Unit 8 – The Cold War & Decolonization

8.1 – Setting the Stage for the Cold War and Decolonization

▪ Hopes for greater self-government were largely unfulfilled following

World War I; however, in the years following World War II, increasing
anti-imperialist sentiment contributed to the _____________ of empires
and the _____________ of states.

▪ Technological and economic gains experienced during World War II by

the victorious nations shifted the global balance of power.

▪ Terms to be familiar with:

– Yalta/Potsdam Conferences

– East/West Germany

– The Berlin Wall

– The Iron Curtain

– The Truman Doctrine

8.2 – The Cold War

▪ The global balance of economic and political power shifted during and
after WWII and rapidly evolved into the Cold War. The _____________ of
the United States and the _____________ _____________ Soviet Union
emerged as superpowers, which led to _____________ conflict and a
power struggle between capitalism and communism across the globe.

▪ Groups and individuals, including the _____________ Movement, opposed

and promoted alternatives to the existing economic, political and social
orders.

– Sukarno in Indonesia - During the Cold War, Indonesia, under the

leadership of Sukarno, emerged as a prominent player in the
global political arena by championing the principles of the Non-
Aligned Movement (NAM). Central to Sukarno’s foreign policy was
the doctrine of “dynamic neutrality,” which aimed to maintain
Indonesia’s _____________ and _____________

– Kwame Nkrumah in Ghana - He played a pivotal role in the anti-

colonial movement and advocated for self-determination and
pan-African unity. As the founder and leader of the Convention
 People’s Party (CPP), Nkrumah mobilized mass support through
his impassioned message of _____________ and _____________.

8.3 – Effects of the Cold War

▪ The Cold War produced new military alliances, including _____________

and the _____________ Pact, and led to nuclear proliferation and proxy
wars between and within postcolonial states in Latin America, Africa,
and Asia.

▪ _____________ Wars:

– Korean War:

▪ The origins of the war can be traced back to the division of

Korea along the 38th parallel following World War II, with
the Soviet Union occupying the north and the United States
occupying the south. Tensions between the two Koreas
escalated in June 1950 when North Korean forces, backed
by the Soviet Union and China, launched a surprise
invasion of South Korea.

▪ The Korean War ended in July 1953 with the signing of an

_____________ agreement, which established a _____________
zone along the 38th parallel and ended the active fighting.

– Angolan Civil War:

▪ The roots of the civil war can be traced back to Angola’s

struggle for independence from Portuguese colonial rule,
which culminated in Portugal’s withdrawal in 1975.
However, the vacuum left by the departing colonial power
quickly became a battleground for _____________
_____________ movements, each supported by _____________
powers with their own strategic _____________. The Angolan
Civil War finally came to an end in 2002 with the signing of
a peace agreement between the MPLA government and
UNITA rebels.

– Sandinista-Contras conflict in Nicaragua:

▪ The conflict emerged in the aftermath of the overthrow of

the Somoza dictatorship in 1979, when the leftist
Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) came to power.
 ▪ However, the Sandinista government’s socialist policies
and close ties to the Soviet Union and Cuba drew the ire of
the United States, which viewed Nicaragua as a potential
communist __________ in its backyard. In response, the
United States began supporting anti-Sandinista rebel
groups known as the ___________, comprised of former
Somoza regime loyalists and disaffected Nicaraguans
seeking to overthrow the Sandinista government.

▪ The Sandinista-Contras conflict ultimately ended in 1990

with the defeat of the Sandinistas in democratic elections

8.4 – Spread of Communism After 1900

▪ As a result of internal tension and Japanese aggression, Chinese

communists seized power. These changes in China eventually led to
communist revolution.

▪ In communist China, the government controlled the national economy

through the Great Leap Forward, often implementing repressive
policies with negative repercussions for the population.

▪ Movements to redistribute land and resources developed within the

states in Africa, Asia and Latin America, sometimes advocating
communism or socialism.

▪ Communist Revolution for Vietnamese independence:

▪ _____________, a key figure in this movement, founded the

Indochinese Communist Party in 1930, later renamed the
Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP). During World War II,
Vietnam fell under Japanese occupation, presenting both
challenges and opportunities for the nationalist cause.

▪ Diplomatic negotiations between the Viet Minh and the French

culminated in the Geneva Accords of 1954, which partitioned
Vietnam at the 17th parallel and called for elections to reunify
the country.

▪ In 1975, after years of struggle and sacrifice, North Vietnamese

forces captured Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, effectively
reunifying the country under communist rule.

▪ Mengistu Haile Mariam in Ethiopia - Ethiopia’s transition from

centuries of imperial rule to revolutionary upheaval was driven
 by a __________ of factors, including rapid social change,
economic inequality, and the emergence of Marxist-Leninist
ideologies. Mengistu, a military officer disillusioned with the
status quo, emerged as a central figure in the revolutionary
movement.

▪ The Ethiopian Revolution of 1974, fueled by popular discontent

and revolutionary fervor, aimed to dismantle the monarchy and
usher in a new era of social justice and equality. In 1991,
Mengistu was ousted from power, marking the end of an era
characterized by dictatorship and authoritarian rule.

▪ Land reform in Kerala and other states within India - Led by

Communist-led governments during the 1950s and 1960s,
__________ (a region in India)’s land reform initiatives aimed to
dismantle feudal structures, empower marginalized agricultural
communities, and promote social justice. The legislation imposed
land ceilings, limiting the amount of land an individual or family
could own, and mandated the redistribution of surplus land to
landless or marginal farmers.

▪ White Revolution in Iran - Inspired by a desire to address deep-

rooted ____________________ inequalities, Mohammad Reza Shah
Pahlavi implemented sweeping reforms encompassing land
redistribution, women’s rights, education, healthcare, and
infrastructure development. The Shah’s __________________ rule,
coupled with corruption and repression, fueled opposition from
religious leaders, intellectuals, and leftist groups. Ultimately, the
failure of the White Revolution to fully address underlying
grievances contributed to growing social unrest, paving the way
for the __________ Revolution of 1979.

8.5 – Decolonization After 1900

▪ Nationalist leaders and parties in Asia and Africa sought varying

degrees of autonomy within or independence from imperial rule.

– Indian National Congress - Initially provided a platform for Indian

intellectuals, professionals, and political leaders to voice
__________ against British colonial rule, the INC transitioned into a
mass __________, mobilizing millions of Indians across diverse
backgrounds in the fight for freedom.
 – Ho Chi Minh in French Indochina (Vietnam) - Vision of an
independent Vietnam

– Kwame Nkrumah in British Gold Coast (Ghana) - The first sub-

Saharan African nation to gain independence from colonial rule in
1957.

– Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt - Ascending to power following the

1952 Egyptian Revolution, Nasser fervently pursued Egypt’s
__________, aiming to break free from colonial influences,
particularly Britain’s long-standing grip.

▪ After the end of WWII, some colonies negotiated their independence,

while other achieved independence through armed struggle:

▪ Negotiated independence:

– India from the British Empire - India’s arduous journey to

independence from British colonial rule was characterized by a
complex interplay of political agitation, diplomatic negotiations,
and the transformative influence of Mahatma __________
__________ __________ movement.

– Gold Coast from British Empire – Boycotts propelled

independence movement from Britain, which happened in 1957.

– French West Africa - Negotiations between French authorities and

African nationalist leaders culminated in a wave of independence
declarations in 1960, with Senegal, Ivory Coast, Mali, and others
asserting their sovereignty.

▪ Independence through armed struggle:

– Algeria from the French Empire (1954) - The Algerian War was
characterized by brutal violence, repression, and human rights
abuses on both sides. Internationally, the Algerian War garnered
significant attention and support, including the UN, with Algeria
emerging as a symbol of anti-colonial struggle and solidarity.
After eight years of relentless conflict and mounting international
pressure, __________ finally conceded __________. In 1962, Algeria
officially gained its independence following the signing of the
Evian Accords, which ended the war and granted Algeria full
sovereignty.
 – Angola from the Portuguese Empire - The struggle for Angolan
independence escalated into armed conflict in the 1960s, as
nationalist groups launched guerrilla campaigns against
Portuguese colonial forces. The conflict soon became embroiled
in Cold War dynamics, with Angola becoming a __________
battleground for rival powers. In 1975, following years of armed
struggle and diplomatic negotiations, Angola finally declared its
independence from Portugal. However, the transition to
independence was fraught with internal divisions and external
pressures, leading to a protracted civil war that ravaged the
country for __________.

– Vietnam from the French Empire

▪ Regional, religious, and ethnic movements challenged colonial rule and

inherited imperial boundaries. Some of these movements advocated
for autonomy.

– Muslim League in British India - The primary objective of the

Muslim League was to protect the political and economic rights
of Muslims and ensure their fair _________________ in the Indian
political system. The Muslim League’s advocacy for separate
electorates and its demand for a separate Muslim-majority state
eventually culminated in the __________ of British India and the
creation of __________ in 1947.

– The partition of British India led to the largest mass __________ in

human history and significant communal violence between
Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. While Pakistan emerged as a
homeland for Muslims, providing them with a separate political
entity where they could exercise self-rule and practice their faith
freely, it also resulted in the ____________________ and __________
of millions of people and left a legacy of unresolved tensions
between India and Pakistan.

– Quebecois separatist movement in Canada - Rooted in centuries-

old cultural and linguistic divisions, the movement seeks to
assert the distinct __________ of French-speaking Québécois and
advocate for Quebec’s independence from Canada. Gained
momentum in 1960’s/70’s. 1980: held a vote that failed.

– Biafra secessionist movement in Nigeria - Perceived

marginalization and discrimination against the Igbo fueled calls
 for secession and the establishment of an independent state of
Biafra, led by Igbo leaders. The conflict, which lasted until
January 1970, was characterized by intense fighting, mass
displacement, and a humanitarian crisis. In January 1970,
following a military offensive by Nigerian forces, Biafra
surrendered, effectively ending the __________ movement.

8.6 – Newly Independent States

▪ The redrawing of political boundaries after the withdrawal of former

colonial authorities led to the creation of new states

– Cambodia – The country endured nearly a century of French

colonial rule characterized by __________ and __________.
However, in the aftermath of World War II and the wave of
decolonization, Cambodia’s aspirations for independence
intensified & ultimately lead to Cambodia’s declaration of
independence on November 9, 1953. However, Pol Pot’s Khmer
Rouge regime took over, and it wasn’t until 1992 that elections
were held once more.

▪ The redrawing of political boundaries in some cases led to conflict as

well as population displacement and/or resettlements, including:

– Partition of India (discussed elsewhere)

– State of Israel - In 1947, facing mounting pressure and growing

unrest in Palestine, Britain announced its intention to withdraw
from the region. The United Nations proposed a __________ plan,
dividing the territory into separate Jewish and Arab states, with
__________ designated as an international zone. While Jewish
leaders accepted the proposal as a step towards statehood, Arab
leaders vehemently rejected it, viewing it as a violation of their
rights and aspirations. In May 1948, following Britain’s
withdrawal, Jewish leaders declared the establishment of the
State of Israel, marking a historic milestone in Jewish history.
However, the declaration sparked a war with neighboring Arab
states, known as the ______-____________ War of 1948.

▪ In newly independent states after WWII, governments often took on a

strong role in guiding economic life to promote development.

– Gamal Abdel Nasser’s promotion of economic development in

Egypt - He implemented a series of reforms aimed at
 nationalizing key industries, redistributing land to farmers, and
expanding access to education and healthcare. The
nationalization of industries aimed to reduce dependence on
foreign capital and promote self-sufficiency, while land reforms
sought to address rural poverty and inequality.

– Indira Ghandi’s economic policies in India - Prime Minister of

India from 1966 to 1977 and again from 1980 to 1984,
implemented a series of economic policies to promote
development, self-sufficiency, and social justice in India. Her
tenure saw significant shifts in economic strategy, marked by a
mix of socialist planning and liberalization measures. Gandhi also
championed the __________ ____________________, a series of
agricultural reforms aimed at increasing food production and
alleviating rural poverty. Introducing high-yielding crop varieties,
modern farming techniques, and irrigation projects helped
transform India from a food-__________ nation to a self-sufficient
________________ ___________________.

▪ In newly independent states after WWII, governments often took on a

strong role in guiding economic life to promote development.

– Julius Nyerere’s modernization in Tanzania (1967) - Nyerere’s

political ideology, grounded in African socialism, sought to
reconcile traditional African values with socialist principles.
“__________” envisioned a society where individuals worked
together for the collective good, fostering solidarity and mutual
support. While the ujamaa experiment ultimately fell short of its
lofty goals, it contributed to nation-building and instilled a sense
of __________ __________ and __________ among Tanzanians.

– Sirimavo Bandaranaike’s economic policies in Sri Lanka (1960) -

Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the world’s first female Prime Minister,
played a significant role in shaping Sri Lanka’s economic policies
during her tenure. As the leader of the Sri Lanka Freedom Party
(SLFP), she implemented a series of economic reforms aimed at
promoting social welfare, national development, and reducing
inequalities. Investment in __________ infrastructure, education,
and healthcare aimed to uplift living standards and reduce
__________ between urban and rural areas.
 – Critics argued that excessive state intervention __________ private
enterprise and hindered economic growth. Moreover,
nationalization measures resulted in inefficiencies and
bureaucratic red tape, dampening investor confidence and
exacerbating fiscal deficits.

▪ The migration of former colonial subjects to imperial metropoles (the

former colonizing country), usually in major cities, maintained cultural
and economic ties between the colony and the metropole even after
the dissolution of empires.

– South Asians to Britain - Britain faced __________ __________,

prompting the government to encourage _________________. South
Asians, primarily from __________, __________, and __________,
responded to the call for labor and sought opportunities in
Britain’s manufacturing, transportation, and healthcare sectors.

– Algerians to France - The French government actively recruited

__________ workers to fill __________ shortages in sectors such as
manufacturing, construction, and agriculture, leading to large-
scale migration from Algeria to France.

– Filipinos to the United States - The early wave of Filipino migrants

consisted mainly of students, professionals, and laborers. Filipino
laborers played a crucial role in the ____________________ sector.
Filipino migration to the United States resulted in the formation
of vibrant Filipino-American communities across the country,
particularly in __________ centers such as Los Angeles, San
Francisco, and New York City.

8.7 – Global Resistance to Established Power Structures After 1900

▪ Although conflict dominated much of the 20 th century, many individuals

and groups – including states – opposed this trend. Some individuals
and groups, however, intensified the conflicts:

– Chile under Augusto Pinochet - Pinochet ascended to power

through a military coup in 1973, overthrowing the democratically
elected government. Backed by the US, Pinochet’s forces seized
control in a bid to curb what they perceived as growing leftist
influence and economic instability under Allende’s socialist
government. The coup marked the beginning of Pinochet’s
____________________ rule, characterized by widespread human
 rights abuses and suppression of political dissent. Under the
__________ of combating communism and restoring order,
Pinochet dismantled democratic institutions, censored the media,
and banned political parties.

– Spain under Francisco Franco - Franco rose to power following the

Spanish Civil War, which lasted from 1936 to 1939. As a general
in the Spanish army, Franco led the Nationalist faction against
the Republican government, ultimately emerging victorious with
the support of fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. In 1939, he
established himself as the head of state and government,
consolidating power through a repressive __________
characterized by authoritarianism and _________________ of
__________.

– Franco’s death in 1975 marked the end of his nearly four-decade-

long dictatorship. Franco had groomed Prince Juan Carlos as his
successor, hoping to preserve the monarchy and maintain
conservative control. However, Juan Carlos surprised many by
steering Spain toward democracy and overseeing the country’s
transition to a ____________________ __________. The Spanish
Parliament approved a new democratic constitution in 1978,
paving the way for free elections and the establishment of a
____________________ __________.

– Uganda under idi Amin - Idi Amin came to power in Uganda

through a __________ ________ in January 1971, overthrowing
President Milton Obote’s government. Amin, then a general in
the Ugandan army, capitalized on dissatisfaction with Obote’s
regime and ethnic tensions within the country. Initially viewed by
some as a charismatic leader promising stability and prosperity,
Amin’s rule quickly descended into one of the darkest chapters in
Uganda’s history.

– Amin’s rule eventually unraveled amid international

condemnation and internal discontent. His military adventurism,
including an ill-fated invasion of Tanzania in 1978, strained
relations with neighboring countries and isolated Uganda
diplomatically. In April 1979, Tanzanian forces, supported by
Ugandan exiles, launched a military campaign to oust Amin from
power. The ensuing conflict, known as the __________-__________
War, culminated in Amin’s overthrow and exile in April 1979.
 – The buildup of the military-industrial complex and weapons
trading - The military-industrial complex exerted considerable
influence over defense policy and spending decisions. __________
efforts by these corporations and industry associations __________
government procurement policies and defense strategies, often
prioritizing the interests of the defense industry over broader
national security concerns. This influence extended to __________
campaigns, with defense contractors funding candidates
sympathetic to their cause, further cementing their power within
the political landscape.

▪ Groups and individuals challenged the many wars of the century, and
some promoted the practice of non-violence as a way to bring about
political change:

– Mohandas Gandhi - Gandhi’s strategic implementation of

nonviolent resistance stands as a hallmark of India’s journey to
independence from Britain in 1947. Through his philosophy of
satyagraha, or truth force, Gandhi mobilized millions of Indians in
a united front against British oppression. His approach
encompassed __________ __________, civil disobedience
campaigns, and __________.

– Martin Luther King Jr – He employed __________ tactics as a

powerful weapon in the battle against segregation and racial
injustice in the United States. Inspired by the teachings of
Mahatma Gandhi and his own Christian faith, King advocated for
civil rights through peaceful protests, __________, and boycotts.
His efforts culminated in legislative victories such as the Civil
Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which
dismantled legal __________ and expanded voting rights for
African Americans.

– Nelson Mandela - Mandela’s commitment to nonviolence was

evident throughout his activism, despite facing immense
brutality and persecution under the __________ regime. In 1964,
he was sentenced to life imprisonment for his anti-apartheid
activities, enduring 27 years of incarceration, where he remained
steadfast in his commitment to nonviolence, using his time in
prison to reflect, educate, and organize resistance against
apartheid. Mandela’s eventual release in 1990 marked a turning
point in South Africa’s history, leading to negotiations that
 culminated in the __________ of apartheid and the country’s
transition to democracy.

▪ Militaries and militarized states often responded to the proliferation of

conflicts in ways that further intensified conflict.

▪ Some movements used violence against civilians in an effort to

achieve political aims:

– Shining Path – Also known as Sendero Luminoso in Spanish, is a

__________ __________ group that originated in Peru in the late
20th century. Founded by Abimael Guzmán in 1980, Shining Path
aimed to overthrow the Peruvian government and establish a
communist state based on Maoist principles. The group’s
ideology combined elements of Maoism with indigenous Andean
beliefs, advocating for the violent overthrow of the existing social
order.

– During the 1980s and 1990s, Shining Path waged a bloody

__________ against the Peruvian government, resulting in
thousands of deaths and widespread human rights abuses.
However, a combination of government crackdowns, internal
divisions, and loss of popular support weakened the group over
time.

– Al-Qaeda - Its ideology is rooted in Salafi jihadism, advocating for

the establishment of a global Islamic caliphate governed by strict
Sharia law. Al-Qaeda is notorious for its acts of __________,
including the September 11, 2001 attacks on the US. This attack
marked a turning point in global counterterrorism efforts and
propelled Al-Qaeda to the forefront of international security
concerns. While weakened, Al-Qaeda remains active in various
regions, particularly in conflict zones such as Afghanistan, Syria,
and Yemen.

8.8 – End of the Cold War

▪ The end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union is due to:

1. Advances in the US military and technological development - Key

developments included the proliferation of nuclear weapons, the
creation of advanced __________ __________ systems such as the
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) proposed by President Ronald
Reagan, and the emergence of precision-guided munitions and
 stealth technology. Additionally, advancements in
communication technology, surveillance, and intelligence
gathering to monitor the USSR.

2. The Soviet Union’s costly and ultimately failed invasion of

Afghanistan - Concerned about the spread of Islamic
fundamentalism and the potential loss of a strategic __________ in
the region, the Soviet leadership decided to intervene militarily
to prop up the Afghan government and maintain __________ in the
country. This was a costly mistake.

3. Public discontent and economic weakness in communist

countries led to the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the
Soviet Union - Citizens of __________ European and Soviet bloc
nations grew increasingly dissatisfied with the repressive
policies, lack of political freedoms, and economic stagnation
under communist rule. Widespread protests, such as the
__________ movement in Poland and the __________ Revolution in
Czechoslovakia, highlighted the desire for democratic reforms
and greater __________ from Soviet domination.