NON-METALS

BY CHIWALA, B
HYDROGEN
 occurs as a diatomic molecule, H2.

 hydrogen occurs in water, natural gas and oils.

Physical Properties of Hydrogen
It is colourless,

It is odourless

It is tasteless gas

It is less dense than air

It has a boiling point of 21K and a melting point of 14K

It is the least dense gas

 Chemical Properties of Hydrogen
 It has no effect on litmus paper.

 It burns in oxygen with a blue flame producing a pop sound

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)

 It reacts spontaneously with chlorine explosively in sunlight to form hydrogen chloride gas.

H2 (g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl (g)

 It is a reducing agent. It reduces the oxides of metals below it in the reactivity series.

CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(g)

Laboratory Preparation of Hydrogen
In the laboratory, hydrogen gas can be prepared by reacting:
 a reactive metal with a dilute acid
 a reactive metal with water
 Reaction of a reactive metal with dilute acid
 Reaction of zinc metal with a dilute hydrochloric acid.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
 The gas is collected over water
 Drying agent: Concentrated Sulphuric acid
 Method of collection: Down ward displacement of air or upward delivery since it is less dense.
 Reaction of a reactive metal with water
 Reaction of Calcium with water.

Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

 Potassium and sodium float on water as they react with it, they must be wrapped in a wire mesh to make them sink.

 The reaction of potassium with water produces a lilac flame and the reaction of sodium with water produces a yellow flame
Industrial preparation of hydrogen
 On a large scale, hydrogen gas is manufactured by the reaction of methane and steam

CH4(g) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + 3H2(g)

 Conditions:

o Catalyst: Nickel metal

o Temperature: 1000oC

o Pressure: 50 atmospheres
 More steam is then added and the gases are passed over a catalyst iron (III) oxide to remove the carbon
monoxide
CO(g) + H2O(g) CO2(g) + H2(g)
 Carbon dioxide is removed by dissolving it in water under pressure
Chemical Test for Hydrogen
 Test: Introduce a lighted splint to the mouth of a test tube containing hydrogen

 Result: the lighted splint is put out with a pop or squeaky sound.

 The identity test for hydrogen therefore is that it puts out a burning splint with a pop
sound.
Uses of Hydrogen
 It is used in the manufacture of ammonia in Haber process

 It is used in the manufacture of margarine from vegetable oil in the process called
catalytic hydrogenation

 Liquid hydrogen is used as a fuel in rockets because it does not pollute the air.

 It is used as a reducing agent

 In weather balloons because it is lighter.

OXYGEN
 Oxygen gas exits as a diatomic molecule, O2

 It makes up about 21% of air by volume.

Physical Properties of Oxygen
 It is colourless

 It is odourless

 It is slightly soluble in water

 It is almost as dense as air

 It supports burning

 It boils at −183oC
Chemical Properties of Oxygen
 Combustion; the process by which a substance reacts with oxygen to produce an
oxide and heat.

Carbon burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and heat energy.

C + O2 → CO2 + energy

 Rusting; the corrosion of iron.

Laboratory Preparation of Oxygen
 In the laboratory, oxygen gas can be prepared using the following chemicals:

o Potassium chlorate, KClO3

o Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2

o Sodium nitrate, NaNO3

o Potassium nitrate, KNO3

Thermal decomposition of potassium chlorate
 Potassium chlorate is mixed with a catalyst manganese (IV) oxide upon heating and decomposes into
potassium chloride and oxygen gas.

2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

 Method of collection; downward displacement of water.

Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
Oxygen gas is also prepared by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution using manganese (IV) oxide
as a catalyst. No heating is required .

2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

 Method of collection: Down ward displacement of water.

 Drying agent: Concentrated sulphuric acid.

Industrial Preparation of Oxygen
On the large scale, oxygen gas is manufactured by fractional distillation of liquid air.

 The air is firstly pressurised and then cooled to condense.

The condensed air is then distilled into fractions of varying temperature within a
fractionating tower.

 The air separates into fractions as nitrogen separates first at -1900C followed by
argon at -1860C then oxygen at -163 0C . By so doing oxygen will have been prepared.
Chemical Test for Oxygen
 Test; introduce a glowing splint to the mouth of test tube containing oxygen.

 Result; the glowing splint is relighted.

 The identity test for oxygen therefore is that it relights a glowing splint.
Uses of Oxygen
◦ It is used in the manufacture of steel in the blast furnace

◦ It is used in oxygen tents in hospitals for patients in the intensive care unit

◦ It used for welding in the oxy-acetylene flame

◦ It used by deep sea divers and mountain climbers

◦ It is used as liquid oxygen in rockets when in outer space to support burning of hydrogen
The Ozone Layer and its Importance
 The ozone layer is a thin layer of photochemical smog above the atmosphere.

The Earth’s atmosphere is protected from ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun by the ozone layer.

The ozone layer is a thick layer found about 15 − 30 km from the earth’s surface.

The ozone layer contains ozone (O3) molecules.

 IMPORTANCE-It traps dangerous ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun.

 If depleted by CFC’s, penetration of UV from the sun which causes skin cancer, respiratory
diseases.
 Effects of Ozone Layer
Depletion
 Substances such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) deplete the ozone layer by reacting
with ozone molecules. These create holes in the ozone layer where excess UV radiation
passes. UV radiations are harmful to organisms.

To humans, it causes sunburn, skin cancer and rapid aging.

 Ozone layer depletion also affects agricultural productivity. • Prevention: stop using
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) products.
Chemical test of water
1.

Test; Few drops of the liquid on white anhydrous copper (ii) sulphate

Result; white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate turns blue

2. If a liquid is water, it will:

o Turn blue cobalt chloride paper pink

o Turn white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate blue

o Boils at 100oC and freezes at 0oC at natural pressure if it is pure water

Importance of water
 Domestic; cooking, laundry, drinking.

 Industrial; cleaning, solvent, coolant

NITROGEN
 Exists as a diatomic molecule, N2.
Properties of Nitrogen
Physical properties

 It is colourless

It is odourless

 It does not burn

Chemical properties

 Chemically, nitrogen gas is very unreactive due to the strong bonds between the nitrogen
atoms in the molecule. However, under forced conditions; nitrogen reacts with hydrogen
gas to form ammonia in the presence of the iron catalyst
Manufacture and Uses of Nitrogen Gas
Manufacture of nitrogen

 Nitrogen gas is manufactured by fractional distillation of liquid air

Uses of nitrogen

 It is used in the manufacture of ammonia

 It is used to provide an inert atmosphere during the arc welding of aircraft parts and
in electric bulbs.
AMMONIA
Formula: NH3

Physical state: Gas

Physical Properties of Ammonia
 It is a colourless gas with a pungent choking smell

 It is less dense than air

 It is very soluble in water

 It is easily liquefied, either by cooling to -33oC or by compressing. This makes it easy

to transport in tanks and cylinders.
 Chemical Properties of Ammonia
 It turns damp red litmus paper blue

 It burns in pure oxygen with a yellow - brown flame

 It dissolves in water to form ammonium hydroxide

NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH(aq)

 It is a reducing agent because it reduces oxides to metals low in the reactivity series of metals.

3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) → 3Cu(s) + 3H2O(l) + N2(g)

 It reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to form a white smoke. The white smoke is made of tiny particles of solid ammonium
chloride:

NH3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)

Chemical Test for Ammonia
 Test; Hold a damp red litmus paper above a test tube having ammonia gas

 Result; the damp red litmus paper turns blue.

 The identity test for ammonia gas therefore is that it turns damp red litmus paper
blue.
Laboratory Preparation of Ammonia
In the laboratory, ammonia gas can be prepared by the action of heating an alkali with an
ammonium compound.
Example:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
Laboratory Preparation of Ammonia..ctd
 The test tube must be tilted downwards to prevent the water formed from running
back into the reaction mixture which may boil and cause an explosion.

 Method of collection: Ammonia gas is collected by down ward displacement of air

because it is less dense than air.

 Drying agent used: Calcium oxide

 Drying agents like calcium chloride and concentrated sulphuric acid should not be
used because they easily react with ammonia.
Industrial Preparation of Ammonia
 The industrial preparation of ammonia is called Haber process .

 Ammonia gas produced industrially from nitrogen and hydrogen.

Importance of Haber process

 Haber process is important because it produces ammonia on a large scale

Raw materials for Haber process

o Nitrogen

o Hydrogen
 Sources or raw for nitrogen and hydrogen
1. Nitrogen

Source: Liquid air (obtained by fractional distillation)

 Nitrogen is obtained by burning hydrogen in air. Air is mostly nitrogen and oxygen, with small amounts of other
gases. Only the oxygen reacts with hydrogen, forming steam:

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)

When the steam condenses, the gas that remains is mainly nitrogen.

2. Hydrogen

Source: Methane (natural gas) and Steam

 Hydrogen is made from methane and steam.

CH4(g) + 2H2O(g) → CO2(g) + 4H2(g)

Reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen
 The two raw materials; nitrogen and hydrogen react according to the equation below:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

 The reaction is reversible.

Essential conditions needed for the manufacture of ammonia in Haber process

o Catalyst: Iron

o Temperature: 350oC to 450oC

o Pressure: 350 atmospheres

The Reaction Scheme
 The Reaction Scheme..ctd
 The two gases are mixed. The mixture is cleaned or scrubbed, to get rid of any impurities

 Next the mixture is compressed. This pushes the gas molecules closer together

 Then the mixture goes to the convertor. This is a round tank containing beds of hot iron. The iron is a catalyst for this
reaction:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

The double headed arrow in the equation means the reaction is reversible. So it does not go to completion. A mixture of
nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia leaves the convertor.

 The mixture is cooled until the ammonia condenses. At the end of the reaction, about 10% of ammonia is produced. The
unreacted gases of nitrogen and hydrogen are pumped back to the convertor (iron catalyst) for another chance to react.

 The ammonia is run into tanks and stored as a liquid, under pressure.
Uses of Ammonia
 It is used in the refrigerating plants as a refrigerant

 It is used in the manufacture of explosives

 It is used in the manufacture of plastics and glue

 It is used in the manufacture of nitric acid

 It is used as a cleaning agent

 It is used in the manufacture of fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate, ammonium

nitrate and ammonium phosphate.
Thermal Decomposition of Ammonium Salts
 When ammonium salts decompose they liberate ammonia gas:
◦ (NH4)2SO4(aq) → 2NH3(g) + H2SO4(aq)

◦ NH4NO3(aq) → NH3(g) + HNO3(aq)

◦ (NH4)3PO4(aq) → 3NH3(g) + H3PO4(aq)

Manufacture of nitric acid by the Ostwald process
Step (i): catalytic oxidation of ammonia at 9000C over Platinum (Pt) catalyst

4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO + 6H2O

This reaction is exothermic and sustains itself once started.

Step (ii): Nitrogen (ii) oxide is cooled and reacted with excess air to form nitrogen (iv) oxide

2NO + O2 → 2NO2

Step (iii): absorption of nitrogen (iv) oxide in water to form nitric acid

3NO2(g) + H2O(g) → 2HNO3(aq) + NO2(g)

 Importance of Nitrogenous Fertilizers
 A fertilizer is any substance added to the soil to make it more fertile.

 nitrogenous fertilizers are synthetic fertilizers made in factories.

 Examples of Nitrogenous Fertilizers:

o Ammonium nitrate

o Ammonium phosphate

o Ammonium sulphate

 The nitrogenous consist of three important elements for plant growth;

 Nitrogen for growth,

 Phosphorous for root development.

 Potassium for seed formation.

NOTE: NPK stands for Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium

Effects of Nitrogenous Fertilizers on the environment

 In the river. Fertilizers can seep into the river from the land causing an aquatic
problem called Eutrophication.

Eutrophication is the excessive growth of algae and other marine plants that deprive
water of oxygen leading to death of marine animals.

 In the water supply. From rivers, nitrate ions from fertilizers can end up in water
supplies. If consumed, the nitrate ions are converted to nitrite ions inside human
bodies. These combine with haemoglobin reducing its oxygen carrying capacity.
ALLOTROPES
 When an element exists in several physical forms of the same state, it is said to
exhibit allotropy. Each form of this element is an allotrope.

 Allotropes are different physical forms of an element but in the same state.

 Allotropy is the existence of an element in different physical forms but in the same
state.
Allotropes of Carbon
 Carbon has two very popular allotropes, diamond and graphite.

 Diamond and graphite are both made of carbon only.

 However, they look very different and have different physical properties.

 They are both giant molecular structures.

 Diamond
 Diamond is a colourless, crystalline solid with an extremely high density.

 Each diamond atom shares electrons with each of its four nearest neighbours, thus forming four covalent bonds.

Physical Properties

 it is a colourless transparent crystal which sparkles in light

 it is a very hard substance

 it has a density of 3.51g/cm3

 It does not conduct electricity because there are no ions or free electrons in it to carry charge.

 It is very hard - the hardest substance known.

 It has a very high melting point of about 3700oC because each atom is held in place by four strong bonds.
Uses of Diamond
 Since it sparkles it is used as jewellery or ornaments.

 It is used to make edges of cutting saws because it is very hard.

 It is used to make the tips of drilling tools because it is hard and has a high melting
point
Graphite
 Graphite is a soft, black, crystalline form of carbon that is a fair conductor of
electricity.

 It is made up of flat sheets of carbon atoms held together by weak forces

 Each carbon atom is bonded to three others while the fourth electron is delocalised.
Physical Properties of Graphite
◦ It is a good conductor of electricity because of free moving electrons in between the layers of
the atoms.

◦ It is soft and slippery. This is because the sheets of atoms can slide over each other easily.

◦ It writes well on paper

◦ It is has a density of 2.22g/cm3

◦ It has a high melting point. This is because the strong bonds between the carbon atoms.
Uses of Graphite
◦ It is used as a lubricant because the layer of carbon atoms slide over each other easily

◦ It is used as an electrode in electrolysis

◦ It is used in making the “lead” for pencils. This is because it leaves a grey streak when it is
drawn across a sheet of paper
Carbon Monoxide
Formation of Carbon Monoxide

 By incomplete combustion of carbon and carbon compounds.

Examples: CH4 + O2 → CO + H2O

2C + O2 → 2CO

Incomplete combustion occurs when there is insufficient oxygen.

 Reduction of carbon dioxide by carbon.

CO2 + C → 2CO
 Properties of Carbon Monoxide
Properties of carbon monoxide

 It is colourless and odourless.

 It is insoluble in water.

 It is very poisonous when inhaled as it reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of haemoglobin.

Chemical Properties of Carbon Monoxide

 It acts as a reducing agent; reduces metal oxides.

Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2

Carbon monoxide burns with a pale blue flame forming carbon dioxide.

2CO + O2 → 2CO2
 Carbon Dioxide
Physical properties of carbon dioxide

 It is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas

 It is much heavier than air

 It is slightly/sparingly soluble in water, its solubility increases with pressure

 If carbon dioxide is cooled and pressurized, it turns straight into a solid, which is called dry ice
Chemical properties of Carbon dioxide

 It dissolves a little in water producing a dilute solution of carbonic acid

 Being an acid gas it reacts and gets absorbed by a solution of an alkali

Laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide
 In a laboratory, carbon dioxide can be prepared by the reaction of dilute acids with
carbonate or bi-carbonate.

 Method of Collection by:

o downward delivery method; because it is denser than air
o downward displacement of water/ above water; because it is sparingly soluble in water
Chemical Test for Carbon Dioxide
 Test; bubble the gas into clear lime water

 Result; the lime water turns milky/cloudy/forms a white precipitate.

 The identity test for carbon dioxide therefore is that it turns lime water milky when
bubbled into it.

 The chemical equation for the reaction given by;

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
Uses of Carbon Dioxide
 Used in fire extinguishers

 Dry ice is used as a refrigerant

 For making carbonated drinks

 used during photosynthesis by green plants; natural use.

Calcium carbonates, oxides and hydroxides
A. Calcium carbonate

 Chemical formula: CaCO3

 Special/common name: Limestone / marble

 Calcium carbonate is a white solid which is insoluble in water.

 When strongly heated, calcium carbonate decomposes to form calcium oxide and
carbon dioxide.

CaCO3(s)→ CaO(s) + CO2(g)

 Uses of limestone

◦ It is used in the manufacture of cement

◦ It is used for making glass

◦ It is used to remove impurities like silica as slag in the blast furnace

B. Calcium oxide

 Chemical formula: CaO

 Special/common name: Quick lime

 Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to form calcium hydroxide and a lot of heat energy

CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + Heat energy

C. Calcium hydroxide
 Chemical formula: Ca(OH)2
 Special/common name: Slaked lime or lime water
 Calcium hydroxide glows brightly at high temperatures
 Calcium hydroxide turns milky or cloudy when carbon dioxide is passed through it and a
white precipitate (suspension) of calcium carbonate is formed
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
 When excess carbon dioxide gas is passed through for some time, the precipitate
disappears and a clear solution of calcium hydrogen carbonate is formed
CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) → Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
Uses of calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide

◦ They are used in treating acidic soils.

◦ They are used in the neutralization of acidic industrial waste products before discharging
them into rivers and lakes

◦ Calcium hydroxide is used as plaster of paris for broken arms and legs

◦ Calcium oxide is used as lining in the blast furnace.

◦ Calcium oxide is used to remove silica impurities in the extraction of iron.

◦ Calcium oxide is used as a drying agent especially for ammonia gas.

“Attitude Determines Altitude”