BaO2), Dioxides (PbO2, MnO2) and Mixed
oxides (Pb3O4, Fe3O4)
Uses of oxygen
Oxygen is used:
1. In steel making industry to burn off or oxidize impurities such as carbon, sulphur and
phosphorus.
2. In the hospital to help patients with breathing difficulties
3. By mountain climbers, pilots of high-flying fighter planes and deep sea divers to help them
breathe at high altitude and under water.
4. In the oxy-acetylene flame (about 35000C) to cut metals or weld them together.
5. In the manufacture of important chemical compounds like tetraoxosulphate (VI) acids,
trioxonitrate (V) acid and ethanoic acid
6. Liquid oxygen and fuels are used as propellants for space rockets.
Test for oxygen
When a glowing splinter is inserted into the jar containing the unknown gas, if the gas is oxygen,
the splinter will be rekindled.
Assignment
Dinitrogen (I) oxide behaves like oxygen when brought close to glowing splinter. Highlight the
differences between oxygen and dinitrogen (I) oxide.

WEEK SIX
CHLORINE AND ITS COMPOUND
Halogen are a group of very reactive non-metals found on group 7 of
the periodic table. Due to their high reactivity, they are not found free in
nature, but they combine with metals to form salts or compounds. The
name ‘halogen’ means salt former.
Halogens include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine. Each
one has its specific colour and some have distinctive odour.
CHLORINE
Chlorine is the most important element of the family of very reactive
non-metals known as the HALOGENS. In 1810, Davy named the gas
chlorine a derivative of the Greek word “chloro” meaning greenish yellow.
Chlorine does not free state because it is too reactive instead, it is
usually found in the combined state as chlorides. The most abundant of
this is NaCl (sodiumchloride) or common salt which is found both sea and
as salt deposit.
Laboratory preparation of Chlorine
Chlorine gas may be prepared in the school laboratory from the following:
a)Heating solid Manganese (iv) Oxide and Concentrated Hydrochloric acid.
MnO2(s)+ 4HCl(aq) → MnCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) + 2H2O(l)
b) Heating Lead (IV) Oxide and concentrated hydrochloric acid.
PbO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) → PbCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) + 2H2O(l)
c)Reacting Potassiumtetraoxomanganate(VII) with concentrated Hydrochloric
acid .2KMnO4(s) +16HCl(aq) → 2KCl(aq)+2MnCl2(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 5Cl2(g)

INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF CHLORINE

Chlorine is prepared industrially by electrolysis of brine
Physical properties
I. Chlorine is
a greenish yellow gas with an unpleasant choking smell
II. It is
moderately soluble in water about 2cm3 of it will dissolve in
1cm3 of water at s.t.p
III. It is about
two times denser than air.
IV. Can easily
be liquified under a pressure of about 6atm.
V. It is
poisonous as little as 20 parts per million of it in the air can
damage the mucuos lining of our lungs.
Chemical properties
I. Displaceme
nt of other halogens: this occurs when
2NaBr(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(l)
2HI(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(aq) + I2(s)
2NaI(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(aq) + I2(s)
II. Direct combination of other elements:
*Metals react with chlorine especially when heated, to form
the corresponding chlorides.
* Non-metals burn in chlorine to produce the corresponding
chlorides except noble gases, oxygen nitrogen and carbon.
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2AlCl3(s)
Zn(s) + Cl2(g) → ZnCl2(s)
III. Burning of hydrogen gas with chlorine: Hydrogen
and chlorine combine explosively bright sunlight, the
reaction proceeds the greenish yellow colour of chlorine
diminishes in intensity as misty fumes of hydrogen chloride
appear.
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → HCl(g)
IV. With water: Chlorine water (made by bubbling
chlorine through water) gives off oxygen when exposed to
sunlight, this is due to formation of oxochlorate(i) acid which
decomposes slowly to hydrogenchloride and oxygen
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)
2HOCl(aq) → 2HCl(aq) + O2 (g)
 V. As a bleaching agent: chlorine is a common bleaching agent in
the presence of water, it bleaches most dyes and inks except
those containing carbon e.g printers ink. The bleaching
action of chlorine is due to its ability to react with water to
form oxochlorate(i)acid. The latter is unstable and
decomposes to release oxygen which is oxidized to dye to
form a colorless compound.

HClO(aq) + dye → HCl(aq) + (dye + O)

(coloured) (colourless)
VI. Reaction with alkalis: With dilute and cold alkali solutions.
When chlorine is bubbled through a cold dilute solution of
sodium hydroxide, a pale-yellowish mixture of the
oxochlorate(ii) and chlorine of the metal is formed.

Cl2 + 2NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) +NaClO(aq)+H2O

sodiumoxochlorate(i)
With hot concentrated sodium hydroxide,
sodiumtrioxochlorate(v) and sodiumchloride is formed
3Cl2 + 6NaOH(aq) →5NaCl(aq) + NaClO3(aq) + 3H2O

TEST FOR CHLORINE

Chlorine is a greenish yellow gas, with an irritating smell, its presence can
be confirmed by its action on damp litmus paper and starch iodide paper.
I. Damp litmus paper test:. Drop a piece of damp blue litmus paper into a
gas jar. If the blue litmus paper turns red and then bleached. The gas is
chlorine.
II. Starch iodide paper test:. Drop a piece of damp starch iodide paper into
the unknown gas. If the paper turns blue then the gas is chlorine.

Uses of Chlorine
1. Chlorine is used as a bleaching agent for cotton, linen and wood pulp. It is
too strong for bleaching animals fibre like silk and wool.
2. Chlorine is used in the manufacture of important solvent such as
chloroethene, trichloromethane and trichloroethane which are used in the
dry-cleaning industry
3. Chlorine is used in making polychloroethene and polyvinylchloride(PVC)
used in manufacturing rain coats
4. Chlorine is a powerful germicide because of its oxidizing nature. It is used
in sterilization of water for domestic and industrial use in the treatment of
sewage.

HYDROGEN CHLORINE GAS (HCl)

Hydrogen chloride exists as a gas at s.t.p when it dissolve in water,
it forms hydrochloric acid. Hydrogen chloride gas is prepared by the action
of hot concentrated tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid on any soluble chloride e.g
NaCl.
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) -> NaHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)
NaCl(s) + NaHSO4(aq)  Na2SO4 + HCl(g)
or
KCl(s) + H2SO4(l) -> KHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)
NaCl is commonly used because it is cheaper than KCl

Physical properties of HCl gas

1. Pure hydrogen chloride gas is a colourless gas with a sharp irritating
smell.
2. It turns damp blue litmus paper red, showing that it is acidic in aqeous
solution.
3. It is very soluble in waterforming an aqeous solution of hydrochloric acid
4. It is about one times denser than air
Test for hydrogen chloride gas
If the unknown gas is colourless, has an irritating smell, fumes of moist
air and turns blue litmus paper red, then it is probably hydrogen chloride gas.
The following test confirm its presence.
 With ammonia: place a glass rod dipped with ammonia solution at the
mouth of a gas jar containing the unknown gas. If the gas is hydrogen
chloride, dense white fumes composed of suspended particles of ammonium
chloride are produced.
NH3(g) + HCl(g)  NH4Cl(s)
Preparation of Hydrochloric acid
It is prepared by dissolving hydrogen chloride gas in water.
Hydrogen chloride gas is highly soluble in water to form hydrochloric acid which
done by fountain experiment.Fountain experiment is used to show that
hydrogenchloride gas is highly soluble in water.
Chemical properties of Hydrochloric acid
Similar to acid properties

EVALUATION
1. What is the colour of chlorine?
2. Describe the smell of chlorine.
3. What method is used in collection of chlorine gas explain.
4.(i) What is the purpose of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.
(ii)Name two other substances that can be used in place of concentrated
sulphuric (VI) acid.
(iii) Name a substance that cannot be used in place of concentrated
sulphuric (VI) acid explain
5.(a)Write three possible reactions between concentrated hydrochloric acid and
the oxidizing agents.
6(a) Name two gases that could be used to perform fountain experiment
(b)State the physical properties which makes the gases suitable for experiment
in 6b above?
7a Draw and label a diagram to illustrate the preparation and collection of
dry chlorine gas in the laboratory
b. State two uses of chlorine
c. State two chemical properties of chlorine
d. State what would be observed if a piece of damp blue litmus paper is
dropped into a gas jar of chlorine.

WEEK 7

NITROGEN AND ITS COMPOUND

NITROGEN AND ITS COMPOUND

 Nitrogen occur chiefly as a free element in the air making up to
about 78% by volume of the atmosphere. Combined nitrogen is also
found in organic matter as proteins, urea and vitamin B compounds.
LABORATORY PREPARATION OF NITROGEN
Nitrogen can be prepared by the following methods
a). by thermal decomposition of ammonium dioxonitrate(ii) NH4NO2.

NH4NO2. Is first prepared by heating the mixture of ammonium chloride and

sodium dioxonitrate(iii) ratio 5:7 in solution.
NH4Cl(aq) + NaNO2(aq)  NH4NO2 + NaCl
NH4NO2 is unstable and is thermally decomposed to nitrogen gas and steam as
soon as it is formed
NH4NO2(aq)  N2(g) + 2H2O(g)
b). From ammonium heptaoxodichromate(vi) [(NH4)2Cr2O7]:. When [(NH4)2Cr2O7]
is heated it decomposes to yield nitrogen
[(NH4)2Cr2O7](s) N2(g) + Cr2O3(s) + 4H2O
c). From Ammonia NH3:. Nitrogen gas is liberated when ammonia gas is oxidized
by hot copper(ii)oxide.
2NH3(g) + 3CuO(s)  3Cu(s) + 3H2O(g) + N2(g)
d). From dinitrogen(i) oxide :. When dinitrogen(i)oxide is passed over red hot
copper, the gas is reduced to nitrogen.
N2O(g) + Cu(s)  CuO(s) + N2(g)
INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF NITROGEN
Industrially, nitrogen is prepared by the fractional distillation of liquid air. Air
from which CO2 has been removed is liquified subjecting it to successive
compression and cooling process. Nitrogen is distilled off at -1960C leaving liquid
oxygen.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. Nitrogen is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas.
2. Pure nitrogen is slightly lighter than air
3. It is only slighytly soluble in water
4. The melting point of nitrogen is -2100C and its boiling point is-1960C.
these low temperature is due to weak intermolecular force that exist
between the nitrogen molecule.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. With metals:. Nitrogen combines directly with every electropositive metals
e.g Mg, Ca, Al, Fe to form nitrides. The nitrides is readily hydrolyzed when
warmed with water to give ammonia gas.
3Mg(s) + N2(g)  Mg3N2(s)
Mg3N2(s) + 6H2O  3Mg(OH)2(s) + 2NH3(g)
2. With Non-metals:. Nitrogen combined reversibly with hydrogen to
produce ammonia. It also combine directly with oxygen at very high
temperatures.
N2(g) + O2(g)  2NO(g)
USES OF NITROGEN
I. Nitrogen is used in the industrial manufacture of ammonia cyanide and
carbamide (an important fertilizer)
II. Liquid nitrogen is used as a cooling (refrigerating) agent
III. As a preservative to prevent rancidity in packaged foods

AMMONIA
Ammonia is an hydride of nitrogen. It is avery important chemical in
industry.
Laboratory preparation
To prepare ammonia from ammonium chloride
Grind a mixture of NH4Cl and excess slaked lime [Ca(OH)2]. Place it in round
bottom flask and set up the apparatus. Heat the mixture and collect the gas
formed by upward delivery. The ammonia is evolved on heating and it is dried
by passing it through quicklime (CaO) in the drying tower or tube. Therefore
ammonia is produce by heating the mixture of slaked lime and ammonium
chloride
NH4Cl(s) + Ca(OH)2(aq) CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
 Industrial preparation
Ammonia is manufactured from by Haber process. It involves the direct
combination between hydrogen and nitrogen. This reaction is reversible.
PROCEDURE
 Mixing nitrogen and hydrogen in volume ratio of 1:3
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ↔ 2NH3(g)
 The mixture is heated to a temperature of about 450⁰C at a pressure of
about 200atm and passed over a catalyst ( a finely reduced iron
impregnated with aluminium)
 The ammonia obtained is subsequently liquified by cooling
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. Ammonia gas is colourless and has a characteristic choking smell
2. The gas is less dense than air
3. It is an alkaline gas, changing moist red litmus paper blue
4. In large quantities ammonia is poisonous because of its effect on
respiratory muscles
5. Ammonia can be compressed to liquid at ordinary temperature and can be
transported in this form
6. It’s boiling point is -34.4⁰C and its melting point is -78⁰C.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. Reaction with oxygen: ammonia burns readily in oxygen with a
greenish yellow flame to form water vapour and nitrogen.
4NH3(g) + 3O2(g)  6H2O(g) +N2(g)
 2. As a reducing agent:. Ammonia is not a strong reducing agent. However,
it reduces heated CuO to copper while it is oxidized to water and
Nitrogen.
NH3(g) + 3CuO(s)  3Cu + 3H2O(l) + N2(g)

3. With Chlorine:. Ammonia first reduces chlorine to produce hydrogen

chloride and nitrogen
2NH3(g) + 3Cl2(g)  6HCl(g) + N2(g)

The hydrogen chloride then react with excess ammonia to produce dense
white fumes of ammonium chloride

6NH3(g) + 6HCl(g)  6NH4Cl(g) + N2(g

The overall reaction is as follows

8NH3(g) + Cl2(g)  6NH4Cl(g) + N2(g)

4. Reaction with carbon(iv) oxide:. It reacts with CO2 at 150⁰C and at high
pressure of 150atm to produce urea, an important organic compound.
2NH3(g) + CO2(g) (NH2)2CO(s) + H2O(l)

5. As a base:. Ammonia react with acid to form ammonium salt.

2NH3(g) + H2SO4(aq)  (NH4)2SO4(s) .

TEST FOR AMMONIA

I. Ammonia has a characteristic choking smell which is easily
recognize.
II. Action on litmus paper: hold a damp red litmus paper into the jar
containing the unknown gas. If the litmus turns blue then the
gas is ammonia.
III. Action with hydrochloric acid:. Dip a glass rod in concentrated
hydrochloric acid and then insert in the gas jar containing the
unknown gas. White fumes are formed if the gas is ammonia.

USES OF AMMONIA
 I. Aqueous ammonia is used in softening temporarily hard water
II. It is used in the production of nylon
III. It is also used in laundries as solvent for removing grease and oil stains
IV. It is used in manufacture of nitrogenous fertilizer
V. Liquid ammonia is used in refrigerators as a cooling agent

WEEK EIGHT

OXIDES OF NITROGEN

Oxides are known as every oxidation state of nitrogen from +1 to +5. These
are

a) Nitrogen(i)oxide, (N2O)
b) Nitrogen(ii)oxide, (NO)
c) Nitrogen(iii)oxide, (N2O3)
d) Nitrogen(iv)oxide, (NO2)
e) Nitrogen(v)oxide, (N2O5)
The main oxides of the listed above are (N2O),(NO) and (NO2)
Nitrogen(i)oxide
This is known as laughing gas because it causes uncontrollable fits of
laughter when inhaled which was discovered by priestley. It is the first
oxide of nitrogen identified.
Laboratory preparation
A mixture of ammoniumchloride and potassium trioxonitrate(v) is
heated cautiously ( to avoid explosion) in a round bottom flask. The gas is
collected over warm water.
6NH4Cl(g) + KNO3(s)  KCl +NH4NO3(s)

NH4NO3(s) N2O(g) + 2H2O(l)

 Physical properties
I. It is a colourless gas with a sweet sickly smell and sweetish taste.
II. It is neutral to litmus paper
III. It is fairly soluble in cold water
IV. It is denser than air
Chemical properties

i. Nitrogen(i)oxide, N2O(g) oxidises heated copper to cooper(ii)poxide

Cu +N2O(g)  CuO + N2(g)

ii. It also oxidises other strongly burning elements to their oxides

Mg +N2O(g)  MgO + N2(g)

S +2N2O(g)  SO2(g) + 2N2(g)

C +2N2O(g)  2CO2(g) + N2(g)

Test for N2O(g)

- It rekindles a strongly glowing splint.

- It does produce brown fumes with NO but oxygen gas produces brown
fumes with NO
Uses of N2O(g)
As a mild anaesthetic in dental surgical operations

Nitrogen(ii) oxide

It is difficult to obtain in pure state because of its affinity for oxygen. It react
readily with oxygen to form nitrogeniv oxide.

Laboratory preparation

NO can be prepared by action of 50% concentrated trioxonitrate(v)acid on

copper turning

3Cu + 8HNO3(aq)  3Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 4H2O(l) + 2NO(g)

It can also be prepared by direct combination of the constituent element at high

temperature.

N2(g) +O2(g) 2NO(g)

Physical properties
 - It is colorless, odourless and poisonous
- It is insoluble in water.
- It is neutral to litmus paper
Chemical properties
- Reaction with oxygen:. It react with oxygen at room temperature to
yield brown fumes of Nitrogen(iv)oxide.
NO(g) +O2(g)  2NO2(g)
- As a reducing agent:. Nitrogen(ii)oxide is a weak reducing agent. Thus,
it decolourizes acidified KMnO4 very slowly.
3MnO4- 4H-(aq) + 5NO(g)  Mn2+ + 5NO3-(aq)+2H2O(l)
- Reaction woith hot metals:. It react with hot metals which reduce it
nitrogen.
2Cu +2NO(g) 2CuO + N2(g)
- Reaction with iron(ii)tetraoxo sulphate(vi): it dissolves readily FeSO4
forming a dark brown solution of FeSO4NO which is a complex
compound. When heated, the complex produces pure, nitrogen(ii)
oxide NO. this is a test for nitrogen(ii)oxide.
FeSO4 + NO  FeSO4NO

WEEK NINE AND TEN

SULPHUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Sulphur occur in a free state as yellow solid and mineral ores in form of
copper pyrite (CuS), iron pyrite (FeS), Zincsulphide (ZnS), argentine (Ag2S), etc.
It occurs freely as deposit in volcanic region e.g USA, New Zealand, Japan and
Sicily. Sulphur is also present in proteins.

EXTRACTION OF SULPHUR
Most of the world’s Sulphur is obtained from underground deposit which
may be more than 200m below the surface of the earth. Extraction of Sulphur from
these deposit is based on frasch process
Method; a. three concentric tues are drilled through rock and soil down to the
sulphur bed.
b) super heated water under pressure of the outer tube to melt the Sulphur
c) hot compressed air is then blown down the inner tube to molten the
Sulphur and water through the middle tube.
d) The suphur then is obtained is allowed to solidify and its 99% pure.

. ALLOTROPES OF SULPHUR
Allotropy is the occurrence of an element to exist in two or more different forms in
the same physical state. The main allotropes of Sulphur are Rhomboic Sulphur,
and Monoclinic Sulphur, amorphous Sulphur and plastic Sulphur.

Crystalline Forms
1. Rhombic or Octahedra Sulphur

i. It is soluble in carbon (iv) sulphide

ii. It is stable at temperature below 96C
iii. Crystals of rhombic Sulphur are bright yellow and octahedral in shape
iv. Crystals are made up of S8 molecules with ring of eight Sulphur atom.
v. The melting point is 140C

2. Monoclinic or Prismatic Sulphur

i. It is stable in carbon (iv) oxide and stable at temperature above 96C

ii. Like rhombic it consist of S8 molecules more tightly packed
iii. It is less dense than rhombic Sulphur
iv. The melting point is 1200C
v. It is deep yellow

3. Amorphous Sulphur
i. They are shapeless i.e. has no regular crystalline shape
ii. It is prepared as a pale yellow solid
 4. Plastic Sulphur: is obtained by pounding boiling Sulphur into cold
H2O continuously. It contains pure Sulphur but it is met a true
allotrope because it is unstable and revert to rhombic Sulphur on
standing.

Physical Properties Of Sulphur

i. It is a yellow solid.
ii. It is insoluble in H2O but soluble in (CS2) and methyl benzene
iii. It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity
iv. It has a melting point of 1190C and a boiling point of 4440C

Chemical properties of sulphur

i. It burns in O2 with blue flame to give off SO2
S(s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)
ii. With metals to form sulphide
S(s) + Zn(s)  ZnS(s)
S(s) + Fe(s)  FeS (s)
iii. With hydrogen to form hydrogen sulphide
S(s) + H2(g) H2S(g)
iv. Action of oxidizing agent on it reducing properties
S(s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)
*When warmed with concentrated HNO3, H2SO4 is formed

S(s) + 6HNO3(aq)  H2SO4(aq) + 6NO2(g) +2H2O(g)

 *When warmed with concentrated H2SO4, Sulphur (iv) oxide is
given off
S(s) + H2SO4(aq)3SO2(g) +2H2O(g)
v. Action on hot concentrated alkali
3S(s) + 6NaOH(aq)  NaS(s) + 6Na2SO3(s) +3H2O(g)
vi. With non metals to form various sulphide e.g
tetraphosphorustrisulphide (P4S3) disulphrdichloride (S2Cl2) and
sulphur hexafluoride SF6.
P4(s) + 3S(s)  P4S3(s)
Cl2(g) + 2S(s) S2Cl2(s)
vii. With carbon to form carbon (iv) sulphide
C(s) + 2S(s)  CS2(s)

USES OF SULPHUR
1. In the manufacture of tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid
2. In vulcanization of rubber. This involves heating rubber with Sulphur to
toughen it and prevent it from being sticky in hot weather and brittle in cold
weather.
3. In making matches, gunpowder, germicides, ointment and drugs
4. Sulphur and some of its products are used as fungicide and insecticides for
spraying crops
COMPOUNDS OF SULPHUR
Hydrogen sulphide
Hydrogen sulphide is found in volcanic gases, Sulphur spring, coal gas, and gases
formed during decay of organic matter containing Sulphur.
Preparation
Hydrogen sulphide is prepared both in the laboratory and commercially by the
action of dilute acid on metallic sulphide like iron(ii) sulphide
HCl(aq) + FeS(s)  FeCl2(aq) +H2S(g)
H2SO4(aq) + FeS(s)  FeSO4(aq) +H2S(g)
The apparatus used in preparing hydrogen sulphide in the lab is kipp’s apparatus.
Physical properties
 It is colorless with a repulsive smell like that of rotten egg
 It is moderately soluble in water to form weak acid solution
 Extremely toxic and poisonous
 It burns with a pale blue flame.

Chemicalproperties
  As an acid; Hydrogen sulphide ionizes weakly in water as a dibasic acid
H2S(g) + H2O (l) ↔ H3O+(aq) + HS-
- With NaOH normal salt and water are formed
H2S(s) + NaOH(aq) Na2S(aq) +2H2O(g)

 As a precipitating agent:. It precipitate metal ic sulphide ( it identifies

metallic ion )
ZnSO4(aq) + H2S(g)  ZnS(s) + H2SO4(aq)
White

 With oxygen:. Burns with pale blue flame

H2S(g) + O2(g) H2O(l)+ 2S
H2S(g) + 3O2(g) 2H2O(g) + 2SO2(g)
 As a reducing agent ( powerful reducing agent)
- With halogens: it reduces halogens with a deposit of Sulphur.
H2S(g) + Cl2(g) HCl(aq)+ S(s)
- With Sulphur(iv)oxide: it reduces moistSulphur(iv) oxide to Sulphur
H2S(g) + SO2(g) 2H2O(l)+ 2S
- With iron(iii)chloride: it reduces iron(iii)chloride to iron(ii)chloride
H2S(g) + FeCl2(g) FeCl2+HCl+ 2S
- With heptaoxo dichromate(vi) K2Cr2O7 the solution changes from orange
o to green. Sulphur is also deposited.
K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4(aq) + 3H2S(g) K2SO4(aq) + Cr(SO4)3 +2H2O(l) + 2S
Test for hydrogen sulphide
 With lead(ii)trioxonitrate(v):. Moist a piece of filter paper with
lead(ii)trioxonitrate(v)solution and drop it in a gas jar of the unknown gas.
The filter paper turns black due to fermentation of black lead(ii)sulphide
Uses of Hydrogen sulphide
 Used in detection of metals in qualitative analysis

TETRAOXOSULPHATE(VI)ACID
This is a very important industrial chemical. Industries such as
fertilizers, petroleum, steel, paint and plastic make use of these chemical.

Industrial preparation of tetraoxosulphate(vi)acid

H2SO4 is manufactured by the contact process. Contact process is an exothermic
reaction. it involves the following steps
  Burning Sulphur to obtain Sulphur(iv)oxide
S(s) + O2(g)  SO2(g)
 The Sulphur(iv)oxide is then mixed with oxygen in air in presence of
vanadium(v)oxide at 4500C to form Sulphur(vi)oxide
2SO2(g) + O2(g) V2O5 2SO3(g) �H = -188KJ
The mixture is purified by electrostatic dust precipitation. All arsenic
compound are removed from the mixture else they would poisoned
and render the catalyst inactive.
 The Sulphur(vi)oxide is dissolved in 98% concentrated H2SO4 to form oleum,
H2S2O7 which fumes.
H2SO4(aq) + SO3(g) H2S2O7
 oleum is then diluted with water to give H2SO4 of weeded concentration
, H2S2O7 + H2O (l)2H2SO4(aq)

Properties of tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid

1. tetraoxosulphate(vi)acid is colorless, viscous liquid with density 1.84cm3.
2. It is very corrosive to the skin
3. It turns blue litmus paper red
4. It is readily soluble in water
5. It is hygroscopic becoming dilute as it absorb water vapor from
environment.
Chemical properties
1. As an acid:. * It is astrong dibasic acid reacting with metals reacting with
metals which are higher than hydrogen in the electrochemical series to
liberate hydrogen gas.
H2SO4(aq) + Zn(s) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
*It react with bases or alkali to form salt and water
 H2SO4(aq) + CuO(s) CuSO4(aq) +H2O(l)
2. As a dehydrating agent:. Concentrated H2SO4 is a strong dehydrating agents.
It can remove water from compounds like ethanol, sugar, ethanoic acid etc.
C12H22O11(s) -conc H2SO4---H2O--> 12C
3. Displacement of other acids from their salts:. Conc H2SO4 displaces
volatile acids from their salts e.g.
H2SO4(aq) + KCl(s) KHSO4(aq) +HCl (g)
H2SO4(aq) + CuO(s)NaHSO4(aq) +HNO3(l)
These reaction depend on the high boiling point of concentrated
H2SO4(aq)

Uses of tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid

 H2SO4(aq) is used in manufacture of plastic and cellulose films.
 It is used as an electrolyte in lead accumulators and in refining metals by
electrolysis
 Manufacture of detergents, car batteries and rayons.
 Removal of waxes, gums, sulphur and its compound during petroleum
refining
 It is used in drying many gases except ammonia and hydrogen sulphide.
 It is used in preparation of many chemical compounds.
EVALUATION
1. Give three major uses of H2SO4
b. Define Allotropy
c. Explain the mode of identification of hydrogen sulphide gas
d. Write equation to show how sulphur (IV) oxide is converted totetraoxosulphate (IV) acid
in contact process.
e. With the aid of diagram explain frasch process extensively
f. What is meant by vulcanization