UNIT- 4

MEMORY
Cognitive psychologists define memory operations as encoding, storage, and retrieval:
 Encoding: Transforming sensory input into a memory representation.
 Storage: Retaining encoded information in memory.
 Retrieval: Accessing stored information.
While encoding, storage, and retrieval are sequential, they interact and are
interdependent. Poor encoding can hinder storage and retrieval.

Unit 1: Encoding:
Information must be encoded before it can be stored in memory. This initial encoding
is crucial for transferring information from short-term to long-term memory.
Short-term vs. Long-term Memory: Not all information held in short-term memory
is automatically transferred to long-term memory. The processes of encoding and
transfer are essential for remembering events and facts over extended periods.
Exploration of Encoding: The upcoming section will delve into the processes
involved in encoding information and transferring it from short-term to long-term
storage.

Theories and models of memory:

James - two store model
The distinction between short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) was
famously conceptualized by William James in 1890 as the difference between primary
memory (akin to short-term memory) and secondary memory (akin to long-term
memory).

Primary Memory (Short-term Memory, STM)

 Definition: Refers to information that remains in consciousness, forming part of
the psychological present.
 Capacity: Very limited—typically about seven plus or minus two chunks of
information, as per Miller's (1956) "chunking" concept.
o Example: Remembering a telephone number for a short period.
 Fragility: Information in STM is easily lost due to distractions or interference.
Distractions such as counting backwards can disrupt retention.
 Duration: Information decays rapidly; in the study by Peterson and Peterson
(1959), memory for a three-letter stimulus dropped by 50% after 6 seconds.
 Span Measures:
o Digit span tasks measure STM by asking participants to repeat random
numbers in order. Typically, people can remember 7 ± 2 digits.
o The recency effect in free recall shows how people better remember the
last few items in a list immediately, suggesting those items are still in STM.
 Secondary Memory (Long-term Memory, LTM)
 Definition: Stores information from the past, which has left consciousness and
forms part of the psychological past.
 Forgetting Mechanisms: Unlike STM, forgetting in LTM typically occurs due to
cue-dependent forgetting. The memory traces remain but become temporarily
inaccessible without the proper cues.

Atkinson &Shifrin (3store) - Information processing

approach
The model conceptualizes memory as consisting of three stores: sensory store,
short-term store, and long-term store. Each store processes and stores
information differently
Atkinson and Shiffrin differentiate between "memory" (the data being retained) and
"store" (the structural components containing the information). The stores are
hypothetical constructs, not directly
measurable, serving as mental models
to understand memory processes.
The model includes control processes or
strategies (e.g., rehearsal) that
individuals can use to enhance memory
retention. These processes play a role in
transferring information from short-term
to long-term memory.

Characteristics of Each Store:

 Sensory Store: Holds a limited
amount of information for very brief periods.
 Short-Term Store: Retains information for a longer duration than the sensory
store but has a limited capacity (fragile memories that can be lost within about 30
seconds unless rehearsed). Short-term memory duration declines significantly
without rehearsal, with research showing about 50% recall after 6 seconds.
 Long-Term Store: Capable of holding a large amount of information for extended
periods, potentially indefinitely.

Information Processing:
 Information initially enters sensory stores, then moves to the short-term store, and
may be transferred to long-term storage, often requiring rehearsal.
 The efficiency of transferring information depends on attention and rehearsal, with
the amount of rehearsal directly impacting memory strength.

Overlap with Attention:

 The areas of attention and memory are closely linked, with theories like
Broadbent’s emphasizing sensory stores and attention.

Characteristics of Memory Stores:

 Sensory Stores: Brief retention of information (e.g., iconic and echoic stores).
Sperling's research highlighted the rapid decay of visual information (about 0.5
seconds) in the iconic store.
 Echoic Store: Holds auditory information for about 2 seconds and can play back
recent sounds.

Short-Term vs. Long-Term Memory:

 Short-term memory is fragile and easily disrupted, with evidence from experiments
showing a distinct recency effect in recall tasks.
 Long-term memory retains information beyond consciousness, supported by cases
of brain damage showing double dissociations in memory functioning.

Critiques of the Multi-Store Model:

 While providing a structured account of memory, the model oversimplifies the
complexity of memory processes and assumes unitary storage systems.
 The distinction between short-term and long-term stores is more nuanced than the
model suggests, with evidence showing that the short-term store may have
specific limitations (e.g., auditory-verbal storage issues in some individuals).
 The role of rehearsal in transferring information to long-term memory may be
overstated, as information may access long-term memory before entering short-
term processing.

Contemporary Research:
 The multi-store model has influenced contemporary memory theories, but newer
research has focused on the processes involved in memory rather than just the
structures.

Craik, Lokhart & Tulving - Levels of Processing

The Levels of Processing model, proposed by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart in
1972, emphasizes that the depth of cognitive processing affects memory retention
more than the type of memory store (like short-term or long-term memory).

Continuous Dimension of Processing:

The LOP model, proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972, 2008), posits that memory
varies in depth rather than existing in separate stores. The depth of processing relates
to how information is encoded, with theoretically infinite levels of processing.
Depth of Encoding: The depth of processing determines how well information is
stored. Generally, deeper levels of processing correlate with a higher likelihood of
retrieval. This contrasts with the three-store model, which emphasizes distinct
memory stores.
Deep Processing vs Shallow Processing:
Deep Processing: Involves semantic analysis where meaning is extracted from
information. For instance, when considering how a word fits into a sentence, you
engage in deeper processing that leads to better retention.
Shallow Processing: Involves surface-level analysis, such as focusing on the
physical appearance (capital letters) or sound (rhyme) of a word. This type of
processing results in poorer recall.
 The theory posits that deeper levels of processing yield better recall. For instance,
participants are more likely to remember words when they have engaged with their
meanings rather than their visual or acoustic characteristics.

Research Findings
 Craik and Tulving’s Experiment (1975):
Participants were asked questions about words that prompted different levels of
processing (e.g., capital letters vs. sentence fit). Those who engaged in semantic
processing (sentence fit) recalled words significantly better than those who engaged
in shallow processing.
Effect of Sentence Complexity:
The complexity of sentences influences recall. More detailed sentences help form
richer memory traces. For example, "The great bird swooped down..." leads to better
recall than "She cooked the _____."
Memory for Faces:
Research shows that deeper processing leads to better recognition of faces when
participants judge them on meaningful characteristics (like honesty) compared to
superficial ones (like facial width).
 The LOP model has been beneficial in improving memory in populations with
impairments, such as individuals with schizophrenia, who may struggle with
semantic processing.
 The depth of processing directly affects memorability: deeper processing results in
stronger and more enduring memory traces. Elaborative rehearsal (meaningful
analysis) enhances long-term memory more than maintenance rehearsal (simple
repetition).
o Elaboration: Involves creating associations and connections with the
material being learned. For example, when participants were asked to
process words in sentences, those with more complex sentence frames
resulted in better recall than simple frames.

Strategies for Elaboration:

 Within-Item Elaboration: Enhancing encoding by focusing on the characteristics
of the item itself.
 Between-Item Elaboration: Relating the features of new items to those already
in memory, aiding retrieval.
o Distinctiveness: Unique or distinctive processing enhances memory
retrieval. For instance, processing irregular words (like "comb") in a
distinctive manner leads to better recall than standard processing.

Self-Reference Effect:
The self-reference effect posits that individuals remember information better when
they relate it to themselves.
Research by Rogers et al. (1977): In their study, processing words based on
self-reference yielded significantly better recall than shallow processing methods
(visual or acoustic characteristics).
Implications: When considering if a word applies to oneself (e.g., "generous"),
individuals often create richer memories by recalling personal experiences linked to
that word.
Factors Contributing to Self-Reference Effect
1. Rich Cues: The self provides a wealth of distinct cues that aid memory
retrieval.
 2. Interconnected Traits: Self-reference encourages the integration of personal
traits, which enhances elaboration and, consequently, recall.
3. Rehearsal: Individuals tend to rehearse self-related material more frequently
and using complex strategies, further strengthening memory.

Criticisms of the LOP Model:

1. Circular Definitions: Critics argue that defining levels as deeper because of
better retention leads to circular reasoning—retention is better because the
levels are deeper, and vice versa.
2. Paradoxes in Retention: Some studies indicate that superficial processing
(like rhyme) can lead to better retention than deeper semantic processing under
certain conditions. This highlights the complexity of how different types of
encoding and retrieval interact (Fisher & Craik, 1977).
3. Revised Understanding: The model has evolved to focus less on a strict
sequence of levels and more on two key variables: how information is processed
(elaboration) and how it is retrieved. A match between the elaboration type and
the retrieval task enhances memory performance (Morris et al., 1977).

Zinchenko - Levels of Recall.

The "Levels of Recall" associated with Zinchenko refer to his work on the processes of
memory and recall, particularly within the framework of Soviet psychology. Zinchenko
was influenced by Lev Vygotsky and Alexei Leontiev, key figures in cultural-historical
psychology. His work on memory focused on the idea that memory is an active
process rather than a passive one, and it is closely tied to activities, motivations, and
goals.
Zinchenko described different levels of recall, emphasizing the role of meaningful
activity and the nature of the material to be remembered:
1. Involuntary Recall: This occurs without any conscious effort or intention to
recall. It's often triggered by environmental cues or activities related to the
memory. Zinchenko stressed that this type of recall is deeply connected to
meaningful activities that engage the individual emotionally or motivationally.
2. Voluntary Recall: This involves a conscious effort to remember something.
Voluntary recall is usually more difficult because it requires deliberate mental
effort and is often associated with situations where the person is not directly
engaged in an activity related to the memory.
3. Productive Recall: Zinchenko also examined how people can recall not only
specific items of information but also new solutions to problems or creative
ideas, which involve reconstructing and reorganizing memories in ways that are
novel or adaptive to the situation.
In Zinchenko’s view, higher levels of recall (voluntary and productive) depend more on
the organization of experience and meaning, while lower levels (involuntary) are
linked to associative triggers from daily life or routine actions. His approach was highly
contextual, emphasizing how social and cultural factors shape memory processes.
 Unit 2: Working memory models:
Baddeley & Hitch (declarative)
The working-memory model, primarily proposed by Alan Baddeley, has become one
of the most widely accepted frameworks in cognitive psychology today. This model
emphasizes the dynamic role of working memory in actively managing and
manipulating information, contrasting with the more passive storage view proposed
by earlier models like the Atkinson-Shiffrin model.
Components of
Working Memory

1. Phonological
Loop:
Responsible for handling
speech-related
information.
The Phonological
Loop is a key
component of the
working-memory model that processes and stores sounds for a short time. It handles
verbal information, including the sounds you hear, create, and subvocalize (like
silently reading).
It has two components:
 Phonological storage: Holds verbal information.
 Subvocal rehearsal: Repeats verbal information in the mind to keep it in memory.
A critical phenomenon here is articulatory suppression, which occurs when
subvocal rehearsal is disrupted, making it difficult to remember new information (e.g.,
repeating a number while trying to memorize a list of words).
Acoustic Confusions: Memory errors often stem from confusing similar-sounding
stimuli. Research by Conrad and Hull (1964) showed that participants recalled more
letters when they sounded different. Dylan Jones (2004) suggested these errors occur
during rehearsal, not storage.

Everyday Uses: The phonological loop aids in tasks like counting, self-instruction,
learning new words, producing language, and mathematical problem-solving.

Neuroscience Findings: Research using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

(TMS) demonstrated that the left frontal and parietal lobes are responsible for
rehearsing and storing verbal material. Errors increase in tasks with complex
sentences when these brain areas are temporarily disrupted, showing their
importance in processing both simple and complex language.
This component plays a pivotal role across cognitive tasks, including working
memory's connection to long-term memory, language learning, and math.

2. Visuospatial Sketchpad:
This component processes visual and spatial information.
 The Visuospatial Sketchpad is key component of Baddeley's working-memory
model. It allow us to visualize scenes, navigate environments, and manipulate
objects mentally.

Visual and Spatial Processing: The visuospatial sketchpad helps in tasks such as
visualizing objects and their relative positions in space, navigating between locations,
and creating mental images from verbal descriptions. For example, when someone
tells a story, you might picture the scene in your mind.

Capacity: Like the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad has limited capacity.
Overloading it—such as trying to remember too many visual details—can lead to
errors. An example would be solving geometry problems on a small piece of paper,
which can cause mistakes due to the lack of sufficient space for visual
representations.

Dual Tasking: Baddeley’s research shows that people struggle with performing two
visuospatial tasks simultaneously, such as visualizing a football game while driving.
This kind of interference highlights the sketchpad's limited resources.
Research and Everyday Uses:
 Less Studied than Phonological Loop: While less research has focused on the
visuospatial sketchpad compared to the phonological loop, studies show that
people often switch from visual to verbal coding, especially starting at age 8. For
example, individuals might name a shape ("a circle inside a square") and use the
phonological loop for further processing.
 Encouraging Visual Coding: To ensure participants use visuospatial memory,
researchers like Brandimonte et al. (1992) used a technique where participants
repeated irrelevant syllables (e.g., "la-la-la") to block the phonological loop, forcing
them to rely on visual memory instead.
 Practical Applications: The visuospatial sketchpad is crucial in fields such as
engineering, art, and architecture. It's also used in everyday life for tasks like
reaching for an object with closed eyes, navigating environments, and tracking
moving objects. It also plays a role in leisure activities like video games, jigsaw
puzzles, and maze games.
Neuroscience Findings:
 Brain Activity: Visual and spatial tasks usually activate regions in the right
hemisphere, particularly the occipital region, which is responsible for visual
perception. The frontal cortex is also active during visuospatial tasks, especially
for mental rehearsal and shifting selective attention in mental images. This
suggests that attention and working memory are interconnected.

3. Central Executive:
The Central Executive is the key supervisory system within Baddeley's model of
working memory, responsible for integrating information from the phonological
loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, and long-term memory. It plays a vital
role in various cognitive functions, such as focusing attention, selecting strategies,
transforming information, and coordinating tasks.

Integration and Coordination: It coordinates information from different working

memory components and long-term memory, directing cognitive resources where
they are needed
Focus of Attention: The central executive is essential for concentrating on relevant
tasks and suppressing irrelevant information. For instance, it helps you stay on track
with a primary goal and avoid distractions (Alloway, 2011; Hasher et al., 2007).

Strategy Selection and Task Switching: This system is involved in choosing

strategies to solve problems, determining how tasks are tackled, and switching
between them (Reuter-Lorenz & Jonides, 2007; Baddeley, 2012). It also discards
ineffective strategies.

Limited Capacity: Like an executive in an organization, the central executive has a

limited capacity and cannot handle many challenging tasks simultaneously. For
example, it struggles with multiple demanding decisions or tasks at once.

Suppressing Irrelevant Information: The central executive is crucial for

preventing distractions and ensuring you focus on your primary task.
Research Insights:
Daydreaming and Resource Allocation: Studies show that daydreaming occupies
a significant portion of the central executive’s resources. In an experiment by Teasdale
et al. (1995), participants had to generate random numbers while also being
interrupted to record their thoughts. Those who were daydreaming produced less
random sequences, highlighting how mental wandering reduces the central
executive’s ability to focus on the task at hand.
Neuroscience of the Central Executive:
Frontal Lobe Activity: Neuroscientific research shows that tasks requiring central
executive functions activate the frontal region of the cortex. Both the left and right
sides of the frontal lobe are involved in these activities, and this region becomes
especially active when planning, making decisions, and inhibiting distractions.

Varied Tasks and Regions: The central executive is involved in a wide variety of
tasks, from focusing on a research paper and organizing an outline to managing time
and filtering out distracting information. These tasks, while varied, all demand
significant cognitive effort and frontal lobe activity.
Challenges in Studying the Central Executive:
Lack of Clear Understanding: Compared to the phonological loop and visuospatial
sketchpad, the central executive is harder to study using controlled research
techniques because of its complexity and diverse functions. It's been described as the
"least understood" component of working memory (Baddeley, 2006).

4. Episodic Buffer:
The Episodic Buffer is the most recent addition to Baddeley’s model of working
memory, introduced to address limitations in the original theory regarding how
different types of information are integrated. It serves as a temporary storage
system that combines and manipulates information from various sources, including
the phonological loop (auditory information), the visuospatial sketchpad (visual and
spatial information), and long-term memory.

Temporary Storage and Integration: The episodic buffer is where information

from different memory subsystems is integrated, enabling us to create a unified,
coherent experience. For example, when you recall a past event, you might
simultaneously remember what was said (phonological loop), the people or setting
(visuospatial sketchpad), and how you felt about it (long-term memory).
Binding Information: This component allows the brain to bind together different
pieces of information—such as connecting a friend’s facial expression with their verbal
response during a conversation. It also binds words into meaningful "chunks" or
phrases, making them easier to remember and process (Baddeley et al., 2011).

Manipulating Information: The episodic buffer actively manipulates this integrated

information, allowing us to interpret past events, solve problems, and plan for the
future. For instance, it might help you revisit a conversation where you accidentally
offended a friend and analyze their reaction based on your knowledge of their
behavior.

Limited Capacity: Like the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad, the
episodic buffer has a limited capacity. It can only hold a small amount of information
at once, which ensures that our working memory isn’t overwhelmed with too much
data at any given time (Baddeley et al., 2009).

Temporary Nature: Unlike long-term memory, the episodic buffer is not a

permanent storage system. It creates richer, more complex representations of events,
which are then transferred to long-term memory for more permanent storage.
Why Baddeley Introduced the Episodic Buffer:
Baddeley introduced the episodic buffer in 2000 because his original model of working
memory lacked an explanation for how information from different modalities—such as
sounds, visuals, and spatial cues—could be integrated. The central executive in the
original model was responsible for coordinating activities, but it didn’t store
information. The episodic buffer fills this gap by serving as a temporary holding area
where different types of information can be combined and processed.
Neuroscience Research:
Research on the episodic buffer is still limited due to its recent introduction. However,
studies suggest that this system, like the other components of working memory, has a
limited capacity and is crucial for creating complex representations of events that are
stored in long-term memory.

Subsidiary Slave Systems:

These are additional systems that manage other cognitive tasks, potentially
handling specialized processing that isn't covered by the phonological loop or
visuospatial sketchpad.
Measuring Working Memory
Working memory is often tested through various tasks designed to assess the capacity
and manipulation of information. The following are common tasks used to measure
WM:
1. Retention-Delay Task: A stimulus (e.g., a geometric shape) is shown, followed
by a retention interval (filled or unfilled). The participant must then identify
whether a new stimulus is "old" or "new."
2. Temporally Ordered Working Memory Load Task: A series of items is
presented, and the participant is asked to identify whether a new test item is old
or new. In some variations, participants are asked to recall items in their
presented or reversed order.
 3. Temporal Order Task: Participants are presented with a series of items, then
asked to determine the order of previously shown items, such as which number
appeared more recently.
4. N-back Task: Participants must recall the stimulus presented "n" positions
earlier in the sequence (e.g., 1-back, 2-back).
5. Digit-Span Task: Participants recall a series of digits in the order presented or
in reverse.
6. Arithmetic Task: Simple arithmetic problems are solved, and participants must
recall the results of the problems in the correct order.
These tasks help researchers assess how much information the brain can handle in
real-time, including its capacity for multitasking when paired with a secondary task.
Such studies examine the role of the central executive, which manages the
allocation of attentional resources to simultaneous tasks (Baudouin et al., 2006).
Intelligence and Working Memory
There is substantial evidence linking working memory to intelligence. Some
researchers have even proposed that working memory capacity might be a core
component of intelligence itself:
 In one study, participants’ ability to recall the last words of passages was highly
correlated with verbal ability (Daneman & Carpenter, 1983).
 Another study found that participants who could solve arithmetic problems and
recall accompanying words or digits had a high correlation with measures of
intelligence
Studies suggest that performance on working memory tasks can predict scores on
general intelligence tests with remarkable accuracy (Colom et al., 2004). However,
while working memory is clearly linked to intelligence, it is not the only factor
contributing to overall cognitive ability.
Working Memory vs. Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: This model views memory as a three-store system,
where information passes through sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and
long-term memory (LTM) in a largely passive way.
 Metaphor: Often described as a warehouse, where information is stored in static
containers, waiting to be moved to different locations based on its duration and
processing.
Working Memory Model: In contrast, the working-memory model emphasizes the
active manipulation of information, where working memory acts as a multimedia
production house, continuously creating, editing, and integrating information into a
cohesive whole.
 Metaphor: Working memory is seen as a dynamic production studio, blending
various inputs (visual, auditory, and verbal) to make sense of experiences and
manage cognitive tasks.
Key Functions of Working Memory
 Encoding: Working memory actively encodes new information for temporary use
or long-term storage.
 Integration: It integrates information from different sources (visual and verbal),
linking new data to previously stored knowledge.
 Problem Solving: By integrating information, the episodic buffer and central
executive help in re-evaluating past experiences and applying them to new
situations.
Theoretical Synthesis with Levels-of-Processing (LOP) Framework
Baddeley suggests that the working-memory model complements the Levels-of-
Processing (LOP) framework, integrating the idea that deeper, more meaningful
processing leads to better retention. While working memory handles and manipulates
information dynamically, the depth of processing (as per LOP) determines the strength
and persistence of memory traces.
In essence, working memory is not just a passive repository for information but an
active workspace where cognitive tasks such as comprehension, problem-solving, and
memory integration occur.
Anderson’s ACT model (procedural).
The Adaptive Control of Thought (ACT) model, developed by John Anderson and
colleagues, offers a comprehensive framework for understanding memory and
cognitive processes. Over the years, it has evolved into various versions, such as ACT-
R, and has inspired computer simulations of cognitive tasks. This model integrates two
primary types of knowledge representation: Declarative Knowledge and
Procedural Knowledge.

Declarative Knowledge:
This refers to facts, concepts, and information
stored in memory that can be consciously
recalled. It is static in nature and often termed
conceptual, propositional, or descriptive
knowledge.
Representation: Declarative knowledge is
represented as chunks, which are structures that
hold information a person might use when solving
a problem.
Network Structure: Chunks are organized in a
semantic network where concepts are stored at various nodes. Information retrieval
occurs via a mechanism that activates these nodes.
 Activation: Nodes can be activated directly by external stimuli or indirectly by the
activity of neighboring nodes, leading to spreading activation.
 Limitations: There are limits to the number of nodes that can be activated at one
time, and activation decreases with distance from the original source.
Remembering facts, like who the current president is.

Procedural Knowledge:
This knowledge type involves the skills and processes required to perform tasks. It is
often implicit and refers to know-how rather than just facts.
Representation: Procedural knowledge is represented in production systems,
which consist of production rules.
Learning Process: Procedural knowledge is developed through inferences made
from existing declarative knowledge.
Stages of Learning:
 Cognitive Stage: Learning occurs through understanding instructions and
examples, encoding this information as chunks.
 Associative Stage (Production Compilation): As individuals practice and apply
their knowledge, specific production rules emerge from declarative chunks,
generalizing the information to a broader range of applications.
 Autonomous Stage: Skills become automatic, with individuals performing tasks
rapidly and efficiently, relying on activated production rules instead of declarative
instructions.
Riding a bike or dialing a phone number without recalling the number explicitly.
Network Representation:
 Anderson (1983) suggested that declarative memory is structured in networks
consisting of nodes. Different nodes can represent various types of information,
such as spatial images or abstract propositions.
 Spreading Activation: When a node is activated, it can trigger the activation of
connected nodes, facilitating the retrieval of related information.
The ACT model posits that working memory is a highly activated part of declarative
memory.
 When nodes corresponding to production rule conditions are activated, the
associated production rules also become activated. Executing these rules can
create new nodes in declarative memory, facilitating learning and adaptation.
Cognitive Architecture: Anderson aimed to establish a theory of cognitive
architecture that explains the fundamental principles of human cognition, integrating
memory storage and processing structures.
Learning Mechanisms in ACT-R
Types of Learning:
Generalization: Expanding the application of production rules to new contexts.
Discrimination: Narrowing the application of production rules to more specific
situations.
Strengthening: Increasing the frequency of use for certain production rules,
enhancing their effectiveness.

Proceduralization: The transformation of explicit knowledge (“knowing that”)

into implicit knowledge (“knowing how”). This includes:
Composition: Merging multiple production rules into a single rule for efficiency.
Production Tuning: Adjusting existing production rules through generalization and
discrimination to accommodate new conditions.

Three Stages of Production Learning:

Understanding: Grasping instructions and encoding them as chunks.
Production Compilation: Applying knowledge to solve problems, leading to the
transformation of declarative information into production rules.
Practice: Enhancing problem-solving speed and accuracy through repeated
application of production rules.
Implications and Applications
 The ACT model is not just theoretical; it has led to practical applications,
including the development of computer programs that simulate human problem-
solving and cognitive tasks. By modeling cognitive processes through
production rules and networks, researchers can better understand how humans
learn, remember, and execute tasks.

Unit 3: Storage:
Distinction between STM and LTM:
The interaction between present experiences and past information is based on the
differences between STM and LTM, a concept central to the modal model of memory.
Serial Position Effect: Research by B.B. Murdoch, Jr. demonstrated the serial
position curve, which shows better recall for words at the beginning (primacy effect)
and end (recency effect) of a list.
 Primacy Effect: Better memory for early items, likely due to rehearsal transferring
them to LTM.
 Recency Effect: Better memory for recent items, explained by their presence in
STM.
Neuropsychological Evidence: Studies of brain-damaged patients have shown
that STM and LTM are separate processes:
 Some patients (like Clive Wearing and H.M.) have intact STM but cannot form new
LTM.
 Other patients (like K.F.) have poor STM but functional LTM, demonstrating a double
dissociation.
Coding Differences: STM and LTM differ in how they code information:
 STM can use auditory, visual, and semantic coding, while LTM predominantly uses
semantic coding.
 Errors in LTM often reflect meaning rather than exact wording, as demonstrated in
studies where participants remembered the meaning of sentences rather than their
precise phrasing.
Semantic Coding in LTM: Experiments, such as those by Jacqueline Sachs,
indicate that while participants often forget specific wording, they retain the general
meaning of information, showcasing the importance of semantic coding for
remembering past events and narratives.

Long –term memory:

LTM is likened to an "archive" of information about past events and learned
knowledge, with a time span ranging from moments ago to many years in the past.
Memory Time Span: A student's immediate recollection (e.g., sitting down) is stored
in short-term/working memory, while memories from earlier experiences, like walking
to class or attending elementary school, are part of LTM.
Variability of Memories: Memories in LTM differ in detail; more recent memories are
generally more detailed, while older memories may fade or become less specific over
time.
Interplay Between LTM and Working Memory: LTM works in conjunction with
working memory to enhance our ongoing experiences. For example, when processing
a statement, working memory holds the words, while LTM provides context and
meaning, helping to understand the information being conveyed.
Functions of LTM: LTM serves as both an archive for recalling past events and a
resource for background knowledge that supports real-time comprehension and
interpretation of new information.
LTM can be divided into different
types, primarily into two categories:

 Declarative Memory: This

type involves conscious
recollection of events and
learned facts. It can be further
divided into:
Episodic Memory: Memories of
specific events and experiences.
Semantic Memory: Knowledge about facts and concepts not tied to personal
experiences.

 Implicit (Non-declarative) Memory: This type of memory influences

behavior without conscious awareness of the past experiences that are affecting
that behavior. Examples include:

Procedural Memory: Memory for skills and actions (e.g., riding a bike).
Priming: Exposure to a stimulus influences response to a subsequent stimulus, often
without conscious awareness.

Conditioning: Learned associations between stimuli (e.g., Pavlov's dogs).

Conscious vs. Unconscious: The key distinction is that declarative memory involves
conscious thought and recollection, while implicit memory operates below the level of
conscious awareness, affecting behavior and performance based on past experiences.

Declarative Memory
Feature Episodic Memory Semantic Memory
Definition Memory for personal events in Memory for facts and
our lives. knowledge.
Examples Remembering a visit to a Knowing how an automobile
grandparent's house. engine works.
Type of Specific events tied to personal General knowledge not linked
Information experience. to personal events.
Experience Type Involves mental time travel to Involves accessing knowledge
the past. without time travel.
 Nature of Described as self-knowing or Described as knowing.
Experience remembering.
Emotional Often accompanied by Generally neutral, focusing on
Connection personal emotions. factual information.
Accuracy Memories may not always Typically stable and factual.
correspond to actual events.

The distinction of Episodic and Semantic Memories

The evidence supporting the distinction between episodic and semantic memory is
primarily drawn from neuropsychological case studies and brain imaging research.
Case Study of K.C.: K.C. suffered severe damage to his hippocampus and
surrounding structures after a motorcycle accident.
Memory Impairment:
 He lost episodic memory, meaning he cannot relive any past events (e.g., he
cannot remember the details of his brother’s death or any specific experiences).
 His semantic memory remains largely intact, allowing him to remember general
facts and knowledge, such as the location of kitchen utensils or the rules of
bowling.

Case Study of an Italian Woman: An Italian woman developed severe memory

issues after an encephalitis attack.
Memory Impairment:
 She experienced significant semantic memory loss, struggling to recognize
familiar people, recall facts (e.g., about Beethoven or WWII), or understand the
meanings of words.
 Despite these impairments, her episodic memory for personal experiences
remained intact, allowing her to recount daily events and past occurrences.
Double Dissociation
 The contrasting outcomes of K.C. and the Italian woman illustrate a double
dissociation between episodic and semantic memory. This means:
o Damage to the mechanisms underlying episodic memory can occur while
semantic memory remains intact, and vice versa.
 This evidence supports the idea that episodic and semantic memories are served
by distinct mechanisms in the brain.
Brain Imaging Evidence
Brain imaging studies further support the idea of separate mechanisms for episodic
and semantic memory:
 Levine et al. (2004): Participants kept diaries of everyday events and factual
knowledge. When listening to these descriptions in an MRI scanner:
o Episodic memories (everyday events) elicited different brain activity
compared to semantic memories (facts).
 The research indicated that retrieving episodic and semantic memories activates
overlapping but distinct brain areas.
The combined evidence from neuropsychological case studies and brain imaging
supports the notion that episodic and semantic memories operate through different
mechanisms within the brain. While some researchers debate the extent of these
dissociations, the majority of findings suggest that the brain processes these two
types of memory differently, highlighting their distinct roles in our overall memory
system.

Connections Between Episodic and Semantic Memories

Episodic Memories Can Transform into Semantic Memories:
Acquisition of Semantic Knowledge: Semantic memories often originate from
personal experiences that are initially encoded as episodic memories.
For instance, when you learn about the U.S. government in sixth grade, you may
remember being in class and what was happening around you (episodic memory).
Later, even if you forget the specific details of that day, you retain the knowledge
about the U.S. government (semantic memory).
Loss of Episodic Detail: Over time, as episodic memories fade, the associated
semantic knowledge can remain intact.
For example, you may remember the year you graduated from high school or the
name of your school, even if the vivid details of the graduation event are no longer
accessible.
Personal Significance Enhances Semantic Memory:
Personal Semantic Memories: Knowledge tied to personally significant events is
easier to remember. For example, facts about your high school graduation are more
readily recalled because of their personal importance.
Research Findings: Robyn Westmacott and Morris Moscovitch (2003) demonstrated
that individuals have better recall for names of public figures if they can associate
those figures with personal experiences. For instance, attending a concert would
enhance your memory of the singer compared to just reading about them.
Semantic Memory Influences Attention and Experience:
Impact on Memory Formation: Semantic memory can guide attention during
experiences, which in turn influences how memories are formed. For instance, during
a football game, one person (Seth) might focus on the players' actions due to his
knowledge of the sport, leading to detailed memories of specific plays. In contrast,
another person (Steven) may not have the same background knowledge, resulting in
more generalized memories of running and passing plays.
Example: Seth’s understanding of football allows him to remember specific details of
a play because his semantic memory directs his attention to relevant actions, whereas
Steven's more limited semantic knowledge leads to a less detailed memory.

Implicit Memory
Implicit memory refers to the unconscious influences of past experiences on our
current behaviors and skills. Unlike declarative memory, which involves conscious
recollection, implicit memory operates without our awareness.
 Unconscious Usage: Implicit memory occurs when a previous experience affects
our performance on a task without us being aware of it. This can happen in various
situations, such as when a learned skill or knowledge enhances our ability to
perform a task, even though we don’t consciously recall learning that skill or
knowledge.
 Nonknowing: According to Endel Tulving, implicit memory is defined as
“nonknowing,” emphasizing that individuals do not actively recognize or recall the
memories that influence their behavior.
Types of Implicit Memory

Repetition Priming:
Repetition priming occurs when exposure to a specific stimulus makes it easier
and quicker to respond to that same stimulus later.
Example: If you see the word "bird" and later are asked to complete the word
fragment "C _ _ A R _ T," you are likely to respond more quickly because you were
previously exposed to the word "bird." This effect demonstrates that the first
encounter with the stimulus improved your performance without requiring conscious
recall of that experience.
Tulving's Experiment: In a study by Endel Tulving (1962), participants who saw a list
of words completed more word fragments corresponding to those words than
fragments based on new words, indicating the presence of implicit memory.
Participants were not consciously aware of their earlier exposure to the words while
completing the task.

Procedural Memory:
Procedural memory involves the retention of skills and actions, enabling us to
perform tasks automatically, without conscious thought.
Examples: Skills like riding a bike, typing, or playing a musical instrument are forms
of procedural memory. Even if you cannot recall the specifics of learning these skills,
you can still perform them effortlessly.
Case Studies: Individuals like Clive Wearing and K.C. lost their ability to form new
long-term memories but retained their procedural memory, allowing them to perform
tasks like playing the piano or sorting books without recalling the learning process.
Retention of Skills: Even after a significant gap in practice, the skills learned
through procedural memory may remain intact, allowing individuals to perform tasks
effectively despite a lack of conscious recollection of the learning process.
Demonstrating Implicit Memory
Repetition Priming Method: In a typical repetition priming experiment, participants
are first presented with a priming stimulus (e.g., the word "cabaret"), followed by a
test stimulus (e.g., "C _ _ A R _ T"). The goal is to determine whether prior exposure to
the priming stimulus affects the participant's ability to respond to the test stimulus.
Recognition vs. Recall: Implicit memory is often contrasted with explicit memory
(which includes episodic and semantic memory) through recognition and recall tests:
 Recall Test: Participants are asked to remember as many items as possible after a
delay.
 Recognition Test: Participants must identify previously presented stimuli from a
mix of old and new items. For example, in Tulving's recognition test, participants
indicated which words they had seen before. While recall diminished over time,
performance on the word completion test remained stable, suggesting that implicit
memory is independent of conscious recall.
Everyday Examples of Implicit Memory
1. Advertising Effects: Advertisements can influence our preferences and
attitudes without our conscious awareness. For instance, in an experiment by T.
J. Perfect and C. Askew (1994), participants rated advertisements higher if they
had been exposed to them, even if they did not consciously remember seeing
them.
2. Propaganda Effect: The propaganda effect occurs when individuals rate
previously encountered statements as true, simply due to familiarity. This can
happen even if they initially believed the statements were false. The effect
demonstrates the influence of implicit memory, as recognition of the statements
occurs without conscious awareness of prior exposure.
Feature Declarative Memory Procedural Memory
Memory involving conscious recall Memory for skills and tasks
Definition
of facts and events. performed automatically.
Episodic (personal events) and Skills and actions (e.g., riding a
Types
Semantic (facts, knowledge). bike, typing).
Conscious Requires conscious awareness to Operates without conscious
Awareness recall. awareness or recall.
Remembering a vacation, Riding a bike, playing a musical
Examples
knowing capital cities. instrument.
Nature of
Verbalizable, explicit knowledge. Non-verbal, skill-based memory.
Memory
Often learned through practice
Type of Involves explicit learning, typically
and repetition, becoming
Learning requires effort.
automatic.
Brain
Primarily hippocampus and
Areas Basal ganglia and motor cortex.
prefrontal cortex.
Involved
May weaken or lose detail over Generally long-lasting, often
Retention
time. retained even with less practice.
Effects of
Damage can impair ability to Procedural skills often remain
Brain
recall facts/events (amnesia). intact despite memory loss.
Damage
Emotional
Episodic memory may include Typically neutral, not linked to
Connectio
emotional experiences. emotional recall.
n

Feature Explicit Memory Implicit Memory

Definition Involves conscious recollection of Affects behavior without
facts and events conscious awareness of past
experiences
Awareness Requires active, conscious recall Operates without conscious recall
Types  Episodic: Personal events and  Procedural: Skills and actions
experiences  Priming: Influence of prior
  Semantic: Facts and general stimuli on response
knowledge  Conditioning: Learned
associations
Example  Remembering a family  Riding a bike without actively
vacation (Episodic) thinking (Procedural)
 Knowing the capital of France  Responding faster to
(Semantic) previously seen words
(Priming)
Memory Typically measured by recall or Often assessed through
Testing recognition tests indirect tests, such as word
fragment completion or skill-
based tasks
Conscious Involves deliberate retrieval of Operates automatically,
Thought information influencing behavior
subconsciously
Associated Relies on the hippocampus and Involves different brain circuits,
Brain associated areas including the basal ganglia and
Regions cerebellum
Application Used in tasks requiring factual Applied in tasks that require
in Everyday recall or personal memories learned skills or response to
Life familiar stimuli
Learning Can decay over time; older Skills or conditioned responses
and memories may lose detail tend to be long-lasting and
forgetting resistant to forgetting
Emotional May be emotionally charged Generally, emotion-neutral but
Influence (e.g., flashbulb memories) can develop through emotional
conditioning

Autobiographical memory:
 Autobiographical memory involves recalling events and issues related to oneself,
forming a critical component of personal identity and self-concept.
 It includes verbal narratives, imagery, emotional reactions, and procedural
knowledge.

Characteristics of Autobiographical Memory

1. Constructive Nature: Autobiographical memories are not exact recordings of
past events. Instead, they involve the reconstruction of experiences based on
personal perception, emotional context, and the passage of time. This means
that what we remember may not be entirely accurate.
2. Varying Recall Quality: Individuals often recall events from certain life periods
more vividly than others. Research indicates that middle-aged adults typically
remember events from their youth and early adulthood better than more recent
experiences
3. Emotional Influence: The emotional significance of events can impact the
accuracy and clarity of memories. For instance, people with positive self-esteem
tend to recall more positive memories, while those with negative self-esteem or
depression may remember negative events more readily
4. Error Patterns: When individuals misremember, they often distort minor
details but retain the core characteristics of the experience. This suggests that
 focusing on central aspects may prevent interference from less important
details

Research Methods in Autobiographical Memory

1. Diary Studies: One effective method of studying autobiographical memory
involves individuals maintaining detailed diaries of their daily experiences. For
example, researcher Ulric Neisser's work involved collecting memories over
extended periods, revealing patterns of forgetting and recall related to
emotionality and salience.
o Linton’s Diary Study: Linton (1982) recorded her experiences over six
years and discovered a linear forgetting curve, contrasting the typical
curvilinear pattern. Her findings showed little correlation between
emotionality and memorability, suggesting surprises in what was
remembered.
o Sehulster’s Opera Study: This study tracked memories of opera
performances over 25 years, showing that memories for events at the
beginning and end of the time frame were better recalled, illustrating the
serial-position effect.
Marigold Linton's Study: Linton conducted a six-year study on her own
autobiographical memory by recording daily events on index cards, noting the date
and various ratings for clarity, emotionality, and importance. She tested her recall of
these events over the following years.
Findings on Memory Durability: Contrary to her expectations, Linton found that
her memories were more durable than laboratory studies suggested, as she mainly
needed to recognize and date events rather than recall detailed information.
Reconstructive Memory: Linton demonstrated that individuals often reconstruct
memories using contextual markers rather than recalling exact details, highlighting
the process of using problem-solving strategies to identify dates.
Types of Unrecalled Items: Linton identified two types of “unrecalled” items: those
that were genuinely forgotten and those that could not be distinguished from similar
memories. This aligns with Robinson and Swanson’s (1990) suggestion that repeated
experiences can merge into an event schema, making specific instances
indistinguishable.
Summarized and Extended Events: Research by Barsalou (1988) showed that
people often report summarized or extended events instead of specific recollections,
with many recollections being generalized rather than detailed.
Brewer's Methodology: Brewer (1988) studied ordinary events using beepers that
prompted participants to record details about their activities. He noted that while
participants sometimes chose to keep certain events private, his method avoided the
biases in Linton's study, where only memorable events were recorded.
Recall Accuracy: Brewer found that participants showed good retention of events,
particularly those that were unique or occurred in infrequent locations. Distinctive
events were recalled better, corroborating Linton's findings about memory.

Prospective Memory
Prospective memory is the ability to remember to carry out intended actions in the
future. It contrasts with retrospective memory, which involves recalling information
learned in the past. Understanding the components, challenges, and strategies
associated with prospective memory can help improve our ability to remember tasks
and intentions.

Components of Prospective Memory

1. Intention Formation: The first step is establishing an intention to perform a
specific task at a future time (e.g., remembering to bring a textbook to class).
2. Intention Fulfillment: At the designated time, you need to successfully recall
and execute the intended action (e.g., actually bringing the textbook to class).

Differences Between Prospective and Retrospective Memory

 Focus: Prospective memory typically focuses on action, while retrospective
memory is more about recalling information and concepts.
 Ecological Validity: Research on prospective memory emphasizes real-life
tasks, aiming to reflect everyday situations we encounter.
 Similarities: Both types of memory benefit from distinctive encoding, effective
retrieval cues, and shorter delays before retrieval. They also rely on overlapping
brain regions, particularly in the frontal lobe.

Absentmindedness and Prospective-Memory Failures

Absentmindedness plays a significant role in prospective-memory errors. Common
examples include forgetting to buy groceries or neglecting to attach a file to an email.
 Divided Attention: Prospective-memory tasks often occur in situations where
you must split your attention between ongoing activities and future intentions.
 Habitual Behavior: Familiar routines can overshadow prospective tasks,
leading to lapses in memory. For example, if you always drive home after class,
the automaticity of that behavior can lead you to forget to stop for groceries.
 Distractions and Time Pressure: Being preoccupied or feeling rushed can
also increase the likelihood of forgetting a planned action.

Consequences of Prospective-Memory Errors

While many prospective-memory lapses are minor irritations, they can also have
serious consequences. Research shows that a significant number of airplane crashes
and industrial accidents have been attributed to memory failures related to
prospective tasks.

Strategies for Improving Prospective Memory

1. Internal Strategies:
o Vivid Imagery: Create a mental image associated with the task (e.g.,
picturing a quart of milk).
o Distinctive Connections: Form strong associations between the task
and the cue (e.g., linking Tonya’s name with the message you need to
deliver).
2. External Memory Aids:
o Use physical reminders such as shopping lists, alarms, or notes.
 o Strategic Placement: Place reminders in conspicuous locations to
trigger recall. For example, leaving your keys in a place that reminds you
of the task.
3. Overcoming Overconfidence: Be mindful that simple tasks can still be
challenging to remember. Recognize the potential for forgetfulness.
4. Utilizing Informal Reminders: Many individuals create informal memory aids,
such as writing reminders on their hands or using sticky notes.

Demonstration 6.3: Prospective Memory Tasks

To enhance your understanding and practice of prospective memory, consider the
following activity:
1. List Five Tasks: Identify five prospective-memory tasks you need to
accomplish within the next day or two.
2. Current Methods: For each task, describe how you currently remember to
complete it and note the success rate of that method.
3. Improved Reminders: For any tasks where you often forget, brainstorm a
more effective reminder strategy.
This exercise will help reinforce your prospective-memory skills and provide practical
solutions for overcoming common memory lapses.
By understanding the mechanics of prospective memory and actively employing
strategies to enhance it, you can improve your ability to manage daily tasks and
commitments effectively.

Flashbulb memories:
Flashbulb memories refer to the vivid and detailed recollections of the circumstances
surrounding emotionally significant and surprising events. They are often perceived as
exceptionally accurate, although research shows that they may not be as reliable as
people believe.
Definition and Characteristics
 Flashbulb Memory: This term describes a clear and detailed memory of an
event that is emotionally charged and surprising. It typically involves
recollections of where you were, what you were doing, and who you were with at
the time of the event.
 Emotionally Arousing Events: Such memories are often associated with
significant historical events, personal tragedies, or other impactful occurrences
that elicit strong emotional responses.
Physiological and Emotional Responses: Brown and Kulik (1977) posited that
strong emotional responses to shocking news activate brain regions involved in
emotions, leading to enhanced memory storage of related details. Pillemer (1984)
found that participants who had a stronger emotional reaction to significant news (like
the assassination attempt on President Reagan) had more detailed flashbulb
memories.
Linking Personal Experiences to History: Neisser (1982) suggested that flashbulb
memories arise from the emotional connection individuals feel to historical events,
prompting them to share their personal stories, which can lead to memory distortions
over time.
Schmidt's Study on 9/11: Stephen Schmidt (2004) surveyed students immediately
after the 9/11 attacks and again two months later. Most participants accurately
recalled central details (e.g., where they were when they heard the news), but those
with the strongest emotional reactions showed poorer memory recall. This contrasts
with the common belief that emotional intensity enhances memory accuracy.
Debate on Accuracy: The accuracy of flashbulb memories has been debated.
McCloskey et al. (1988) found that some flashbulb memories can be inaccurate, and
forgetting patterns in flashbulb memories resemble those in ordinary memories.
Weaver's Study: Weaver (1993) examined whether routine meetings could create
flashbulb memories. After participants detailed their plans to meet friends, the
announcement of the Gulf War occurred. Weaver found little difference in memory
accuracy between the routine meeting and the significant event over time. However,
participants were more confident in their memories of the war announcement,
although this confidence did not correlate with accuracy.

Memory Type Definition Example

Memory of personal
Episodic Memory Recalling your wedding day
experiences and events
General knowledge about the Knowing that Mount Everest is
Semantic Memory
world the tallest mountain
Conscious recall of facts or Remembering the date of the
Explicit Memory
events Declaration of Independence
Unconscious memory Driving a car without actively
Implicit Memory
influencing behaviour thinking about each movement
Recalling the house you grew
Autobiographical Memories tied to personal
up in and significant family
Memory identity
events
Declarative Memory Memory of facts and events Recalling the plot of a movie
Memory of skills and Knowing how to tie your
Procedural Memory
procedures shoelaces
Remembering where you were
Vivid memory of an
Flashbulb Memory when you heard about a major
emotional event
disaster

Unit 4: Retrieval:
Retrieval refers to the process of accessing and making available the information
stored in memory for use when needed.
Components of Retrieval: This process involves finding, activating, and sometimes
further processing relevant memory representations. Successful retrieval indicates
that information has been effectively encoded and stored.
Enhancing Retrieval: Actively attempting to retrieve information while studying can
improve long-term retention and make it easier to recall later.
Importance of Retrieval: Most memory failures occur due to retrieval issues, where
information is encoded but cannot be accessed when needed.
Examples of Retrieval Failures: Common situations include forgetting answers
during exams despite studying or being unable to recall someone’s name until after
the interaction has ended, highlighting that the information is stored but not
accessible at the moment it’s needed

Recall:
Recall is the process of producing information, such as facts or words, from memory
without external cues. It involves the verbal reproduction of previously learned
material after a period of time.

Types of Recall Tasks:

1. Serial Recall: Requires recalling items in the exact order they were presented
(e.g., listing comedians in a specific order).
2. Free Recall: Allows recalling items in any order (e.g., listing comedians in any
order).
3. Cued Recall: Involves recalling items when cued with part of a paired association
(e.g., remembering a fruit associated with a comedian).
Recall Tasks require expressive knowledge, where you must generate the answer
from memory without external prompts.

Recognition
Recognition is the process of identifying previously learned information with the help
of external cues, distinguishing it from unlearned materials.
Comparison to Recall: Recognition memory is generally more effective than recall.
For example, people can often recognize a familiar face quickly but may struggle to
recall the person's name. This highlights the superiority of recognition memory,
particularly in test situations.
Study Example: A study by Standing et al. (1970) found that participants could
recognize nearly 2,000 pictures, a feat that underscores the limitations of recall, as
even the best recall performance typically hovers around 80 items.
Influence of Test Type on Learning: Anticipation of recall tasks usually leads to
deeper processing of information compared to recognition tasks. For instance,
students may study more intensively for a recall test than for a recognition test,
affecting how they learn and retain information.
Receptive vs. Expressive Knowledge: Recognition tasks tap into receptive
knowledge, meaning the ability to respond to stimuli presented (identifying if
something has been seen before). In contrast, recall tasks involve expressive
knowledge, requiring the active production of an answer. These distinctions also apply
to other cognitive areas, such as language and intelligence.
Reconstruction
Memory is reconstructive, meaning it is pieced together rather than accessed as exact
replicas. Factors such as prior experience, post-event information, perceptual
elements, social influences, and personal desires can lead to the construction of false
memories.
Bartlett’s “War of the Ghosts” Experiment:
 Conducted by Frederick Bartlett in 1932, this study demonstrated the constructive
nature of memory.
 Participants read a Native American folk tale unfamiliar to them and then
attempted to recall it.
 Results showed that participants distorted the story to fit their cultural schemas,
omitting details they deemed unimportant and altering the order of events.
Source Monitoring: This phenomenon involves distinguishing between the sources
of information that contribute to a memory. Bartlett's experiment highlighted how
memories can be influenced by both the original story and the participant's cultural
knowledge.

“Becoming Famous Overnight” Experiment:

 Conducted by Larry Jacoby and colleagues in 1989, this study examined source
monitoring errors.
 Participants initially identified nonfamous names as nonfamous but were more
likely to incorrectly label them as famous when tested 24 hours later.
 This illustrates how memory can be altered by prior exposure and familiarity.

Schemas and Scripts:

 Schemas: These are frameworks for understanding aspects of the environment
based on prior experiences. For instance, a person’s schema for a post office
includes its typical appearance and functions.
 Brewer and Treyens Experiment (1981): This study revealed that participants
often recalled items fitting their office schema, even if those items were not
present (e.g., reporting seeing books when there were none).
 Scripts: These are specific sequences of expected actions in particular contexts
(e.g., visiting a post office). Scripts influence memory by creating expectations
about what typically occurs in those situations, which can lead to inaccuracies
when recalling details.

Confabulation
People with damage to their frontal lobes often engage in a process called
confabulation, which involves making outlandish false statements. One characteristic
of confabulation is that the person believes that even the most impossible sounding
statements are true. It has been suggested that this may tell us something about the
role of the frontal lobes in normal memory

Loftus and Loftus Study (1975):

 Participants watched a film of a traffic accident and were asked leading questions
afterward.
 One group was asked about the speed of the cars when they "hit each other," while
the other group was asked about the speed when they "smashed into" each other.
 A week later, when asked if they remembered seeing broken glass in the film
(which was not present), those who had heard "smashed into" were more likely to
falsely recall broken glass. This demonstrated how the wording of questions can
influence memory.
Rigidity in Confabulation:
 People often stick to their own memories, even when presented with evidence that
contradicts them.
 Kay's Study (1955): Participants listened to a passage repeatedly over several
weeks. Each time, they produced similar, but inaccurate, versions of the passage,
despite hearing the original text multiple times. Their memories remained rigid and
did not align with the actual content.
 This rigidity suggests that once a memory is formed to fit existing beliefs,
individuals are resistant to change, even when confronted with accurate
information.
Social Beliefs and Confabulation: The phenomenon extends to social beliefs, as
shown in Kruglanski's (1980) research, where individuals tend to cling to a particular
explanation or belief despite evidence proving it wrong.

Illusory memory
Illusory memory refers to the phenomenon where a person recalls an event or detail
that did not actually occur or is distorted from what actually happened. This can
happen due to various reasons, including:
1. Misinformation Effect: Exposure to misleading information after an event can
alter a person's memory of that event. For example, leading questions or incorrect
details in news reports can change how someone remembers an incident.
2. Imagination Inflation: Simply imagining an event can create false memories of
that event occurring. The act of imagining can enhance the confidence in the
memory, making it feel more real.
3. Social Influence: Discussions with others about an event can lead to the
incorporation of their memories or interpretations into one’s own recollections.
4. Memory Reconstruction: Memories are not stored as exact replicas of events but
are reconstructed when recalled. This process can introduce errors and distortions
based on existing beliefs or expectations.

Loftus and Palmer Study (1974):

 Participants viewed clips of car accidents and were asked to estimate the speed of
the cars using different verbs (e.g., hit, smashed, collided).
 The choice of verb influenced speed estimates, with “smashed” leading to an
average estimate of 40.8 mph, while “contacted” resulted in an average of 31.8
mph.
 Participants also falsely "remembered" seeing broken glass at the accident scene,
which was not present, illustrating how leading questions can distort memory.

Suggestive Interview Techniques:

 Loftus and Pickerall (1995) had participants read four childhood stories—three true
and one fabricated about being lost in a mall. About 25% of participants claimed to
remember the false event.
 In another study by Wade et al. (2002), inserting a childhood photo into a
fabricated story led to 50% of participants reporting false memories of a non-
 existent hot-air balloon ride. This highlights the fragility of distinguishing between
memory and imagination.

Roediger and McDermott Study (1995):

 Participants were shown a list of semantically related words (e.g., rest, nap, pillow).
Many recalled the word “sleep,” which was not on the list but closely associated
with the other words.
 This phenomenon illustrates how strong associations can lead to false memories
and is a crucial finding in understanding eyewitness memory errors.
Ethical Considerations: Planting false memories, especially about traumatic events
such as sexual abuse, raises ethical concerns and questions about the possibility of
creating false memories related to such serious topics.

Memory as an active process

Memory is often conceptualized as an active process rather than a passive one. This
view emphasizes several key aspects of how we encode, store, and retrieve
information:
1. Encoding: Memory begins with encoding, where information is transformed into
a format that can be stored in the brain. This process involves attention and
interpretation, meaning that our prior knowledge, experiences, and expectations
can influence what we focus on and how we encode it.
2. Storage: After encoding, memories are stored in the brain, but this storage is
not static. Memories can be reorganized, updated, or altered over time. The
neural connections that represent memories can strengthen or weaken, and
memories can be influenced by new information or experiences.
3. Retrieval: When we recall memories, we actively reconstruct them rather than
simply playing back a recording. This reconstruction can be influenced by
contextual cues, emotions, and the current state of mind. As a result, the
retrieved memory may differ from the original event.
4. Memory Reconstruction: Each time we retrieve a memory, we may
inadvertently alter it. This is known as memory reconsolidation, where the act of
recalling a memory can change its content. Factors such as leading questions or
discussion with others can introduce new information or distortions.
5. Influence of Context: The context in which we learn or recall information can
significantly impact memory. Environmental cues, emotional states, and social
interactions can all shape how we remember.
6. Schema Activation: Our memories are often organized into mental
frameworks or schemas, which help us interpret and make sense of new
information. These schemas can guide how we encode new experiences and
influence what we remember later.
Understanding memory as an active process highlights the complexity of human
cognition and the interplay between memory, perception, and context. It also
underscores the importance of critical thinking when evaluating the accuracy and
reliability of our memories
 Reliability of eye witness testimony.
Eyewitness testimony is highly researched, with factors like ethnic biases, memory
schemas, and faulty source monitoring affecting its accuracy. People often have
difficulty recognizing individuals from different ethnic backgrounds, and their
memories can be distorted by external suggestions.
Accuracy of Long-Term Memory: Although long-term memory can be reasonably
accurate, eyewitness testimony requires recalling specific details, making errors more
likely. Mistakes in testimony can lead to severe consequences, including wrongful
convictions or executions.
Case Example: The case of Gary Graham illustrates the dangers of relying on
eyewitness testimony, as he was convicted and executed based on the identification
of just one eyewitness despite a lack of physical evidence.
Post-Event Misinformation Effect: This effect occurs when misleading information
is provided after an event, causing individuals to recall the misinformation rather than
the actual event. It parallels retroactive interference, where new information disrupts
the recall of old memories.
Research Findings: Studies by Elizabeth Loftus show that eyewitnesses are more
likely to misremember details when exposed to inconsistent post-event information.
This emphasizes the constructive nature of memory, where knowledge is integrated
from various sources rather than stored as discrete facts.
Factors Affecting Testimony Accuracy:
 Stress during the event (e.g., presence of a weapon) increases errors.
 Long delays between the event and testimony can decrease accuracy.
 Plausible misinformation can lead to errors in memory.
 Social pressure and positive feedback can distort recall and increase confidence,
which doesn't necessarily correlate with actual accuracy.
Confidence vs. Accuracy: There is often a weak correlation between a witness's
confidence in their memory and the actual accuracy of their testimony. Despite this,
juries tend to trust confident witnesses more, which poses risks in legal outcomes.

Unit 5: Forgetting:
Forgetting in short-term memory (STM) :
Retention Duration: Research by Brown (1958) and Peterson and Peterson (1959)
indicated that information in STM is lost within approximately 20 seconds if not
rehearsed. This is referred to as the retention duration.
Brown-Peterson Task: Participants in this task are shown a trigram (like "BKG") and
asked to count backward by threes to prevent rehearsal. Recall drops significantly
from about 80% after 3 seconds to about 7% after 18 seconds, suggesting decay of
the memory trace.
Decay vs. Interference: While the initial explanation for forgetting was decay (the
fading of memory traces), later research proposed interference as a key mechanism.
Interference occurs when new information displaces or disrupts the retrieval of
previously stored information.
Interference in Counting Tasks: The counting task in the Brown-Peterson
experiment may interfere with memory storage by occupying STM with new numerical
information, thereby displacing the trigram.
Probe Digit Task (Waugh & Norman, 1965): This experiment showed that recall
depends on interference rather than decay. Participants were given a long digit string
and prompted to recall a digit that followed a cue. Performance indicated that
interference from the digits being counted influenced recall.
Proactive Interference: Keppel and Underwood (1962) found that proactive
interference builds over trials, meaning earlier learned material can disrupt the
retention of new information. Wickens et al. (1963) demonstrated release from
proactive interference by introducing dissimilar information (switching from letters to
digits), improving recall.
Waugh and Norman's Findings: They tested the effects of presentation speed on
recall, finding that interference (not decay) affected recall rates across trials,
regardless of how quickly the digits were presented.
Debate on Forgetting Mechanisms: Although much evidence supports interference
as a cause of forgetting, some studies (like Reitman's) suggest that decay can also
occur when rehearsal is not possible. Reitman found decay effects when participants
were distracted and could not rehearse, showing that both decay and interference
might be involved in forgetting.
Complexity of Forgetting Mechanisms: The question of whether forgetting in STM
is due to decay or interference might be overly simplistic. Both mechanisms may
contribute to forgetting, and different situations might favor one over the other. Some
researchers argue that trace decay may prevent catastrophic interference, allowing
for more efficient memory updates (as in real-time situations like driving).

Forgetting in long-term memory (LTM)

The Nature of Forgetting: Although information can potentially last indefinitely in
LTM, it often seems unavailable. Examples include knowing you know an exam answer
but being unable to recall it or recognizing someone familiar without knowing from
where.
Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve: Hermann Ebbinghaus pioneered the
empirical study of memory. He used nonsense syllables to avoid contamination from
prior knowledge and created a "forgetting curve" showing that forgetting occurs
rapidly at first and then levels off over time.
Decay vs. Interference: Many psychologists, including McGeoch (1932), argue that
forgetting from LTM is primarily due to interference rather than decay. Information is
believed to be buried or inaccessible rather than erased.
Paired Associates Learning: This common experimental task involves learning
pairs of words (e.g., "flag–spoon"). Researchers study forgetting through two types of
interference:
 Proactive Interference (PI): Earlier learned information interferes with the
retention of new information. For example, recalling a second list that shares terms
with a first list becomes difficult due to interference from the first list.
 Retroactive Interference: New learning interferes with the recall of previously
learned information. For instance, if you study English and German word pairs,
learning German might disrupt your recall of English.
Proactive Interference Evidence: Underwood (1957) found that increased previous
learning experience led to poorer performance on new tasks due to proactive
interference.
Interference's Role in Forgetting: Many researchers believe interference is a
primary cause of forgetting in LTM. However, the possibility of decay cannot be ruled
out since it’s challenging to design tasks that eliminate interference entirely.
Mechanisms of Interference: Anderson and Neely (1996) suggested that when
multiple memories compete for retrieval due to shared cues, it complicates memory
retrieval. The more experiences associated with a retrieval cue, the harder it becomes
to locate a specific memory.
The Fan Effect: John Anderson (1974) described the "fan effect," where retrieving a
particular fact becomes slower as more related facts are studied. This reflects how
interference complicates memory retrieval.
Voluntary Forgetting: Forgetting may not always be a memory shortcoming;
sometimes, it could be a beneficial side effect. For instance, in a busy kitchen, it's
essential to remember and then clear out orders to avoid interference with new ones.
Laboratory studies indicate that intentional forgetting reduces proactive interference.

Interference Theory
Interference theory posits that forgetting occurs because the recall of certain
information is hindered by other learned information.

Evidence for Interference

Brown-Peterson Task: In this study, participants recalled trigrams (three-letter
combinations) after intervals of varying lengths. To prevent rehearsal, they counted
backward by threes after seeing the trigram. The results indicated significant recall
decline, suggesting that counting interfered with memory for the trigrams,
supporting the interference theory.

Types of Interference
1. Retroactive Interference (RI): Occurs when newly learned information disrupts
the recall of older information. For example, learning new material (like a new
language) can interfere with recalling previously learned material (such as an older
language).
2. Proactive Interference (PI): Happens when previously learned material makes it
harder to learn new information. For instance, a person studying Spanish may
inadvertently use French words due to prior knowledge.

Factors Affecting Interference

 Time and Learning: Proactive interference generally increases with the time
elapsed between learning and retrieval and with the amount of prior learning.
 Age Differences: Older adults may experience more proactive interference
compared to younger individuals.
 Brain Activation: Proactive interference is associated with activation in the frontal
cortex, specifically Brodmann area 45. Alcoholic patients may show reduced
proactive interference due to difficulty integrating old and new information.

Release from Proactive Interference

 When the nature of the material changes (e.g., from numbers to words), recall
performance can improve, demonstrating a release from proactive interference.

Serial Position Curve

 This concept explains the tendency to recall the first (primacy effect) and last
(recency effect) items in a list better than those in the middle. Words at the end are
affected by proactive but not retroactive interference, while those at the beginning
are impacted by retroactive but not proactive interference.

Real-Life Implications
 Primacy Effect: Early impressions tend to be strongly remembered due to the
primacy effect.
 Recency Effect: Recent experiences are recalled better, making a positive impact
on situations like job interviews if one is among the first or last candidates.

Schema and Recall Distortion

 Prior knowledge and expectations can distort recall. In Bartlett’s study of the North
American Indian legend "The War of the Ghosts," participants altered the story to
make it more comprehensible based on their own experiences and knowledge.

Decay Theory
Decay theory suggests that information is forgotten because the memory trace
gradually disappears over time, rather than being blocked by other information (as
suggested by interference theory).
Mechanism: According to this theory, if information is not actively maintained or
rehearsed, it will fade from memory.

Challenges in Testing Decay Theory

 Rehearsal Issues: It is challenging to test decay theory because preventing
participants from rehearsing information is difficult. When participants know they
will be tested, they often rehearse the material, which can interfere with the
validity of the experiment.
 Example of Difficulty: Attempting not to think about something (like white
elephants) illustrates how hard it can be to suppress thoughts, making it difficult to
isolate decay as a cause of forgetting.

Recent-Probes Task
 A research method designed to test decay theory:
o Procedure:
1. Participants view four target words.
2. They then see a probe word.
3. Participants must determine whether the probe matches any of the
target words.
 Response Delay: If the probe word is similar to a target word from a recent set
(but not the current one), participants take longer to respond, indicating
interference.
 Intertrial Interval: Researchers can manipulate the time between sets of target
words. Longer intervals should allow more time for decay, making recent negative
probes less interfering than those in shorter intervals. However, evidence shows
that:
o Decay has a small effect on short-term memory.
o Interference is the primary factor leading to forgetting.
Interference vs. Decay: Decay theory does exist, but research indicates that
interference (both proactive and retroactive) has a stronger impact on forgetting,
particularly in short-term memory.
 Long-Term Memory: Interference also affects long-term memory, leading to
distortions in recall.

Organic/ biological causes

Individual Differences: Anxiety Disorders
Kristin Mitte's research (2008) explores how individuals with anxiety disorders perform
on memory tasks, comparing those with high anxiety to those with low anxiety.
Anxiety disorders include generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD), and social phobia.Previous research showed mixed results
regarding whether people with anxiety disorders remember threatening information
more accurately than those without anxiety disorders.
Meta-Analysis: Mitte conducted a meta-analysis of 165 studies, involving 9,046
participants between the ages of 18 and 60, to clarify the relationship between
anxiety and memory performance.
Performance on Different Memory Tasks:
1. Implicit Memory Tasks: No significant differences were found between high-
anxious and low-anxious individuals. Both groups performed similarly.
2. Recognition Tasks: As with implicit memory tasks, no differences were found
between the groups in recognizing previously learned information.
3. Recall Tasks: This is where significant differences were observed:
o High-anxious participants were more likely to recall negative or anxiety-
inducing words.
o They were less likely to recall neutral or positive words compared to
low-anxious participants.
o This suggests that high-anxious individuals may have a bias toward recalling
threatening information, potentially due to their heightened attention to
anxiety-arousing stimuli.
Explanation for the Differences: The meta-analysis cannot definitively explain why
these differences occur, but there are two potential explanations:
 Attention Bias: High-anxious individuals may focus more on threatening words,
making them easier to remember.
 Memory Network: Anxious individuals may have a more developed network of
concepts related to threatening information, making it easier for them to recall
related words.

Individuals with Amnesia

Amnesia is a condition that causes severe memory deficits, particularly affecting
episodic memory, which involves recalling personal experiences. There are two main
types of amnesia: retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia.
Retrograde Amnesia
 This form of amnesia involves the loss of memory for events that occurred
before brain damage, with the most severe deficits affecting events just
before the injury.
 A case study of a woman known as L.T. illustrates this type. After an accident,
she could not recall events from before the incident but had normal memory for
events that occurred after the injury.
 Individuals with retrograde amnesia typically perform poorly on explicit
memory tasks, such as recall and recognition tasks, where they consciously
retrieve past information.
Implicit Memory in Amnesia
 Despite their challenges with explicit memory, individuals with amnesia often
show better performance on implicit memory tasks, where memory is
assessed without conscious awareness.
 In a classic study by Warrington and Weiskrantz (1970), participants with
amnesia were given word-guessing games. These games tested their implicit
memory by presenting previously seen words in a difficult-to-read form.
Surprisingly, the amnesic participants performed as well as control-group
participants, correctly identifying the words about 45% of the time.
 This study is a prime example of dissociation, where a variable (amnesia)
affects one type of memory (explicit) but not another (implicit). It highlights the
complexity of memory systems and how different types of memory are
processed separately.
Anterograde Amnesia
 Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories for events
that occur after brain damage.
 A well-known case is H.M., a man who, after undergoing surgery in 1953 to
treat epilepsy, lost the ability to form new memories due to the removal of part
of his temporal lobe and hippocampus, which are crucial for memory formation.
 While H.M.'s semantic memory (memory of facts) remained intact, he could
not retain new information. For example, he would meet people and, after they
left the room for a few minutes, forget the encounter completely.
 People with anterograde amnesia also struggle with explicit memory tasks
but can sometimes perform well on implicit memory tasks.
  They also find it difficult to imagine future events because the ability to
predict future scenarios relies on past experiences.

Encoding Failure Theory

 This theory suggests that forgetting happens because the information was
never properly processed into long-term memory in the first place. This occurs
when we fail to pay attention to details or do not adequately rehearse or encode
the information.
 If information doesn’t reach long-term memory, it can’t be retrieved later
because it was never stored.

Retrieval Failure Theory (Developed by Endel Tulving in 1974)

 According to this theory, forgetting happens not because the information is lost
but because we fail to retrieve it from long-term memory. The memory is stored,
but retrieval cues are missing, making it hard to access the information.
 A classic example is the "tip of the tongue" phenomenon, where a person
knows they have the information (e.g., a word or name) but can’t quite recall it.
They may be able to remember related details (such as the first letter or length
of the word) but not the full memory itself.
 Cues are critical triggers that help us access stored information. When cues are
absent or not strong enough, retrieval fails.

Cue-Dependent Memory
This concept explains that memory retrieval is often dependent on specific cues.
There are two main types of cue-dependent memory:
Context-Dependent Memory
 Memory recall improves when the context during encoding (learning) and recall
(retrieving) is the same.
 For example, if you learn something in a particular environment (e.g., at work),
you’re more likely to recall it when you're in that same environment than in a
different one (e.g., on the street).
 Environmental cues, such as surroundings or specific details, help trigger the
memory.
State-Dependent Memory
 Memory retrieval is better when the psychological or physiological state at the
time of encoding is the same at the time of recall.
 For example, if you learned something while you were happy, you are more likely
to recall it when you are in a happy mood.
 Similarly, a person who was sad when they learned something will find it easier to
recall that memory when they are sad again.

Failure of Reconstruction
Memory is a reconstructive process, meaning that we often rebuild memories based
on partial information, expectations, and prior knowledge. Failures in this
reconstruction process can lead to forgetting or distorted memories.
 Fragmentary Memories: If only parts of a memory are retrieved, the brain
attempts to fill in the gaps, which can lead to false or altered memories. This can
result in "forgotten" details that are actually misremembered rather than entirely
lost.
 Schema-Based Distortion: We tend to rely on schemas (mental frameworks)
when recalling memories, and these schemas can sometimes override specific
details. For instance, we might recall a general pattern or gist of an event while
forgetting the specifics, or we may misremember details to fit our expectations.

Motivated Forgetting
Motivated forgetting refers to the deliberate or unconscious suppression of memories
that are distressing, painful, or unwanted. This type of forgetting is often associated
with psychoanalytic theories and emotional regulation:
 Repression: In Freudian theory, repression is a defense mechanism where
distressing memories or thoughts are pushed into the unconscious mind to protect
the individual from anxiety or emotional pain. For example, a person who has
experienced trauma may be unable to recall specific details of the event.
 Suppression: Unlike repression, which is unconscious, suppression involves a
conscious effort to avoid thinking about or recalling certain memories. Over time,
deliberately avoiding a memory can make it harder to recall.
 Emotional Avoidance: People may forget certain memories as a way of
protecting themselves from emotional discomfort, especially in cases of trauma or
highly negative experiences. Some research suggests that this may involve the
brain's emotional regulation centers actively inhibiting access to painful memories.

Retrieval Failure (Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon)

Retrieval failure happens when we are temporarily unable to access a memory, even
though we know it is stored. A classic example is the "tip-of-the-tongue" phenomenon,
where a person knows they know something but cannot retrieve it at that moment.
 Lack of Retrieval Cues: Sometimes, we fail to retrieve memories due to
insufficient retrieval cues. Memories are often encoded along with contextual
information (e.g., sights, smells, sounds). When these cues are not present during
recall, it can be harder to retrieve the memory.
 State-Dependent Memory: Retrieval can also be affected by one's emotional or
physical state. For instance, a memory encoded when a person is sad may be more
easily retrieved when they are in a similar emotional state.

Concept Definition Example

Decay Memory traces weaken over time if Forgetting vocabulary from a foreign
Theory not rehearsed. language you no longer use.
Biological Memory loss due to brain injury, Memory loss from Alzheimer’s
Causes disease, or aging. disease.
Encoding Forgetting someone’s name
Failure to store information properly.
Failure immediately after being introduced.
Future of Memory is actively reconstructed;
Using memory reconsolidation to
Reconstructi future research may enhance
reduce trauma-related distress.
on memory reliability.
Motivated Forgetting due to psychological Repressing memories of childhood
Forgetting reasons (repression, suppression). trauma.
Often unreliable due to
Eyewitness Misremembering details of a crime
suggestibility and memory
Testimony scene after suggestive questioning.
distortion.
Flashbulb Vivid, emotional memories that may Recalling where you were during the
Memory still become distorted over time. 9/11 attacks.
Illusory False memories created by Believing you were lost in a mall as
Memory suggestion or imagination. a child after being told so.