MEMORY

Memory 3 OPERATIONS OF MEMORY

● means by which we retain and draw 1. Encoding
on information from our past a. transform sensory data into
experiences to use in the present. form of mental representation
● refers to the dynamic mechanisms 2. Storage
associated with storing, retaining, and a. you keep encoded information
retrieving information about past in memory
experience. 3. Retrieval
a. you pull out or use information
stored in memory

Recall Recognition
● You produce a fact, a word or other ● You select or identify an item as being
item from memory one that you have been exposed to
● Require expressive knowledge in previously.
which you have to produce an answer ● usually better than recall
● Example: Kapag may tiyaga, may __. ● Referred as tapping receptive
● Knowledge
● Receptive = "response to stimulus”
○ you respond to the stimulus
presented to you and decide
whether you have seen them
before or not
● Example: fusiform gyrus, heuristics,
mnemonics, prefrontal cortex, XY
chromosomes

3 MAIN TYPES OF RECALL TASK EXPLICIT MEMORY

1. Serial Recall ● Participants engage in conscious
a. Recall items in the exact order recollection.
in which they were presented.
2. Free Recall IMPLICIT MEMORY
a. Recall items in any order you ● Use information from memory but are
choose not consciously aware that we are
3. Cued Recall doing so
a. You are first shown items in
pairs, but during recall you are
cued with only one member of
each pair and are asked to
recall each mate.
b. Paired-Associates Recall

Priming Task Procedural Memory

● Word-completion tasks - based on ● Memory for processes
the priming effect ● The Rotary Pursuit Task
● Participants received a word ○ a psychological test that is
fragment, then they complete it with used to measure a person's
 the first word that comes to mind attention, reaction time, and
hand-eye coordination.
○ using a stylus to track a
moving target on a computer
screen. The target can move
in any direction, and the
participant must keep the
stylus on the target as it
moves.
● Mirror Tracing Task
○ a neuropsychological test used
to assess a person's
visuomotor coordination,
motor planning, and spatial
skills.
○ It involves tracing a simple
figure with a pencil while
looking in a mirror, which
reverses the image.

MODELS OF MEMORY

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Multistore Model Sensory Store

● Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) ● The initial repository of much
● proposed an alternative model that information that eventually enters the
conceptualized memory in terms of short and long term stores.
three memory stores:
○ Sensory store ● Capable of storing relatively limited
○ Short-term store amounts of information for very brief
○ Long-term store periods.

● The model differentiates among ● Iconic Store

structures for holding information, ○ a discrete visual sensory
termed stores, and the information register that holds information
stored in the structures, termed for very short periods.
memory.
● George Sperling
○ Stores ○ made the initial discovery
■ hypothetical regarding the existence of the
constructs iconic store
■ these are ideas we ● He addressed the question how much
can't see or measure information we can encode in a single,
directly, but they help brief glance at a set of stimuli
us understand how a ○ Whole report procedure
psychological ■ participants report
phenomenon works. every symbol they have
seen.
○ Partial-report procedure
■ participants need to
report only part of what
 they see.

● These data suggest that the iconic

store can hold about 9 items.

● They also suggest that information in

this store decays very rapidly.

● However, when they were cued 1

second later, their recall was down to
4 or 5 of the 12 items.

Subsequent Refinement Short-term Store

● Averback and Corielle (1961) ● Capable of storing information for a
○ iconic memory can be somewhat longer period but of
erased relatively limited capacity as well.

● Backward visual masking ● It hold memories for a few seconds

○ mental erasure of stimulus and occasionally up to a couple of
caused by the placement of minutes.
one stimulus where another
one had appeared ● In general, our immediate (short-term)
previously memory capacity for a wide range of
items appears to be about seven
● In short, we take in visual information items, plus or minus two.
through a temporary memory called
the iconic store. If new information ● Item
comes in too quickly before we can ○ can be something simple such
move the first information to long-term as a digit, or something more
memory, it gets wiped out. complex such as a word.
● Chunking
○ memory technique that
involves grouping individual
pieces of information into
larger, manageable units or
“chunks."

Long-term Store Long-term Store (CONT.)

● Capable of storing information for very
long periods, perhaps even ● Permastore
indefinitely. ○ refers to the very long-term
● Here we keep memories that stay with storage of information, such
us over long periods. We hold in it as knowledge of a foreign
information we need to get us by in language and mathematics.
our daily lives.
● Wilder Penfield addressed this
question while operating on the brains
of conscious patients afflicted with
epilepsy. ● Schmidt et al. (2000) studied the
 ○ He electrically stimulated permastore effect for names of
various parts of the cerebral streets near one's childhood homes.
cortex to locate the origins of ○ Indeed, the author just
each patient's problem. returned to his childhood home
of more than 40 years ago and
● Penfield (1955, 1969) found that perfectly remembered the
patients sometimes would appear to names of the nearby streets.
recall memories from their
childhoods. ○ These findings indicate that
○ These memories may not have permastore can occur even for
been called to mind for many, information that you have
many years. passively learned.
○ These data suggested to
Penfield that long-term
memories might be
permanent.

Levels-of-Processing Model

Levels-of-Processing Model Self-reference Effect

● LOP framework suggests that ● Participants show very high levels of
memory does not comprise three or recall when asked to meaningfully
even any specific number of separate relate words to themselves by
stores, but rather it varies along a determining whether the words
continuous dimension in terms of describe them.
depth of encoding. ● The highest levels of recall occur with
● This model emphasizes processing words that people consider
as the key to storage. self-descriptive.

Self-schema Criticisms: LOP

● Is an organized system of internal ● Some researchers noted some
cues regarding our attributes, paradoxes in retention.
personal experiences, and selves.
● Thus, we can richly and elaborately ● For example, using rhymes helps
encode information related to people remember things better than
ourselves much more so than just repeating their meanings.
information about other topics.
This means that paying attention to
the sounds of words, rather than
their meanings, can lead to better
memory.

Working Memory: An Integrative Model

Working Memory Model ● It is involved with the manipulation of

● Probably the most widely used and information, whereas short-term
accepted model today. memory serves only a storage
● Working memory is not just for purpose.
storing information; it also helps us
think about and process that
 information. ● Working memory comprises five
● Holds only the most recently elements:
activated, or conscious, portion of
long-term memory, and it moves ○ Visuospatial sketchpad
these activated elements into and ○ Phonological loop
out of brief, temporary memory ○ Central executive
storage. ○ Subsidiary slave systems
○ Episodic buffer

Visuospatial sketchpad Phonological loop

● Briefly holds some visual images ● Briefly stores mainly verbal
information for verbal
comprehension and for acoustic
rehearsal
● Example: 878-7000

Central executive Subsidiary slave systems

● The central executive helps manage ● Perform other cognitive or
our attention in working memory. perceptual tasks

● It decides how to share our focus

between different tasks we need to
do at the same time or how to
switch our attention between tasks.

Episodic buffer
● It explains how we integrate information in working memory, long-term memory, the
visuospatial sketchpad, and the phonological loop.
● This buffer helps us solve problems and rethink past experiences using what we
know now.

OTHER MODELS OF MEMORY

Multiple Memory Systems Semantic Memory

● The working-memory model is ● stores general world knowledge
consistent with the notion that ● information that we accumulated in
multiple systems may be involved our lives
in the storage and retrieval of ● these are facts, ideas, meanings,
information concepts

● Endel Tulving (1972) proposed the

two kinds of explicit memory:
○ Semantic Memory
○ Episodic Memory

Episodic Memory Semantic & Episodic Memory

● stores personally experienced ● It is not clear, however, that semantic
 events episodes and episodic memories are two
● our memory of experiences and distinct systems.
specific events that occur in our lives ● There are patients who suffer only
from loss of semantic memory, but
their episodio memory is not impaired,
and vice versa (Temple & Richardson,
2004; Vargha-Khadem et al., 1997)

Exceptional Memory and Neuropsychology

Mnemonists Synesthesia
● someone who demonstrates ● Neuropsychological trait in sense
extraordinarily keen memory causes the automatic experience of
ability, usually based on using another sense.
special techniques for memory
enhancement.

● Solomon Veniaminovich
Shereshevsky
○ Soviet journalist and
mnemonist active in the
1920s.
○ He participated in many
psychological studies by
neuropsychologist Alexander
Luria over 30 years.
○ They met after incident in the
mid-1920s when he was
scolded for not taking notes in
a meeting
○ Shereshevsky relied on visual
imagery

Hypermnesia DEFICIENT MEMORY

● Unforgetting ● Amnesia
● a process of producing retrieval of ○ severe loss of explicit
memories that would seem to have memory
been forgotten ○ Its defining characteristic is an
● In psychodynamic therapy, inability to recall important
hypermnesia refers to person autobiographical
suddenly remembering forgotten information that:
memories, often during discussions ■ 1) should be
about their feelings or past successfully stored in
experiences. memory and;
 ■ 2) ordinarily would be
freely recollected

Dissociative Amnesia: Type Dissociative Amnesia: Type CONT.

● RETROGRADE AMNESIA ● Infantile Amnesia
○ in which individuals lose their ○ The inability to recall events
purposeful memory for that happened when we were
events before whatever very young.
trauma
○ Induces memory loss
■ Localized amnesia ● Alzheimer's Disease
● specific period ○ is a disease of older adults
of time that causes dementia as well
● after a traumatic as progressive memory loss
event
■ Selective amnesia ○ Dementia
● specific to ■ is a loss of
certain details intellectual function
of an event that is severe enough
● Other parts of to impair one's
the event may everyday life.
be remembered ○ Amyloid-beta precursor protein
■ Systematized (APP)
amnesia ○ Beta amyloid
● specific to a ○ Plaques
particular
category of
information
● forgetting
people, places,
or a specific
topic

● Anterograde Amnesia
○ In continuous amnesia, an
● Alzheimer's Disease: Philippines
individual forgets each new
○ As of 2021, the estimated
event as it occurs.
dementia incidence In the
○ Case of Henry Molaison
Philippines was at 16 per
■ Underwent brain
1,000, with an estimated
surgery due to his
increase in dementia cases to
uncontrolled epilepsy
1,474,588 by 2030, 1,972,067
■ He was only 29 years
by 2040, and 2,529,436 by
old and above average
2050.
in intelligence when he
○ Most common subtype of
underwent the
dementia was AD (85.5%)
operation.
○ Results:
■ He suffered from
○ The prevalence of dementia is
anterograde amnesia
high
■ He could not form new
○ research output on all aspects
explicit memories.
 ■ He lost his ability to of dementia is low
recollect any new ○ Health care coverage is limited
memories of the time (cost) Reliance mainly on
following his operation. out-of-pocket payments,
leading to challenges in the
proper diagnosis and
treatment of dementia.
○ low specialist-to-population
ratio

Memory Assessment

Memory What is the Purpose of Memory Assessment?

● Responsible for encoding, storing, ● It can be used to detect possible
retaining, and retrieving information memory problems or cognitive
when needed decline.
● The short- and long-term memory
capacities are evaluated by means of
memory assessments.
● It helps in rest and recovery.
● It can be used to diagnose learning
problems such as dyslexia, ADHD or
other disabilities in adults and children
that impact memory retention.
● It is significant in determining how well
treatments work for different
populations.
● Overall, it assists in managing,
assessing, and enhancing memory.

Types of Memory

Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory

● Stores sensory information (sound, ● Can store a small amount of
smell, touch, sight, taste). information for a short period of time.
● Usually takes less than a second to ● Information will only last from
recognize. approximately 20 seconds up to a
● Sensations that are no longer relevant minute without rehearsal.
get discarded by the brain. ● The information that is rehearsed gets
● Sensations that catch our attention transferred into the long-term memory.
get transferred to STM or LTM.
Long-Term Memory ● According to George Miller in 1956,
● Where continuously learned and we can only store between five and
 repeated information is stored. nine items in short-term memory
● Has a huge capacity and massive (Cherry. 2023)
duration. ● Recent studies show that people with
● Mental Editing high processing speeds in their
○ the idea that opposed short-term memories can process up
Atkinson-Shiffrin's multi-modal to 25-30 pieces of information per
model, suggesting that only second (Perry, 2023)
particular memories are
selected for long-term
retention.

Working Memory Stages of Memory Formation

● skill that allows us to work with
information while maintaining focus on Encoding
one's task (Rosen, 2023) ● inputting the units of information.
● holds new information in the Storage
short-term memory, for the brain to be ● storing the units of information that
able to work with it briefly have been encoded
Retrieval
Maintenance Working Memory ● retrieving the units of information that
have been encoded and stored.

TYPES OF ENCODING
● Visual Encoding
● Accoustic Encoding
● Semantic Encoding

TYPES OF STORAGE
● Sensory Memory
● Short-Term Memory
Manipulation Working Memory ● Long-Term Memory

TYPES OF RETRIEVAL
● Recall
● Recognition
● Relearning

Factors Influencing Memory Processes Memory Failure

● Also called "forgetting"
● Environment ● Happens when there is a
● Degree of Attention ● failure in the retrieval of information
● Emotional State from the long-term memory.
● Interest
● Breathing Phase

Hermann Ebbinghaus
 ● Memory: A Contribution to
Experimental Psychology
● Tested his own memory for periods of
time ranging from 20 minutes to 31
days.
● Forgetting Curve shows the
relationship between forgetting and
time.

Theories of Forgetting

Associative Interference Spontaneous Forgetting

● Decay Theory of Forgetting
● Retroactive Interference ○ Proposes that time is the one
○ when new information responsible for declines in
interferes with the ability to recall, and the events that
remember previously learned happen between the formation
information. and recall of the memory have
● Proactive Interference no impact on the recall
○ when the information process.
previously learned makes it ● Short time interval
difficult to memorize new ○ between memory and recall
information. more recalled information
● Long time interval
○ between memory and recall
less recalled information

Displacement Theory Retrieval Failure Theory

● The STM's capacity is only limited. ● When information in LTM are available
● Suggests that we forget because but not accessible due to the absence
newly acquired information displaces of retrieval cues.
old memories from our brains. ● Retrieval Cues trigger the memory of
● Studies using the "free-recall" method a situation once we encounter it
support this view. again.
● Cue-dependent forgetting when
context and state are very different
from when an information is encoded
and when it is retrieved

COMMON STRATEGIES FOR MEMORY ASSESSMENT

Neuropsychological Test
● Measures the capacity of specific brain parts
● Conducted with defined procedures in a formal environment
● The results are used to individualize the patient's treatment
● Common illnesses diagnosed from this test are:
○ Dementia
○ Brain Injury
○ Depression
○ ADHD
Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS-IV)
● Measures the different memory
function
● The assessment tests three
characteristics of the brain:
○ Visual and Auditory Memory
Function
○ Immediate and Delayed
memory subscales
○ Recall of Sounded Words with
Pictures

California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT)
● Measures episodio memory abilities of CONT.
individuals
● The common diagnosed illnesses 3 Types of Interpretation of Result:
from the result of this test are ● Immediate Recall
Alzheimer's disease, mild cognitive ○ Quickly recalled the words
impairment, and traumatic injury ● Delayed Recall
○ Has a delay on recalling
4 Test Categories of CVLT: ● Recognition Memory
● List Learning ○ Ability to learn words from
○ Memorize presented words for non-learned words
5 trials
● Free Recall
○ Recalled the showed words
after trial
● Delayed Recall
○ Recalled the showed words
after a break
● Recognition Memory
○ Recalled previous showed
word from the list of new
words list

Behavioral Task

Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test Cambridge Neuropsychological Test

(RAVLT) Automated Battery (CANTAB)
● According to Statistics Solutions ● As stated by University of Cambridge
(2021) the purpose of the Rey (2021), cognitive skills including
Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT) memory, attention, executive function.
is to evaluate memory and verbal and decision-making are evaluated
 learning. using CANTAB. As demonstrated in
● The study of Sisakhti (2023) has the study of Li (2022), which Included
revealed a strong association Chinese stroke survivors, it has been
between verbal memory scores from validated across a variety of
the AVLT and attention scores demographics, making it a reliable
younger children, but a weaker instrument for recognizing and
correlation in older age groups. monitoring cognitive impairments.

TECHNIQUES FOR O MEMORY ASSESSMENT

Free Recall Vs. Cued Recall Recognition Memory Test

● The retrieval of information has three ● Purpose:
types (Noble, 2020): ○ To assess the recognition
● Recognition memory of a person,
○ feeling of familiarity when especially if they suffer from
faced with a previously brain-related injuries or
encountered stimulus. illnesses.
● Free Recall ● Warrington Recognition Memory Test
○ retrieval of specifio information (WRMT)
from memory without using ● Developed by British
any oues. Neuropsychologist: Elizabeth
● Cued Recall Warrington in 1989.
○ uses cues when retrieving
specifio information from ● Warrington Recognition Memory Test
memory.
→ Words
● Tulving and Pearlstone's Recall ● Process:
Test (1966) ○ Test-takers are shown a list of
○ Free Recall Group = 40% of words and are asked if they
the words Identify it as pleasant and
○ Cued Reoall Group = 75% of unpleasant.
the words ○ Words will reappear paired
with another word and the
test-takers must identify which
were from the original list.
Prospective Memory Testing → Faces
● Ability to recall a planned action in the ● Process:
future ○ Similar to Words, test-takers
● Intentional Errors will be asked to identify
○ According to a study by whether the presented faces
Sharma et al. (2020), 22.7% of are pleasant or not, and will
driving errors were caused by reappear later an paired with
Prospective Memory. another face.
● Prospective Memory in Cognitive
Development
○ According to De a Signori et
al. (2024), It is important for
real-life tasks and should be
studied for children's and
adolescents' cognitive
development
○ The relevance of Prospective
Memory across lifespan
development

Autobiographical Memory Assessment Survey of Autobiographical Memory (SAM)

● 26-item SAM with a five-point. Likert
● ability to remember personal scale
experiences recollective experience ● SAM- episodic
that includes declarative memory, ● SAM- semantic
namely episodic, semantic, and ● SAM- spatial
spatial memory, as well as ● SAM- future subscales
future-oriented thinking
● provides the foundation for how we
perceive ourselves, connect with
others, and address problems in our
daily lives

FACTORS AFFECTING MEMORY ASSESSMENT

Age and Development Cultural Considerations

● WM Improves from childhood to ● Studies show that culture has
young adulthood, reflecting cognitive influence on memory process.
maturation. ● West-analytical and taxonomical
● After young adulthood, WM approach;
performance declines, especially in ● East-holistic and thematic approach.
tactile memory. (Yang, 2013, as cited by Wang, 2020)
● Individuals can recall specific details
of an event much clearer when it
happens in a local environment.
(Anakwah et al.. 2020)

Cognitive and Neurological Disorder

● Alzheimer's Disease ● Dementia

 ○ A neurological illness that ○ Severe memory impairment
starts with gradual that impairs daily function.
impairments in memory. ○ Patients usually experience
○ Affects the neurons of the memory loss and a partial or
hippocampus complete lack of
○ Symptoms: short-term comprehension of their
memory, disorientation, limitations.
amnesia, and memory
distortions.

Vascular Dementia Lewy Body Dementia

● An imbalance in blood flow decreases ● It involves the wrong deposit of
memory by causing damage to the proteins in the brain. (Ciafone et al.,
brain regions involved for memory 2019).
processing and recall (Perri et al., ● Cognitive impairments in focus and
2019) working memory.

Parkinson's Disease
● Primarily affects physical function, but also shows notable impairments in memory and
other cognitive abilities.
● Patients experience lack of recall of memory and working and procedural memory.
(Salmi et al., 2020)

EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES IN MEMORY ASSESSMENT

Neuroimaging PET Scanner

● Studying brain function by using ● (Positron Emission Tomography)
non-invasively observations that ● Measure the levels of sugar glucose
visualize the brain's structure and in the brain that activates the neurons.
function Only generalized parts of the brain are
detected by Neuroimaging technique.

fMRI Digital Tools and Apps

● (functional Magnetic Resonance ● Demonstrates that digital cued recall
Imaging) tools enhance eyewitness memory
● Non-invasive brain-scanning accuracy and the amount of
technique that lights up more when information retrieved, but caution
the blood flow increases while doing a against potential biases and risks of
 task. false memories.
● The two types of tasks conducted
while inside 'MRI are Block System
and Event System. But the result of
fMRI can't determine the stimuli and
response.

MEMORY ASSESSMENT

MEMORY MEMORY ASSESSMENT

● The capacity that allows us to connect ● Provide a clear picture of an
experiences, learn and make sense of Individual's ability.
our lives

EXPLICIT MEMORY IMPLICIT MEMORY

Paired-Associate Learning Task Perceptual Priming Task
● The association between two different
stimuli. (Krepel et al. 2021) ● Facilitates recognition and
● Procedure requires the association of understanding through sensory
a given item to another. features of stimuli.
● Exposure to a stimulus changes the
In Krepel et. al.'s study: processing of a perceptually similar
the authors have explained the different uses stimulus.
of PAL in three categories:
Zhivago Et. Al. (2020) Study
PAL IN VOCABULARY
● helped vocabulary predict growth in ● This study utilized Classic Perceptual
native language learners. Priming Paradigm.
● Learning pronunciation of new words ● Utilized Perceptual Priming Task in
was important vocabulary growth which participants were to identify the
shape of a visual search pop-out
PAL IN READING target.
● Predicts reading abilities in both ● The target's color and position was
young and old students, however the varied randomly across trials to
effect varies as it depends on the measure response time differences
language. based on prior exposure.
PAL IN SPELLING
● It helps students to learn how to spell ● All groups demonstrated faster
words when they learn the responses for some-color and
pronunciation of the new words some-position trials that indicated
(verbal learning). consistent priming effects across
different participant groups.

● PAL task was a reliable predictor of

future skills in vocabulary, reading,
and spelling.
● was analyzed to be an offsetive teal in
languag coquisition as it mess the
smooding and retrieval processes

SHORT-TERM MEMORY HAPTIC MEMORY

● Also known as primary or active ● A form of sensory memory associated
memory with Louch
● allows individuals to perform tasks
● It is susceptible to interference from with precision, all without conscious
new information and similar items in effort after repeated exposure.
the environment, making it a critical ● Ex: Holding fragile items & pressing
component of daily functioning violin strings
(MSEd. 2023).
The Minnesota Haptic Function
Digit Span Task ● Participants engaged in a haptic
● "A Study On The Effect Of Music On exploration task where they manually
Short Term Memory With The Use Of examined two curved surfaces
Digit Span Task Among Students" presented Responses were recorded
after each trial, with participants
● Participants were asked to recall digits indicating which block felt more
ina forward and backward sequence curved.
while listening to music or in silence. ● For results, people with hiple
impairments, like those from
chemotherapy-induced neuropathy.
struggle more with detecting and
distinguishing curvatures than healthy
individuals.
● The study of Liu et al. (2021)
 complements the idea of this
experiment, which is the haptic angle
Chua Et. Al. (2020) Study: sorting test that focuses on angle
rather than curves.
● Digit Span Task
● The study concluded that the sex of
the Individuals impacts the recall
performance which shows that
females performed better than males
in Digit Span Task especially in
forward sequence (Chua et al., 2020).

ECHOIC MEMORY SUMMARY OF THE TOPIC

● Memory plays a critical role in our
● It is an ultra-short-term memory cognitive function.
system that stores information from ● Various methodologies have been
sounds you hear. developed to assess different types of
● It works by transmitting a sound to the memory.
brain, where it is stored for about 4 ● Explicit Memory
minutes ○ measured by Paired-Associate
Learning (PAL). PAL enhances
Audio Backward Recognition Masking language learning. particularly
in vocabulary, reading, and
● The interference of a second sound spelling (Krepel et al. 2021).
on recognition of another sound ● Implicit Memory
presented earlier in time. ○ measured by perceptual
● Involves presenting a brief target priming tasks. Older adults
stimulus to the subjects and then, show slower response times
following a brief interval, presenting but maintain accuracy in
the mask also referred to as the recognition tasks due to
second stimulus. priming (Meng et al., Zhivago
et al.)
● Decay and Interference contribute to ● Short-term Memory
Forgetting in echoic memory ○ Assessed by digit span tasks,
which show gender differences
● The critical aspect of backward in performance, with females
masking is overwriting of the torget's outperforming males (Chua et
sensory memory by the mask, not the al. 2020).
mere proximity of target and mask ● Haptic Memory
○ The Minnesota Haptic
● Turvey (1973, as cited in Wernicke & Function Test assesses
Mattier, 2019) showed that substantial sensitivity to tactile stimuli,
backward masking occurs even when aiding therapeutic opproaches
the first stimulus was presented to for sensory impairments.
one ear and the mask was presented (Hoist-Woif et al. (2019)
 to the other ear. ● Echoic Memory
○ Ultra-short-term auditory
● Not all aspects of auditory perception memory affected by
are related to the perceptual interference and timing of
subprocess. stimuli, as demonstrated by
Auditory Backward
Recognition Masking (ABRM).

MEMORY ASSESSMENT

Introduction

Memory Memory Assessment

● Is a critical cognitive function that ● involves evaluating an individual's
performs various tasks capacity to encode, store, and retrieve
● Memory refers to the psychological information or memory
processes of acquiring, storing,
retaining, and later retrieving
information.

Varieties of Memory

Episodic memory Semantic memory

● capacity to recall relative personal ● wherein general knowledge and facts
experiences/events resides.

Collective memory
● shared information of a group of people.

MEMORY DISCREPANCIES AND ITS CAUSES

MEMORY DISCREPANCIES
● the mismatch between people's recollections and real events occurs when a person
remembers something incorrectly or differently than it actually happened.

CAUSES

INTERFERENCE THEORY MEMORY RECONSTRUCTION

● memory discrepancies often arise due ● removal or addition of information to a
to interference from other memories remembered event based on one's
● PROACTIVE personal experience
○ occurs when existing
information or knowledge
interferes with the obtaining of
new information
● RETROACTIVE
○ freshly acquired knowledge
interferes with our capacity to
recall previously acquired
information
 EMOTIONAL INFLUENCES
● can either improve or reduce memory
accuracy.
● Highly emotional experiences are
sometimes remembered in great
detail

MEMORY DECAY SOURCE CONFUSION

● People may remember the main ● also known as "source misattribution"
points of an event but forget precise or unconscious transference. This
specifics, leading them to fill in the happens when a person recalls
blanks with inaccurate information information but mistakenly recognizes
the source

MISINFORMATION EFFECT
● This happens when post-event
information changes a person's recall
of the initial incident.

● According to Loftus (2020), when

people are exposed to false
information after witnessing an
Incident, their memories of the event
might be skewed. This effect is
frequently investigated in the context
of eyewitness. evidence when little
suggestions can lead to significant
memory discrepancies

MEMORY DISCREPANCIES IN...

EPISODIC MEMORY DISCREPANCY SEMANTIC MEMORY DISCREPANCY

● prone to inaccuracy because they ● people remember inaccurate
incorporate personal experiences, information regarding ideas,
which are frequently associated with definitions, or names ex: difficulty
emotions. Dates, locations, and event recalling the names of common
sequences are easily interpreted objects or other well-learned
incorrectly information

COLLECTIVE MEMORY DISCREPANCY SHORT-TERM MEMORY DISCREPANCY

● Individual viewpoints, cultural ● discrepancies in recalling newly
narratives, and the passage of time supplied information.
are frequently the sources of ● ex: remembering a person's name
discrepancies in this area. shortly after being introduced.
LONG-TERM MEMORY DISCREPANCY WORKING MEMORY DISCREPANCY
● refers to the discrepancy between an ● involves failures in the active
individual's remembrance of previous processing and alteration of
events and the actual information of information.
those occurrences. ● ex: you might need more time to pay
at the supermarket

WHAT IS MEMORY ASSESSMENT?

● used to understand an individual's memory capabilities or determine any weaknesses
or impairments
● It also tracks cognitive changes, revealing how memory develops overtime.
Interventions and individualized treatment strategies can benefit from this data.

Theories that help in Assesment

Multi-store Model Levels of Processing theory

● Atkinson and Shiffrin's 1968 ● (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) states that
Multi-Store Model of Memory was a deep processing (focusing on
major early memory theory. This linear meaning) enhances memory
model indicates memory has three retention, while shallow processing
stores: sensory, short-term, and (focusing on sight or sound) leads to
long-term. weaker memories
● Shallow processing
○ Refers to how information is
handled on a superficial level,
focusing on its surface
characteristics rather than its
meaning
○ Deep Structural Processing
■ visual processing
analyzes the physical
structure appearance
of words or stimuli. or
○ Phonemic
Processing-Auditory
processing
■ It examines word
sounds, such as
phonetic structure and
pronunciation, to detect
and create speech.

Levels of Processing theory CONT. The difference between Shallow

● Deep Processing Processing and Deep Processing
○ Focuses on understanding the ● Shallow Processing
meaning & Involves more ○ Involves superficial
cognitive effort, like making engagement with Information.
connections to prior ○ Physical characteristics (eg.
knowledge. elaborating on the appearance, sound)
material, or thinking critically ○ Weaker memory retention
 about it because the information is mat
○ Semantic Processing meaningfully processed
■ Involves ● Deep Processing
comprehending words, ○ Inolves meaningful
concepts & assessing engagement with Information
information's content ○ Semantic meaning and contest
and relevance. This Typestly leads to better
creates correlations long-term memory. Enhanced
and connections, understanding and ability to
improving memory apply kriowledge
retention and recall.

Applications of theory
REWORKING
● putting information in your wwn words or talking about with someone else

IMAGERY
● by creating an image something remember, you elaborate on It and encode it visually

METHOD OF LOCI
● when trying to remember a list of terms, linking each with a familiar place or route

Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MOCA) Self-Assessment Memory Scale (SAMS)

● spatiotemporal orientation ● Developed to detect changes in

● sustained attention memory recall impairment that could
● visuospatial function be a tool during the early stages of
● executive function dementia
● verbal memory, language
● naming ● The following tests administered were
● abstract thinking ○ Word recall task
○ Word recognition task
● is a tool used to detect mild cognitive ○ Picture recall task
Impairment (MCI) which has been ○ 8-picture recall task.
validated and utilized in numerous ○ 16-word recognition
studies since 2000.
● An interruption of 75 seconds were
● 25 and below out of 30 shows a added after showing the flashcards,
cognitive inmpairment. Afterwards, participants will be asked
ogain.
 Wechsler Memory Scale(WMS)
● With the recent version of the WMS
providing perception in an individual's
memory capabilities. Scale that
measures different kinds of memories,
Auditory Memory. Visual Memory,
Immediate Memory. Delayed Memory,
Working Memory.
● Revisons throughout the year With the
revisions on the WMS. there is siways
a Mental Control and Logical Memory
I and II.
● WMS Being Used in Previous
Evaluation
○ Even though there is a newer
version of the WMS. Clinicians
still use the aid version of the
scale

Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test Operation Span Task

● RAVLT, a test developed in 1954, la a ● This assessment test measures
vital assessment tool in memory working memory capacity (WMC) by
assessments, especially for evaluating participants ability to
measuring verbal menary and process and remember information at
learning ability. the same time
● Uses in Clinical Setting
○ To diagnose diseases such
Alzheimer's Disease
○ Mild Cognitive impairment
○ Test efficiently classifies
diagnostic periods in memory
clinic patients cand healthy
people

Mini-Mental State Examination Factors Affecting Memory Assessment

● Address the need for early ● age
intervention in neurocognitive ● health conditions
disorders, particularly mild cognitive ● environmental distractions
impairment ● lifestyle factors
● It assesses a person's cognitive
function. particularly memory,
attention, and language skills
● Mini-Cog Assessment
 ○ A brief cognitive assessment
tool used to screen for
cognitive impairment and
dementia.
○ Consists of three-word recall
task and a clock-drawing task

Synthesis
● To detect early signs of Cognitive Impairment and Disorders, there are a variety of
memory tests to be administered. There is evidence to suggest that assessing the
participants immediately helps in reducing partial forgetfulness by Wasserman et al.,
(2020) and aging affects the decline in memory as seen in the study of Kent (2023)
even having those of uge 20-24 having a decline in immediate memory. There are also
the SAMS and MOCA tools that is beneficial for detecting memory deterioration.
Lastly, the study of Johrison et al (2020) explored enhancing learning retention for
students

AN OVERVIEW OF MEMORY AND ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS

INTRODUCTION

● WORKING MEMORY MEMORY ASSESSMENT

○ is a crucial cognitive function ● is a critical component in various
○ allows individuals to retain and fields
manipulate information ● involves evaluating an individual's
○ includes: phonological loop, capacity to encode, store, and retrieve
visuospatial sketchpad, central information
executive, and episodic buffer ● assesses short-term memory, working
■ These components memory, and long-term memory
enable efficient (declarative memory and semantic
cognitive memory included)
functioning,influencing
our ability to learn,
reason, and adapt in
various situations

MEMORY ASSESSMENT

Self-Report Techniques Source Monitoring

● Utilize interviews or questionnaires to ● Examine the sources of your memory
capture thoughts. by determining where, when, and how
to gain certain knowledge.

Reconstructive Memory Chunking

● Understand that memories are not ● Divide complicating memories into
replayed; instead, they are rebuilt. smaller, easier-to-manage chunks.

Contextual Cues Imagery and Visualization

● Keep an eye out for contextual or ● Use your imagination to bring back
environmental indicators that may aid memories.
in bringing back memories.
Spaced Repetition Error Correction
● Examine your memory at regular ● Recognize and evaluate memory
intervals as opposed to cramming. recall issues.

Dual Coding Metacognitive Awareness

● When evaluating memories, use both ● Gain insight into how your own
oral and visual evidence. Multiple memory functions.
representations can help to reinforce
memory traces.

RRL

PROSPECTIVE MEMORY MAINTENANCE WORKING MEMORY

● ability to remember and to perform ● comprises memory for verbal, spatial
intended actions in the future, with and even emotional information
tasks typically categorized as across multiple sensory channels
event-based or time-based
● integration of self-report measurement
with performance-based tools is
important for understanding patients'
awareness of their prospective
difficulties

MANIPULATION WORKING MEMORY ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES

● process of operating information in ● used to reveal specific diagnostic
working memory storage (Harvey, impairments of memory-disordered
2019) populations, including cortical
dementia and amnestic conditions
encoding, delayed recall, cued recall
and delayed recognition.

VIRTUAL REALITY (VR) IN MEMORY RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SEMANTIC

ASSESSMENT AND EPISODIC MEMORY
● can equip clinical neuropsychologists ● Hippocampus: Links both memory
with a feasible assessment types
technology on which assessment ● Episodic memory: well-established
outcomes are generalized to real-life link with hippocampus
settings (Ijaz et al., 2019). ● Semantic memory: Link with
● Coleman et al. (2019) showed that hippocampus is debatable
evaluating performance in a virtual ● Amnesia studies: Varying findings
environment can enhance ○ Participants show major
effectiveness of intensive and deficits in semantic
adaptive working memory training with memory,while some may retain
measurement tools to aid in the it almost intact
evaluation of new treatments for
ADHD and learning disabilities
● This concluded that training helped
improve such abilities which aligns
with de Fockert et al.’s research in
2001 indicating that working memory
 capacity is associated with resisting
distractions from non-essential stimuli.

THEORIES OF MEMORY

Memory Trace Theory Theory of General Memory Functions

● Memories are physically preserved in ● Vieira and Davim (2022)
the brain by a process called memory ○ memories are chronologically
trace, or engram. overlaid influencing our
● Memory = dispersed among several cognitive processes without
brain regions. conscious awareness of time
○ 3 TYPES OF ENCODING:
■ Semantic encoding
● process of
encoding words
and their
● referred to as “multiple trace theory” in meaning
other studies ■ Visual encoding
● one of the most innovative and ● process of
significant memory theories in recent encoding
times (Sutherland, 2019) words, sounds,
● crucial in changing the way people and pictures
thought about memory consolidation ■ Acoustic encoding
at the systems level (Sutherland, ● implanting
2019) memories
happens
through auditory
stimuli or
hearing

THEORIES OF FORGETTING

Displacement Theory Decay Theory

● we frequently forget the information ● developed by Edward Thorndike in
we do not use 1914
● higher probability of losing weekly ● if we don't consistently access our
formed memories memories, it will eventually fade away
● Strong emotional memories are more
difficult to erase.
● posits that our propensity to forget is
caused by the displacement of old
memories from our finite memory
space by new ones

Interference Theory TYPES OF INTERFERENCE:

● first psychologist to investigate the ● Proactive interference
interference or the idea of ○ fresh memories are being
forgetfulness was John A. Bergstrom interfered with by the old ones
in 1892 ● Retroactive interference
 ● fresh information and prior knowledge ○ fresh memories are inserted
might interfere with memory retrieval into old ones at the same time
and recall

Retrieval Failure
● credited to Endel Tulving in 1974
● information forgetting happens when a person is unable to recall information from
memory
● causes of retrieval failure:
○ encoding error
○ lack of retrieval cue

MEMORY ASSESSMENTS

FOR SHORT TERM MEMORY

Forward and backward recall test Continuous Performance

● Forward Test: assesses the ability to ● developed by Rosvold in the 1950s
remember sequences, focusing on ● used to measure focus, impulsivity,
short-term memory and auditory recall and reaction time
● Backward Test: more complex,
requiring the recall of sequences in
reverse order

Brown-Peterson Task Wechsler Memory Scale

● developed in the late 1950s by John ● developed by David Wechsler
Brown, Lloyd Peterson, and Margaret ● will detect and evaluate memory
Peterson disorders during a clinical test
● used to measure focus, impulsivity,
and reaction time

FOR LONG-TERM MEMORY

Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test California Verbal Learning Test

● created in 1919 by Eduard Claparede ● One of the most prominent verbal
under the name “Test de Mémoire des learning and memory tests in
Mots” (Test of Memory for Words) neuropsychology
● Andre Rey later created the RAVLT ● used to evaluate word recognition and
● valuable for detecting memory recall across four distinct semantic
impairments across various patient categories
groups especially in cases of
abnormal brain aging

Boston Naming Test

● key neuropsychological tool used to assess an individual’s ability to name objects,
which helps evaluate language function in people with neurological conditions

FOR CHILDREN AND TEENS

Working Memory Test Battery The Children’s Test of Nonword Repetition

● crucial for assessing cognitive abilities ● provides information about young
 across various age groups, children’s language impairments and
particularly in children phonological working memory
● provides insights into their working
memory capacity, which is also linked
to academic performance and
learning difficulties

Children’s Memory Scale

● first published in 1997 by Morris J. Cohen
● in depth assessment of memory and learning in kids and teenagers between the ages
of five and sixteen

MODERN TOOLS

EEG-fMRI Computer-based cognitive tests

● helps researchers understand how we ● have garnered popularity in assessing
form and recall memories by showing cognitive performance, particularly
what happens in the brain when we among older adults and in the context
learn or remember something of neurodegenerative diseases.

MEMORY IMPROVEMENT

Strategies in Improving memory

Memory
● allows us to acquire, store, retain, and retrieve information

Causes of poor memory

1. Aging
2. Inattentiveness
3. Stress and Anxiety
4. Lack of Sleep

Lifestyle Strategies

1. Sufficient Sleep 2. Regular Exercise

● Adults should aim for 7-9 ● Promotes the development of
hours of quality sleep each new brain cell enhancing
night (How to Improve cognitive function
Memory, 2024) ● Helps maintain sharp memory.

Study findings: Study findings:

Dahat et al. (2023), Sleep patterns and Hoffman et al. (2021), Aerobic Physical
Memory Retention Activity and Memory in Sedentary Adults
● Slow wave or deep sleep ● Aerobic exercise
● For restorative sleep ● Feasible for memory enhancement in
● Enhances procedural memory sedentary adults aged 50 and older.
retention
● Sleep continuity
 ● Uninterrupted sleep cycles positively
influence memory performance

3. Healthy Diet 4. Brain Exercises (Puzzles and Card

● The brain requires nutrients Games)
● A balanced diet boosts ● Enhances memory, concentration, and
memory functioning focus (Lindberg, 2023)

Study findings: Study findings:

Chen et al. (2021), Dietary patterns and Basak et al. (2021), Frontlers in Psychology:
Cognitive functioning among older adults. ● Card games (e.g, bridge, poker)
● Positive association with ● Improved memory recall and problem
mediterranean and DASH diets solving skills in older adults
● A balanced intake of fruits,
vegetables, dairy, bread, and lean Zhao et al. (2020), Journal of Alzhemiers
proteins. Disease
● Improved visuospatial cognition ● Jigsaw puzzles
● Legumes and nuts consumption ● Help maintain cognitive resilience and
● Linked to enhanced overall cognitive are linked to better brain health.
performance
Wang et al. (2022), neuroscience and
behavioral reviews:

● Mentally stimulating games

● Decrease the risk for dementia

5. Meditation and Yoga LEARNING STRATEGIES

● Reduces stress 1. Visual Aids

● Boosts memory ● Organize information
● Mind maps, charts, diagrams enhance
Study findings: recall.
Fleischmann and Posner (2020), meditation ● Improve understanding (Cherry, 2024)
and working memory in students
● Meditation Study Findings:
● Increase working memory by 40.3% Jamal and Mustaffa (2023), Visual
Communication and Memory Enhancement in
Francis, T., et al. (2019), Yoga and working Educational Settings
memory students
● Yoga ● Visual Elements Orientation) (Shape,
● Improves working memory and visual Color,
reaction times. ● Increase memory recognition and
learning engagement.

2. Mnemonics 3. Repetition and Retrieval

● Simplify information. ● Reinforce learning by repeating row
● Use of acronyms, rhymes, and Information.
visualization. ● Strengthens neurons. connections
● Engage the brain in creative ways between
(Cherry, 2024). ● Increases the likelihood of retention.
Study Findings: Study Findings:
Moll and Skyes (2022), Method of Loci and Fortino and Lowrance (2019), Spaced
Memory Retention in Virtual Reality retrieval exercises and Memory Retention in
● Visualization Students
● Improve memory recall by 20%. ● Surprise Quizzes
● The loci method is effective for ● Students who participated in the
boosting memory. quizzes had higher post-test scores.
● Improves memory retention.
● The research supports Ebbinghaus's
(1885) Forgetting Curve theory.

4. Chunking ● Though these strategies are proven to

● Improves memory by dividing be effective, it will still be based on the
information into smaller, manageable person's experience with the
chunks. strategies and their unique cognition.

Study Findings:
Thalmann et al. (2019), Chunking and
Working Memory
● Helps overcome limitations of short
term memory.
● Grouping information into meaningful
units enhances memory
● Working memory capacity is also
influenced by how information is
organized.

Improving Memory
Science of Memory: Evidence-Based Strategies on How to Enhance Recall and Retention

● An improved memory can aid a 1. Cognitive Techniques

person in many ways. This includes
improved leaming ability, better
problem-solving, stronger
relationships, enhanced creativity, and
improved mental health (Saxena,
2023).

2. Behavioral Techniques 3. Technological techniques

● Avoiding distraction land multitasking) ● Cognitive mobile games
● Healthy sleep cycle Supporting Researches:
● Take frequent breaks Memory-based Strategies to Enhance
● Distributed learning Memory Function by Loprinzi, P., Frith, E., &
Harris, F. (2019)
● Chaining, in which people try to
 remember items sequentially
● Positional Coding, where they
recollect based on location

Cognitive Techniques

Supporting Researches:
● Emotional clustering done by grouping items
that have similar meanings and incorporating the
emotional aspects to help learn information.
● It is an important method where data is
organized based on spatio-temporal context through
clustering.

Color education:
A study on methods of influence on memory by
Diachenko et al. (2022)
● 7 techniques tested on medical students.
● Color coding ranked most effective.
● Red improved memory retention the most.
● Black was the least effective color
● Color-coded materials boost learning significantly

Effects of Visual Communication on Memory Enhancement by Vanichvasin, P. (2020)

● Content of any visual representation of a lesson could be more effective with the right
graphics, colors, animations, videos, and TYPOGRAPHY to grab the attention of the
audience.

Introduction to Psychology, How We Remember: Cues to Improving Memory by Stangor, C., &
Walinga, J. (2019)
● Encoding is a process by which we place the things we experience into memory.
Unless information is encoded, it cannot be remembered.
● One must understand how to associate a piece of information to something
meaningful

Bransford and Johnson ('972 as cited by Schwartz in 2021)

● Group 1: Did not know the title of the text.
● Group 2: Knew the title ("Washing Clothes").
● Both groups had equal study time with the text.

Findings:
● Group 2 (title group) recalled more details than Group 1

Bransford and Johnson ('972 as cited by Schwartz in 2021)

● study demonstrated that knowing the title of a text ("Washing Clothes") significantly
enhanced recall in learners by providing context, illustrating the Principle of Meaning,
which highlights the importance of processing information in relation to existing
knowledge for better memory retention.

Method of Loci Caplan et al. (2019)

 ● A mnemonic strategy that helps memorize lists by placing items in a familiar
environment.

Study Overview:
● Participants trained in three virtual environments: an apartment, an open field, and a
radial-arm maze
● They used these settings to memorize five lists of 11 words each.
● Findings
● Performance varied across environments, but effects were small.
● Navigation skills didn't significantly impact memory success, even for compliant users

Working Memory Training: Assessing the Efficiency of Mnemonic Strategies by Di Santo et al.
(2020)
● a study aims at assessing changes in WM performance by comparing it with and
without training by a professional mnemonist.
● In the morning, both groups were familiarized with stimuli through an N-back task, and
attended a 2-hour lecture.
● The experimental group received a lecture by mnemonist about memory encoding
techniques.
● The control group received a standard academic lecture about memory systems.
● In the afternoon, a five test were administered to both groups.
Findings:
● The trained subjects exposed to mnemonic strategies showed a much better
performance.

Behavioral Techniques (Active Engagement)

● Retrieval Practice
○ Actively recalling information is more effective than passive review
● Distributed Learning
○ Study over time with smaller chunks to enhance long-term retention
● Minimize Distractions
○ Focus solely on one task, such as listening to audio. to boost concentration.
● Integrating Information
○ Connect new concepts to familiar themes or personal experiences
● Use Specific Cues
○ implement reminders and cues to facilitate memory recall and task activation

● Sleep is vital for the ability of the human body to function optimally
● Memory consolidation refers to the changes in memory storage that occur after the
initial acquisition of new information and can include integration, transformation, and
generalization. Paller, K. et al (2020)

Results of the Gais et al. 2006 as cited in Goldstein, 2019) experiment in which memory for
word pairs was tested for two groups.

● The sleep group went to sleep shortly after learning a list of word pairs.
● awake group stayed awake for quite a while after learning the word pairs

Avoiding Distractions (Multitasking)

 ● is doing/attempting to do, at least two things at the same time. Multitasking in the
classroom reduces note-taking and exam performance (Waite et al., 2018 as cited in
Rathus, 2022)
● "Facebook and Texting Made Me Do It" (Rosen et al., 2013 as cited in Rathus, 2022)
● Effects of Texting on learning T. S. Smith, Isaak, Senette, and Abadie (2011, as cited in
Schwartz, 2021)

Technological Techniques
● "Brain Training using Cognitive Apps Can Improve Cognitive Performance and
Processing Speed in Older Adults Bornechère et al (2021)

● Brain training apps improve cognitive function.

● Study involved only healthy older adults.
● improvements due to training, not compensation
● Key cognitive abilities were trained with apps.
● Games improved processing speed and scores
● Older adults benefit from cognitive mobile games

Findings:
● Individuals involved in the training with games improved regardless of age in terms of
scores and processing speed which suggests that old and very old adults can improve
their cognitive performance using Cognitive Mobile Games in real-life use.

(A) Square Numbers (E) Must Sort

(B) Memory Sweep (F) Unique
(C) Word Pair (G) Rush Back
(D) Babble Bots

Conclusion:
● Memory involves encoding, storage and retrieval.
● Formed through changes in bran neurons.
● Techniques like encoding, color-coding, and loci improve memory.
● Apps and mental exercises benefit older adults.
● Sleep, exercise, and routines aid memory retention.
● Effective strategies improve learning and daily life.

IMPROVING ONE'S MEMORY Sharpening the mind: STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING

THE MEMORY

● Memory is a crucial element of the FOUR TYPES OF LEARNERS

human mind that enables individuals ● VARK model, developed by Neil
to recall memories, knowledge, Fleming
experiences, and skills.
● Various strategies, such as the Methods of processing and acquiring
Feynman Technique, diets and information
lifestyles gamification, supplements ● Visual
and other methods, can assist in ● Auditory
Improving memory retention. ● Reading/Welling
 ● Kinesthetic

V-A-R-K
VISUAL
● This includes the depiction Information in maps, diagrams, charts, graphs, the shade,
that people use to represent what could have been presented in words.

AUDITORY
● The aural mode describes a preference for information that is “heard or spoken”
● Learners with this primary preference indicate that they learn most effectively through
lectures, group discussions, radio, email, and conversations.

READING/WRITING
● Learners absorb information most effectively when its presented in written form.
● They tend to create lists, read definitions, and summarize information in ways that suit
their understanding

KINESTHETIC
● Individuals learn best through physical interaction and hands on activities
● Learners benefit from movement and shorter focused study lessons.

GAMIFICATION
● The development of gamification brings memorable Improvement because it
intermixes the gaming elements with a learner's personality and emotions. It
incorporates or engages learners with the help of points, badges, and leaderboards to
make them competitive, motivated, and even more actively involved. Smiderle, R.,
Rigo, et al (2020)
● The gamification factors used in Feeper were considered for the purpose of
determining whether it has an effect on the engagement and performance of the
students. This study hoped to discern how these features were motivating the students
and Improving their learning process.
● The use of gamification seemed to have a positive effect in shaping the learning
environment and the engagement of students, particularly certain types of students.
"Competition with others, 67.7% preferred, was also dominant with only 9.7%
mentioned preference over competition with standard. Nonetheless, the tendency for
their choice of competition is strongly biased toward other people's competition." The
engagement was marked through scores in the Gamification Experience.

HERE'S HOW IT WORKS:

● Pick up a topic that you wanted to learn about.
● Explain its concept as if you are teaching someone else, especially in terms you
understand and easily.
● Note the areas where your explanation is unclear or where you struggle with
● Go back to your study materials, fill in those gaps, and simplifyy your explanation
further.
● Teach again, refining your understanding each time.

FEYNMAN TECHNIQUE
● Developed by physicist Richard Feynman
● The Feynman Technique is a mental model learning strategy breaks concepts forms.
 and that down complex into simpler

SUPPLEMENTS
● Supplements targeting memory enhancers quickly emerged in the marketplace for
Improving cognitive performance. This has become an Important public health issue.
● Commonly used by students, older adults, athletes and individuals with cognitive
disorders.
● Many reports have indicated such labels are not always truthful. The content of some
products is inconsistent with the ingredients listed on the supplement facts label.
● More research should be conducted on supplements to prove their reliability and
effectiveness.

● Ashwagandha
● Bacopa Monniera
● Gingko Biloba
● Omega 3

Ashwagandha Bacopa Monnieri / Monniera

● Components of Ashwagandha can ● Also known as Brahmi
improve cognitive function in animals ● Studies showed some positive effects
and humans by reducing B-amyloid of Bacopa monnieri on cognition, but
levels and inflammation. the overall evidence quality was rated
very low due to biases and small
● Withanolide A, a key ingredient, can sample sizes
cross the blood-brain barrier.
enhancing orain heaith and potentially
mit garing the effects of Alzhe mer's
and Parkinson's, indicating its promise
as neuroprotective treatment for
neurodegenerative diseases.

Gingko Biloba Omega 3

● According to a study, 201 elderly ● The supplementation with
patients were included in the study: polyunsaturated fats (PUFA), which is
100 received an active treatment with the key ingredient in omega-3
a Ginkgo biloba extract, and 101 supplemen's, significantly increases
received a reference treatment. The serum levels of orain-derived
group taking Ginkgo biloba Improved neurotrophic factor (BDNF) compared
their cognitive scores by 2.92 ponts, to a placebo.
while the other group improved by
only 1.33 points as measured by the
Montreal Cognitive Assessment. This
difference was statistically significant
at 1.59 points, showing that taking the
Ginkgo Biloba supplement helps with
cognition compared to the reference
treatment.

DIETS AND LIFESTYLE

 ● Fruit and vegetable consumption are one of the protective factors against deterioration
in memory and attention.
● Different forms of fruit consumption, such as juice. powder. or capsules. can positively
impact memory and attention, particularly with longer durations of intake.
● Individuals can improve their memory and cognitive health throughout their lifetimes by
adopting a healthier lifestyle that includes a balanced diet, regular exercise,
appropriate sleep, stress management, social interaction, cognitive stimulation, and
responsible substance use.
● Scaffolding Theory of Aging and Cognition (STAC) suggests that dietary intake of fruits
and vegetables can serve as cognitive scaffolds, potentially mitigating the effects of
aging on cognitive function.
● Most studies showed significant improvements in attention and memory over time.
Some showed significant improvements in short-term and long-term memory, while
others did not. The duration of supplementation appeared to influence outcomes with
longer interventions generally yielding better results in memory recall.

SYNTHESIS
● The integration of diverse learning models, gamification, dietary supplements, and
healthy lifestyle choices creates a comprehensive approach to improving cognitive
performance and educational experiences, ultimately promoting lifelong learning and
cognitive health.

Strategies in Improving Memory

Memory Active Recall

● fundamental cognitive process ● flips the original way of learning (on its
● allows everyone to store and head)
remember information ● creating questions based on that
● develops new abilities and navigates topic, then repeatedly testing yourself
their daily lives on those questions (Owen, 2022)
● From a study examining the impact of
Various Strategies: mobile learning apps on educational
● Active Recall motivation in nursing students
● Pomodoro ● there is a significant correlation
● Music between intrinsic motivation and
● Physical Activity improvement in test scores, following
● Repetition the use of the application (Xu et al.,
● Mnemonics 2024).
● Cocoa
● Mindfulness
● Flavonoids
● Meditation
 Cons:
1) Lots of Effort
2) Time consuming

Repetition
● repeating something that has already been said/written
● cognitive process
● relating with information/activities several times to increase learning and retention

Spaced Recall
● a learning strategy
● reviews information at gradually longer intervals instead of trying to learn everything in
one sitting.

Mass Recall
● aka "massed practice", a learning method
● studying/practicing information intensively over a brief period, without any breaks.

Advantage
● aims for immediate recall of information (ex: before an exam)
Disadvantages
● can overwhelm learners, making it harder to absorb and retain information.

How does Repetition improve our Memory?

● helps embed information in our long-term memory.
● better recall information when we need it.
● simply saying or thinking something over and over again is not enough.

Proof that Repetition is effective in improving Memory

● Repetition enhances the effects of activated long-term memory. Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology by Plater, L, Nyman, S., Joubran, S., & Al-Aidroos
● Repetition strengthens neural connections, aiding recall. A study by Plater et al, shows
that it enhances visual long- term memory (vLTM) through a state called activated
LTM, which is not yet well understood.

Study Techniques
● methods that boost and support a student's ability to study, retain, and recall
information

Pomodoro Technique Mnemonics

● Developed by Francesco Cirillo by just ● ancient Greek word: "mnēmonikos",
using a kitchen timer to track time meaning "of memory" or "relating to
● Tracks time and academic progress memory"
on a student during the learning ● association between new information
process and previous knowledge
● dedicates 25 minutes of time focusing
on the task and 5 minutes for the 5 Common types of Mnemonics
break ● Acronyms and Acrostics
● gives the individual time to rest while ● Method of Loci
in the process of studying at the same ● Songs and Rhymes
 time, giving time to reorganize the ● Chunking
students' thoughts ● Association

1. Foreign Languages 2. Science Concepts

2 Categories of Vocabulary Memorization: ● Featured Study: "Impact of a

● Shallow-encoding personable, Mnemonic Strategy on Learning
spelling/phonological features, needs Science Concepts for Middle School
creative thinking skills. Students With Specific Learning
● Deep-encoding semantic meaning, Disabilities" by Araci, Melekoglu, and
found in traditional classrooms, often Cetin
occurs without explicit instruction. ● Through Anadolu-Sak Intelligence
● Featured Study: "The Effectiveness of Scale (ASIS) and Pre-test & Post-test,
Mnemonic Devices for ESL there is an increase in scores in the
Vocabulary Retention" by Aryn Hill experimental group.
● Through Pre-test and Post-test, 1 ● In the Follow-up test, students
participant's score increased by 60% maintained their performance.
after treatment.
● No downward trends = No negative After the arrangements, the science concept
effect on vocabulary retention. keywords in Turkish were clarified (globe-oar
(küre-kürek), continens-weft kota-atha),
occas-dolphin (kyan-yumas),
substance-street [madde-cadde), ga-sods
gas-gane), wate thrower lank-atici,force-tub
kurwt-küvet pulling force-drawer çekme kure-
çekmec, planet-traveler graegen-gurgin) and
san-fire [gusey-atry). The visuals uned for
each sciencz consept were perparel by a
designet. Figuer I shows a sampir image
prepared for the scenor concept "planet," and
in Figuse 2. a sample image is prepared for
the science concept of ocean.

Music
● art form, combines sounds and rhythms to create a structured auditory experience
● often involves elements such as melody, harmony, and dynamics
● serves various purposes, including entertainment, expression, and communication.
● activates multiple areas of the brain, promoting neuroplasticity and potentially
improving cognitive function.
● techniques (using songs or rhythms to memorize information) further illustrate how
music can serve as a mnemonic device, aiding in both short-term and long-term
memory retention.

"Mozart Effect"
● One of the most prominent studies on music and memory.
● A foundational example, demonstrating that brief exposure to classical music can
● temporarily boost cognitive performance.
● Can lead to short-term improvements in spatial-temporal reasoning.
 ● Pohekar et al. (2020) suggests some students performed better with music.
● Goltz and Sadakata (2021) suggests music enhances one's focus and motivation in
studying and how genres can impact one's cognitive function.
● Hallam et al. (2002) found that students studying with background music exhibited
improved recall of learned material compared to those in silence.

● serves not only as a catalyst for improved recall but also as a multifaceted tool that
enhances the learning experience through emotional engagement and environmental
enrichment.

Cocoa Flavonoids

What are Flavonoids?

● A plant-based polyphenol that improves brain function, enhances memory, and protect
against cognitive decline by promoting neuroplasticity and reducing
neuroinflammation.

Cocoa is rich in flavonoids, a specific subclass of flavonoids. The primary flavonoids in cocoa
include:

Main Flavonoids in Cocoa

● Epicatechin
● Catechin
● Procyanidins (polymers of catechin and epicatechin)

These flavonoids are responsible for many of the health benefits associated with cocoa and
dark chocolate.

Do All Chocolate Contain Flavonols?

● Dark chocolate and natural cocoa powder have the highest concentrations of
flavonols.
● Milk chocolate and highly processed cocoa products contain much lower amounts
because processing methods (e.g., alkalization or "Dutch processing") can degrade
flavonols.

Benefits of cocoa flavonoids in cognitive enhancement:

● Enhances Short-term Memory Recall
● Promotes Nerve Growth Factors
● Improves Mental Clarity and Focus
● Boosts Cognitive Performance through Neurovascular Coupling
● Mitigates Age-related Cognitive Decline • Supports Both Students and Aging Adults.
● Enhances Memory, Focus, and Cognitive Endurance

Physical and Mental Engagement in Improving Memory

● methods that can help in improving memoгу.

● being physically and mentally healthy = ability to think and remember things much
 clearer
● improves parts of the brain that control thinking and memory, and reduces stress level
that helps in improving memory functionality.

Focus:
● Physical Activities (e.g., walking, jogging) increase brain blood flow.
● Mindfulness Meditation calms the mind and reduces stress.
● a wide range of bodily movements that require physical effort and are performed to
improve health, well-being, or develop physical and mental skills.

Physical Activity
Impact of Stair Climbing on Short-Term Memory (Adly S.K. et al., 2020)
Participants: 40 male medical students (age 18-22) from Diponegoro University.
Method:
● Exercise Group (EG): Engaged in stair climbing 3x per week for 6 weeks.
● Control Group (CG): No structured exercise.
● Assessment: Short-term memory tested with Scenery Picture Memory Test (SPMT)
before and after intervention.

Results:
● Both groups showed improvements, but the EG had significantly better outcomes.
● Improvement attributed to increased Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), which
supports brain adaptability.

The Role of Aerobic Exercise in Learning and Memory (Blomstrand & Engvall, 2021)
● Review of 13 studies on exercise's impact on cognitive function in young adults (age
18-35).
● Focus on aerobic exercises like walking, running, and cycling.

Key Findings:
● Exercising before learning activities enhances learning and memory.
● Effective sessions range from a few minutes to an hour at moderate to high intensity.

Cognitive benefits linked to.

1. Elevated levels of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF).
2. Dopamine regulation, affecting attention and motivation.

Mindfulness Meditation
● mental training practice that teaches you to slow down racing thoughts, let go of
negativity, and calm both your mind and body.
● Known for its stress reduction capabilities, could indirectly boost memory by reducing
cortisol levels.
● a lower stress environment enables the hippocampus to operate more effectively
enhancing memory and learning.
● Today, mindfulness meditation has been integrated into effective
● modern clinical programs (Khoury et al., 2013) such as Mindfulness-Based Stress
Reduction (MBSR; Santorelli, 2014) and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy
(MBCT; Segal et al., 2013).
Research about Mindfulness Meditation:
"Mindfulness Meditation Improves Visual Short-Term Memory" (Youngs et al 2020)
● Aim: Investigated the effect of a single, 8-minute mindfulness meditation intervention,
presented via audio recording, on a short-term memory task for faces.
● Participants: 90 undergraduate students (2 Control Groups and 1Experimental Group)
● Results: Overall results from pre-to-post intervention demonstrated a significant
improvement in visual STM for the MM (Mindfulness Meditation) group.

Other research: "Mindfulness induction and cognition: A systematic review and meta-
analysis" (Gill et al 2020)
● Research from Gill et al (2020) and Youngs at el (2020) which had positive results on
the effect of mindfulness meditation on improving memory/cognitive function, shows
that this kind of mental engagement does have a huge potential to be a strategy in
order to improve someone's memorу.

Conclusion
● Improving memory is crucial in today's fast-paced world, where information overload
can hinder learning and productivity. By integrating these diverse strategies,
individuals can significantly improve their memory and overall cognitive performance,
which tailors their approach to their unique preferences and needs.

1. Which level of processing focuses on the visual features of an object?

a. procedural processing
b. physical processing
c. semantic processing
d. phonological processing

2. During a memory test, the facilitator showed a series of pictures. Later, they presented with a new set of
pictures and must identify which ones has seen before. What type of memory task is this?

a.Cued recall
b.Recognition task
c.Implicit memory task
d.Free recall

3. Answering the question "Who is our national hero?" is an example of using what type of memory?
a.Implicit memory
b.Explicit memory
c.Tacit Memory
d.Factual memory

4. What are the three (3) operations of memory?

a.encoding, storage, retention
b.retrieval, storage, encoding
c.retrieval, processing, encoding
d.encoding, processing, retrieval

5. Match each scenario with the appropriate type of memory task.

After watching a short clip about synesthesia, the class was asked to write an essay about everything they can
remember from the video without any prompts. → Free Recall

After learning a set of paired words (like "ice cream" and "yummy"), John is given the word "ice cream" and asked
to recall what it was paired with. → Cued Recall
Alice memorizes a list of five random words: farm, honor, ruby, study, and major. Later, she is asked to write them
down in the exact order they were presented. →Serial Recall

6. During the class, I asked everyone to remember a list of 10 random words. After a few minutes, I asked to
recite as many words as you can remember without any prompts. What type of memory task is this?
a.Recognition task
b.Cued recall
c.Free recall
d. Serial recall

7. What are the five elements comprising the working memory?

a.episodic buffer, visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, subsidiary slave systems, central processor
b.phonological loop, central executive, episodic buffer, visual sketchpad, subsidiary slave systems
c.visuospatial sketchpad, central executive, auxiliary slave systems, episodic buffer, phonological loop
d.phonological loop, central executive, episodic buffer, visuospatial sketchpad, subsidiary slave systems

8. Asking the question, 'What is hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia?' is an example of requiring which

level of processing?
a.phonological processing
b.procedural processing
c.physical processing
d.semantic processing

9. All are true EXCEPT:

a. Working memory model is potentially the most widely used and accepted model today.
b. Short-term memory holds only the most recently activated, or conscious, portion of long-term memory,
and it moves these activated elements into and out of brief, temporary memory storage.
c. Working memory is involved with the manipulation of information.
d. Short-term store is capable of storing information for somewhat longer period but of relatively limited capacity as
well.

10. When you hear a word and focus on its sound rather than its meaning, you are engaging in which type of
processing?
a. semantic processing
b.procedural processing
c.physical processing
d.phonological processing

11. All are included in Multistore model EXCEPT:

working memory store

iconic store
long-term store
permastore
sensory store
semantic store
short-term store

12. This is an example of?

a.Word-completion tasks
b.All of the above
c.Procedural Memory
d.Priming task