UNIT SEVEN

Africa since 1960

7.1 Rise of Independent States in Africa

7.1.1 National Liberation Movement in North Africa

The first significant push toward independence in Africa began in North Africa, particularly with Egypt. After World
War I, Egyptian nationalist activists led by Saad Zaghlul demanded an end to British rule through demonstrations
and strikes. These protests culminated in the unilateral declaration of Egyptian independence on February 22, 1922.
Libya gained its independence from Italy on December 24, 1951, under UN Trusteeship. Following the 1952
Egyptian Revolution, which overthrew King Farouk, the revolutionary government led by Gamal Abdel Nasser
prioritized Sudanese independence. On January 1, 1956, Sudan became independent after the Anglo-Egyptian
Condominium ended. The liberation of French colonies in North Africa began in the 1950s. Morocco achieved
independence on March 2, 1956, followed by Tunisia later that year under Habib Bourguiba. Algeria's struggle was
more protracted due to resistance from French settlers. The National Liberation Front (FLN), led by Ahmed Ben
Bella, waged a guerrilla war from 1954 to 1962. A referendum confirmed Algerian independence on July 1, 1962.

7.1.2 National Liberation Movement in West Africa

A. British West Africa

The Gold Coast (now Ghana) was the first British colony in sub-Saharan Africa to gain independence in 1957, led
by Kwame Nkrumah‟s Convention People‟s Party (CPP). Nigeria‟s path to independence was more complex due
to ethnic divisions among political parties such as the National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC), Action
Group (AG), and Northern People‟s Congress (NPC). Nigeria achieved independence in 1960. Sierra Leone and
Gambia became independent in 1961 and 1965, respectively.

B. French West and Equatorial Africa

French colonies were divided into French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa. In 1958, Charles de Gaulle
offered membership in the French Community through a referendum. Guinea, led by Seko Touré, rejected the offer
and declared independence on October 2, 1958. Other French colonies gained independence in 1960, including
Cameroon, Togo, Madagascar, Mahoney (Benin), Niger, Upper Volta (Burkina Faso), Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire),
Chad, Ubangi Shari (Central African Republic), Congo (Brazzaville), Gabon, Senegal, French Sudan (Mali), and
Mauritania.

C. Portuguese West Africa

Portuguese colonies like Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde Islands faced violent struggles for independence due to
Portugal‟s refusal to grant autonomy. The anti-colonial movements in these regions involved prolonged wars until
they achieved independence in 1973–1974. Angola and Mozambique also gained independence during this period.

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7.1.3 National Liberation Movement in East and Central Africa

A. British East Africa

Uganda gained independence in 1962 under Milton Obote. Tanganyika won independence in 1961 under Julius
Nyerere‟s Tanganyika African National Union (TANU). Zanzibar became independent in 1963, and the two
merged in 1964 to form Tanzania. Kenya‟s struggle involved the Mau Mau rebellion against British land
dispossession. After suppression of the movement, Jomo Kenyatta led Kenya to independence in 1963.

B. Belgian Congo

Belgian Congo achieved independence on June 30, 1960, as the Republic of the Congo. Patrice Lumumba‟s Congo
National Movement (MNC) won elections, but internal conflicts led to secessionist movements in Katanga and
South Kasai. Lumumba was executed in 1961, and the Katanga secession ended in 1963 with UN intervention.

C. Rwanda and Burundi

Rwanda and Burundi were part of German East Africa before being administered by Belgium. Both countries
gained independence in 1962 under UN supervision. Rwanda became a republic, while Burundi remained a
kingdom until 1966.

7.1.4 National Liberation Movement in Southern Africa

Southern Africa was dominated by Britain and Portugal. Zambia gained independence in 1964 under Kenneth
Kaunda. Malawi, Lesotho, and Botswana followed in 1964–1966. South Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) faced a long armed
struggle led by ZANU and ZAPU, leading to independence in 1980 under Robert Mugabe. Namibia‟s
independence came in 1990 after a prolonged fight led by SWAPO against South African occupation.

7.1.5 Apartheid in South Africa

South Africa became a self-governing dominion in 1910. The African National Congress (ANC) formed in 1912 to
fight for black rights. The apartheid regime established in 1948 enforced racial segregation and denied political
rights to non-whites. Resistance campaigns, including the Sharpeville Massacre in 1960, led to international
condemnation. Nelson Mandela was imprisoned in 1962 but released in 1990. Apartheid ended in 1994 when
Mandela was elected president.

7.1.6 Pan-Africanism and the OAU

Pan-Africanism emerged in the New World as a movement for black unity. The Fifth Pan-African Congress in
1945 marked a shift toward African-led liberation struggles. Kwame Nkrumah played a key role in forming
regional organizations like the Union of African States (1958). African leaders later split into the Casablanca
Group (favoring political union) and Monrovia Group (favoring loose cooperation). The Organization of African
Unity (OAU) was founded in 1963 in Addis Ababa with goals of decolonization, unity, development, and
sovereignty.

7.1.7 Successes and Failures of the OAU

The OAU succeeded in ending colonialism and white minority rule. However, it failed to bring peace, prosperity,
or effective governance to Africa. Its weak enforcement mechanisms limited its ability to address conflicts,
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poverty, and human rights abuses. By the late 20th century, reforms were necessary, leading to the formation of the
African Union (AU) in 2002.

7.2 Struggles for Economic Independence

Despite initial economic growth from 1965–1974, Africa experienced a decline afterward. International debt,
adverse trade terms, and drought hindered development. African governments turned to the IMF and World Bank
for loans, but these institutions favored Western interests. Regional Economic Communities (RECs) were
established to promote integration. Major RECs include COMESA, ECOWAS, IGAD, and SADC.

7.3 Major Issues in Contemporary Africa

Post-colonial challenges persist in Africa, including contested boundaries, ethnicity, corruption, and neo-colonial
ties with former colonizers like France. Ethnic conflicts have led to civil wars, such as the Biafra War in Nigeria
and the Rwandan Genocide in 1994. Poverty remains widespread due to population growth, conflict, climate
change, disease outbreaks, and inadequate agricultural infrastructure. Despite these issues, democratic reforms
have expanded since the 1990s, marking a "second independence" across the continent.

UNIT EIGHT
Post-1991 Developments in Ethiopia
8.1 Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE)

8.1.1 The 1991 Transitional Charter and the Formation of TGE

Following the end of a decades-long civil war, Ethiopia entered a new political era in 1991 with the establishment
of the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE). The Marxist military junta was overthrown by the Ethiopian
People‟s Revolutionary Front (EPRDF), led by the Tigray People‟s Liberation Front (TPLF). Other members of
the EPRDF included the Ethiopian Peoples‟ Democratic Movement (EPDM), the Oromo People‟s Democratic
Organization (OPDO), and the Southern Ethiopian People‟s Democratic Movement (SEPDM), which joined later
in 1992.

In May 1991, an international conference sponsored by the United States was held in London to discuss the
formation of a transitional government. However, before the talks could make progress, Addis Ababa was captured
by rebel forces on May 28, 1991. This led to a national conference in July 1991 that laid the groundwork for the
transitional period. A key outcome was the agreement to hold a referendum on Eritrean independence within two
years.

The Ethiopian Democratic and Peaceful Transitional Conference convened in early July 1991, where delegates
from various political and ethnic groups participated. Discussions focused on the nationality issue, including the
right to secession. Eritrean independence was provisionally accepted with minimal opposition. The conference also
laid the foundation for restructuring Ethiopia as a federation based on ethnicity. A transitional charter was
adopted, establishing an 87-member Council of Representatives representing 32 political groups. The EPRDF and
its allies dominated the council with 32 seats. Meles Zenawi was elected chairman of the Council of
Representatives and president of Ethiopia. The TGE also included a 17-member Council of Ministers composed of
representatives from different ethnic groups.

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Despite efforts to build a broad-based coalition, tensions emerged. The OLF withdrew from the government in
1992, and in 1993, the Southern Ethiopia Peoples‟ Democratic Coalition was expelled. Nevertheless, Meles
pledged to establish a multiparty democracy. In June 1994, elections were held for a 547-member Constituent
Assembly, which drafted the constitution for the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE).

One of the most significant reforms during this period was the creation of 14 self-governing regions based on
nations, nationalities, and peoples. This marked the beginning of Ethiopia‟s experiment with ethnic federalism.

8.1.2 The 1995 Constitution and the Formation of the FDRE

The 1995 Constitution established Ethiopia as a federal state composed of nine regional states and two chartered
cities: Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa. It emphasized principles such as constitutional supremacy, human rights,
secularism, and accountability. The constitution recognized both individual and collective rights, including the
right of nations and nationalities to self-determination, cultural preservation, and even secession under Article 39.

The federal system introduced a bicameral legislature: the House of Peoples‟ Representatives (HPR) as the lower
house and the House of Federation (HoF) as the upper house. The HPR is responsible for passing laws and
overseeing governance, while the HoF interprets the constitution. An independent judiciary was also established,
with the Federal Supreme Court at its head.

The nine regional states created under the constitution are:

1. Tigray 2, Afar

3. Amhara 4 . Oromia

5. Somali 6, Benishangul-Gumuz

7, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' State (SNNPRS)

8. Gambella 9, Harari

Each state has the right to self-governance, use its own working language, and manage internal affairs. Although
some states appear ethnically homogeneous, most are diverse. For example, the SNNPRS alone includes over 50
ethnic groups.

The federal constitution also addressed language policy, designating Amharic as the working language at the
federal level. Regional states were allowed to choose their own working languages, leading to multilingual
administration across Ethiopia.

However, the implementation of the constitution faced several challenges:

 Threat of secession: The recognition of the right to self-determination raised concerns about national unity.
 Regional imbalance: Some states, like Oromia, occupy large territories, while others, like Harari, are very
small.
 State-building difficulties: Many regions lacked infrastructure and institutional capacity.
 Power-sharing issues: Disputes arose over executive roles and capital city selection.
 Language diversity: Managing multiple official languages posed administrative challenges.
 Human rights enforcement: Ensuring uniform standards across a legally pluralistic country proved
difficult.

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Despite these challenges, the 1995 Constitution remains a landmark document in Ethiopian history, laying the legal
foundation for a modern, democratic, and multiethnic federal republic.

8.2 Hydro-Political History of the Nile (Abay) Basin and Development Issues

8.2.1 Hydro-Political History of the Nile (Abay) Basin

The Nile River the longest in the world, flows through 11 countries, including Ethiopia, Egypt, Sudan, Uganda,
Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and Eritrea. Ethiopia
contributes approximately 86% of the Nile's water through the Blue Nile (Abay) and Tekeze Rivers but historically
used less than 1% of it.

Colonial-era agreements heavily favored downstream countries:

 The 1929 Agreement: Signed between Britain (on behalf of Sudan) and Egypt, granting Egypt veto power
over any upstream projects affecting the Nile flow.
 The 1959 Agreement: Between Egypt and Sudan, allocating 55.5 billion cubic meters to Egypt and 18.5
billion to Sudan annually, effectively excluding other riparian states.

After coming to power in 1991, the EPRDF government sought to renegotiate these imbalanced agreements.

 In 2005, Ethiopia and Egypt signed the Cooperative Framework Agreement (CFA), aimed at fostering
cooperation in managing the Nile waters.
 However, the CFA did not formally recognize Ethiopia‟s equitable share or challenge the 1959 Agreement.
 In 1999, the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) was launched in Dares Salaam, marking the first inclusive forum
for all Nile riparian countries to negotiate sustainable water management. While the NBI improved
dialogue, it failed to resolve disputes over historical water allocations.

To assert its development rights, Ethiopia began constructing the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on
the Blue Nile in April 2011. With a storage capacity of 74 billion cubic meters, GERD is expected to provide
electricity to millions of Ethiopians and support regional economic growth. However, the dam sparked a decade-
long diplomatic dispute with Egypt and Sudan, who feared reduced water flow and environmental impacts.
Negotiations have continued without resolution, highlighting the complexities of trans-boundary water politics in
the Nile Basin.

8.2.2 Development Issues and Challenges of the Democratization Process in Ethiopia

Since the establishment of the TGE in 1991, Ethiopia has pursued economic reform and democratization. The
government adopted a free-market economy and implemented the Agricultural-led Development of
Industrialization (ALDI) strategy to transform the agrarian economy into an industrialized one. Agricultural
productivity improvements were expected to generate surplus for industrial growth. From 1992 to 2004, Ethiopia
experienced an average annual GDP growth rate of 5.1%. From 2005 to 2015, this increased to around 10.9%,
making Ethiopia one of the fastest-growing non-oil economies in Africa. Infrastructure development expanded
significantly, including roads increasing from 18,000 km to over 120,000 km and major projects like GERD.

Despite impressive economic growth, Ethiopia continues to face severe poverty:

 About 25 million people live below the poverty line (less than $1.25 per day).

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  Recurrent droughts and climate shocks have caused food insecurity, with 5–18 million Ethiopians
requiring food aid annually.
 Wealth distribution remains uneven, with disparities among regional states.

Democratization has also been problematic:

 The ruling EPRDF-dominated governments restricted political freedoms and suppressed opposition
parties.
 Elections in 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2015 were marred by irregularities, violence, and lack of
transparency.
 The 2005 election initially showed promise but ended in violent protests after disputed results left
hundreds dead.

The constitution, although progressive on paper, has often been violated in practice. Political repression, ethnic
tensions, and limited freedom of expression remain persistent challenges. Despite economic achievements,
Ethiopia continues to grapple with balancing development, democracy, and social cohesion. This four-page
summary captures key developments in post-1991 Ethiopia, focusing on political transition, constitutional reform,
hydro-politics, and socio-economic challenges.

UNIT 9
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND HERITAGES OF ETHIOPIA

9.1 Indigenous Knowledge

9.1.1 The Role of Indigenous Knowledge for overall Development; Characteristics of Indigenous Knowledge

 Indigenous knowledge provides problem-solving strategies for local communities.

 It represents an important component of global knowledge on development issues.
 Indigenous people can provide valuable input about the local environment and how to effectively manage
the natural resources.
 Learning from indigenous knowledge can improve understanding of agriculture, healthcare, food security,
education and natural resource management issues.
 Preserving indigenous knowledge contributes to the cultural and political self-reliance.

9.1.2 Characteristics of Indigenous Knowledge

 Indigenous knowledge is simple and practical.

 It provides the concrete situations of communities regarding the environment and provides practical
solutions to the problems of the people.
 It provides basic and rich ground for the development of modern society.
 It developed over a long period.
 Its patterns are based upon local knowledge systems and it is expressed in local languages.
 It passed from generations to generations orally.
 Some forms of indigenous knowledge are expressed through stories, legends, folklore, rituals, songs, and
even laws.

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9.1.3 Some Specific and Unique Knowledge Systems in Ethiopia among a Particular Cultural Groups and
Regions

Indigenous knowledge is manifested in numerous ways. Some of these are management strategies, decision-
making procedures, dispute resolution practices, indigenous laws, and rights. In Ethiopia, indigenous conflict
resolution is one of the most popular techniques of conflict settlement. Local leaders, chiefs, religious leaders,
healers, and elders lead the process of resolving problems using indigenous techniques.

 The indigenous dispute resolution mechanism is an informal way of resolving conflicts which have old
collections of techniques found in all communities.
 They resolve conflicts through arbitration and mediation.
 Helps to restore a good relationship among the conflicting parties.

The following are examples of indigenous conflict resolution mechanisms and knowledge systems in Ethiopia.

Mada’a and Dagu of Afar People

The indigenous mechanism of conflict resolution among the Afar is known as Mada’a. It is an unwritten law that is
transmitted orally from generation to generation. Elders of the Mada’a, are selected from different clans. Their
decisions are effective based on the tradition of forgiveness, respect for elders, and the transfer of resources as
compensation. They have an indigenous, unique information exchange system called Dagu. It is a news medium
that serves all members of society virtually equally regardless of their social status. It is through Dagu that they
learn of any newcomers to their desert realm, of the conditions of water holes and grazing lands, of missing camels
and caravans. Moreover, it helps them learn about weddings and funerals, new alliances and betrayals, the latest
battles fought, and the conditions of the trail ahead.

Jaarsuuma, Sinqe institution, Guma

The foundation of the Gadaa system is rooted in the informal or customary Oromo institutions of aadaa (custom
or tradition), seera (laws), safuu (a moral category that prescribes what human actions and behaviors ought to be).
It is the Oromo concept of Ethics) and heera (justice). They are also conflict resolution institutions uniquely placed
to assist in tackling the interlinked problems of the environment, welfare, and conflict.

The other important informal institution of conflict resolution of Oromo is the institution of araara
(reconciliation). The process of reconciliation between conflicting individuals or groups by a group of Jaarsaas is
jaarsummaa. The term jaarsa is the Oromo version of elder, and jaarsummaa is the process of reconciliation
between conflicting individuals or groups of jaarsaas (elders). The decision of the elders emphasizes the need for
cooperation and a win-win solution. The following Oromo proverb describes why a win-win is desired: “Akka
Haroon hin gognee akka raachi hin dune” (for the lake not to dry, for the frogs not to die).

Gumaa is the other widely practiced indigenous way of resolving conflicts relating to homicide or murder. It refers
to the blood money paid to the slain‟s family or the payment made to the seriously injured individuals. The gumaa
system is capable of creating an environment conducive to justice. The legitimacy of the system becomes credible
through the nomination of elders who are mature in years, knowledgeable about the process, and rich in their
practical experience sand who are free from corruption and politicization. The nominated elder examines whether
the procedures followed are in line with the heera (customary law and justice procedure.) In the gumaa system,
decisions are made based on tangible evidences. This mechanism also has its system of secretly investigating
crimes committed against human life or property.

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The instrument through which women‟s rights are duly respected among the Oromo is known as Siinqee(Siiqee).
Siinqee(Siiqee) is a stick (Ulee) symbolizing a socially sanctioned set of rights exercised by women. Siinqee
(Siiqee) is a special stick that a woman who gets legally married receives on her wedding day. It refers to an
institution, namely a women‟s organization that excludes men, and has both religious and political functions.
Women use their Siinqee (Siiqee) in various religious, social, political and economic contexts. They are considered
as symbols of mediation and peace. Whenever a woman‟s right has been violated, the women ululate to notify to
each other. Upon hearing the sound, women respond by moving to the place carrying their Siinqee. Then, the
women go to the Gada Council singing a song in which they announce the specific activities which led to the
breach of their rights. At the council, they are welcomed respectfully and invited to speak out about the
wrongdoing. Afterwards, the person accused of wrongdoing was brought to justice and the appropriate punitive
measures would be taken against him.

Shimgelina of Amhara

Among the Amhara people, the main indigenous conflict resolution mechanism is Shimgelina, In this indigenous
conflict resolution mechanism, five Shimageles (elders) would be appointed by the disputing parties themselves
based on their choice. They are recognized as solution makers since they have the power to make binding decisions
and impose solutions on behalf of the parties. The Shimageles often follow up on agreements and strive to improve
relationships in post-meditation sessions.

Shimegilena is preferable due to its accessibility, low cost, and trust. In most cases, a priest of the local church
serves as chairman to make the system more acceptable to society. The conflicting parties have role. These include
exchange of assets, prayers and sacrificing to GOD and habitual activities such as jumping over the rifles, drinking
and eating jointly, playing and dancing or consuming some drugs.

The Sidama Luwa system

 It is an age-related institution performing ritual, cultural and political roles.

 It is administered by an age grade system where each grade rotates every 8 years.
 There are five rotating age grades in the Luwa system: Darara, Fullassa, Hirobora,
Wawassa and Mogissa.
 The Luwa system has two important objectives.
I. The first and the most important one is the recruitment and training of the able bodied men for the
defense of the nation.
II. The second objective is the development of potential elders who will have authorities to replace
the current elders (Cimeeyye).
 The youth learn skills by attending council meetings where elders make decisions. Hence,
elders have a direct influence on the youth, who constitute the productive forces and the basis of wealth
creation. There
 was also other which reflect a unique and egalitarian culture of the Sidama society. Seera is among the
most notable independent socio economic institutions of Sidama people. The Sidama Seera system is
divided into two:
 The first refers to the broad concept of Seera as a social constitution which governs the Sidama social life
based on the Sidama moral code of halale which helped to distinguishing "good" and "evil".

In Kambata and Hadiya culture, the basis for political administration, social involvement, and dispute resolution
processes is Seera. Seera refers to the code of behavior that governs the interactions of people, clans, and territorial
groups. Seera recommends how farmers interact with the environment, youth with the elderly, and women with

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men. Peace, correction, and reintegration are the goals of Seera governance. Seera administration is overseen by
the village elders, who are often regarded as wise and patient and have wide-ranging knowledge of justice and
peace.

9.2 Heritages of Ethiopia

9.2.1. Meaning and Values of Heritages

 Heritage is something that can be passed from generation to generation, something that can be conserved
or inherited, and something that has historic or cultural value.
 It is a physical „object‟: a piece of property, a building or a place that can be „owned‟ and „passed on‟ to
someone else.
 Language, culture, popular song, literature, and dress, for example, are just as significant in helping us
comprehend who we are as the physical artifacts and buildings that we are more accustomed to thinking of
as 'heritage.'
 The term „heritage values‟ refers to the meanings and values that individuals or groups
of people bestow on heritage (including buildings, archaeological sites, landscapes and
intangible expressions of culture, such as traditions.

9.2.2. Types of Heritages

A. Natural Heritage consists of

1. Physical and biological formations or groups of such formations, which are of outstanding value from the
aesthetic or scientific point of view.
2. geological and physiographical formations and precisely delineated areas, which constitute the habitat of
threatened species of animals and plants of outstanding value from the point of view of science or
conservation;
3. Natural sites or precisely delineated natural areas of outstanding value from the point of view of science,
conservation or natural beauty.

B. Intangible heritage: refers to those practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, skills, instruments,
objects, and artifacts. These are manifested in the following domains:

 oral traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the intangible cultural heritage;
 performing arts;
 social practices,
 rituals and festive events;
 knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe;
 Indigenous handcrafts.

C. Tangible Heritage: Tangible Heritage refers to physical artifacts produced, maintained

and transmitted from generation to generation. It includes artistic creations, buildings and
historic places, monuments, artifacts, etc

The heritages of Ethiopia registered by UNESCO include the following:

1. The Stelae of Axum in Tigray National Regional State, symbolizes the wealth and importance of the
civilization of the ancient Aksumite kingdom.

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2. The Rock-hewn Churches of Lalibela are found in the Amhara National Regional state. The eleven churches
were carved out of a singed rock. It was registered by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 1978.

3. Fasil Ghebbi (the Premise of King Fasiledes): This heritage is found in Gonder town. As true evidence of an
architectural beauty deeply marked by the country‟s ancient civilization and was registered by UNESCO as a
World Heritage Site.

4. The Simien Mountains National Park: The Park is home to some extremely rare animals such as the Gelada
baboon, the Simien fox and the Walia ibex. The Park is one of the first sites to be included in the list of World
Heritage in 1978.

5. The Lower Valley of Awash: it is a site of Paleo-anthropological research. The Lower Valley of Awash was
included in the list of World Heritage sites in 1980.

6. The Lower valley of Omo: Located in South Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State. It was listed as
a World Heritage Site in 1980.

7. Tiya: It is found 90km South of Addis Ababa, in the Soddo Region of Ethiopia. The site contains 36
monuments, including 32 carved stelae covered with symbols. This archaeological site was listed as a World
Heritage Site in 1980.

8. Harar Jugol: The wall (Jugol) was built during the time of Emir Nur Ibn Mujahid in the 16th century. In
recognition of its cultural heritage, the Historic City of Harar (Jugol) was registered by UNESCO as a World
Heritage Site in 2006.

9. Konso cultural landscape: Konso Cultural Landscape is an arid property of stone-walled terraces and fortified
settlements in the Konso highlands of Ethiopia, which was inscribed on the world heritage list in 2011.

10. Mesqel Demera ceremony (the Finding of the True Cross): Meskel, the commemoration feast of the finding
of the True Holy Cross of Christ, was inscribed on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural
Heritage of Humanity in 2013.

11. Gadaa: it was inscribed on the representative list of the intangible cultural heritage of humanity in 2016.

12. Fichee-Chambalaalla- is a New Year celebration and stands out as one of the most important holidays of the
Sidama. Fiche-Chambalaalla was inscribed on the representative list of the intangible cultural heritage of
humanity in 2015.

13. Timket, Ethiopian Epiphany: The festival of Timiket or Epiphany to commemorate the baptism of Jesus in the
Jordan River is celebrated across Ethiopia on January 19th or 20th in the leap year. It has become the fourth for
Ethiopia in the list of UNESCO intangible cultural heritage lists in 2019.

Festivals are classified under intangible heritages. Some of the most important cultural and religious festivals in
Ethiopia include Ashenda, Ashendiye, Shadey or Solel. The festival known as Ashenda ,Ashendiye, Shaday or Solel
is the biggest and unique religious and cultural festival in Tigray and Amhara regional states that is solely for girls
and young women. One of these festivals is Irrecha. Irreecha (also called Irreessa), is the annual thanksgiving day
of Oromo celebrated every year at the beginning of Birra (spring), the new season, near the river bank or water and
tree. Irreechaa is celebrated every year in September at Bishoftu Hora Harsadii and other Oromia major cities.

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Manuscripts
Ethiopia is exceptional in sub-Saharan Africa; it has a written tradition in the Gé῾éz language. After the
introduction of Christianity in the 4th century, Ethiopian manuscripts flourished as a result of support the writers
got from the state. There were special schools for calligraphy in Gondar and Shewa.

Temples
Ethiopia has several temples which can be classified as tangible heritages. Some of these temples date back to the
Pre-Christian era. The well-known ones are the temple of Yeha, the old cathedral of St. Mary of Zion at Aksum,
Rock-hewn Churches of Lalibela, monasteries and others. The Temple of Yeha is located in Yeha, northeast Adwa.
Following the introduction and expansion of Islam in Ethiopia, many mosques were built in different parts of the
country.

Palaces
The well-known palaces in Ethiopia are the Palace of King Fasilidas, Grand palace of Menilek, Palace of Jimma
Abba Jifar II, Palace of Ras Ali, the palace of Kumsa Moreda and others.

Caves, houses Sof Omar

It is one of the most remarkable and extensive underground caves in the world. The Sof Omar cave system was
formed by the Weyb River, as it changed its course in the distant past and carved a new channel through limestone
foothills.

Halala Keela (Halala kab) of Dawuro

The Dawuro wall was constructed on strategic defense positions, bordered by the Omo and Gojeb Rivers. The
construction of these dry-stone walls might have begun in the second half of the the16th century and was
completed probably in the second half of the 18th century during the reign of King Halala. The wall started from
somewhere in the area where Gofa, South Omo Zone, Konta Special Woreda and Kafa Zone come in contact in the
south and extends up to some places in Jimma Zone.

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