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TOPIC ONE

Term Tender

Term tendering normally used on major maintenance projects. It may be

awarded to a contractor to cover a range of different buildings in
different locations. It is often limited to a fixed time scale, although the
needs of the client may often require this to be extended. It is like a
standing offer to undertake a loosely defined extends of work usually
within a fixed time period. The type of work is usually specified and
priced in a schedule of rates. The contractor will initially be offered the
work to cover a number of different trades usually on the basis of prices
contained in a schedule prepared by the client. Where the client supplies
the rates for the work, the contractors are given the option of quoting a
percentage addition or deduction from these rates depending upon their
desire to win the project. The contractor offering the most advantageous
percentage to the client will then be awarded the contract. An indication
of the amount of work expected over the specified period of time will
assist the contractors in the consideration of the percentage to be
quoted.

A tender can be said as an offer to do work or supply goods at a fixed

price. Initiating step of a tendering process in which qualified contractors
are invited to submit sealed bids for construction or for supply of specific
and clearly defined goods or services during a specified timeframe. The
tender process is designed to ensure that the work to be done for
client/government is given out in a fair way. For example in Malaysia,
there are a number of policies known as procurement policies which
guide government of Malaysia on how to make decisions on which tender
to accept. Although price is very important in the decision on which
tender or bid to accept, it is not the only factor taken into account.

Once client/government accepts a tender, it is binding on both parties.

This means that the person or company that won the tender has to
provide the goods or services in the manner agreed to and at the price
offered, and client/government must pay the agreed price at the agreed
time. In other words, once accepted, a tender is a binding contract.

Main steps in the tender process

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Each year, federal, state and local governments invite the private sector to submit
competitive bids for the supply of goods and services. Government tender requests
attract small, medium and large businesses across a wide range of sectors - from
office supplies to major construction projects.

Tender processes in the government sector share many common elements. What
follows is an overview of the main steps you should take to prepare a competitive
tender.

Register your interest

Follow the instructions in the tender document to register your interest with the
purchasing agency. This important step will help keep you up to date on any tender
information sessions.

Attend tender information sessions

If you registered through a tender website, monitor the website for updates about
the tender.

Attend any tender information sessions offered. These are valuable opportunities to
ask questions and make contact with the agency. They may also give you a chance
to meet potential subcontractors or make contacts that could participate in a
consortium. Government agencies are also usually under no obligation to otherwise
make available copies of information, presentations, etc., that may be given at an
information session.

Develop your tender response strategy

If you are bidding for a high-value tender, plan your tender carefully and consider
the requirements and resources involved. For example, ask yourself:

 How much will it cost to prepare the tender?

 What information do we need to gather?
 What resources will we need to fulfil the contract?
 Who will manage the tender project?
 How will we plan the workload, assign the work required, schedule the
meetings?
 Who is our competition and what are our chances of winning?

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 What is our plan for marketing our products and services and pitching our
business?

Read more about analysing tender requests.

Review recent awarded contracts

If you are unclear about any requirements in the tender request, contact the tender
coordinator to seek clarification. Also, review previously awarded contracts using
the Queensland Contracts Directory. The details of recent government contracts
over $10,000 that have been awarded are listed on tender websites.

Research your buyer. What type of companies won similar tenders in the past?
What does the contracting agency look for? What can you do to match their
expectations?

Write a compelling bid

Prepare your tender proposal. This includes planning, drafting and refining it.

Make sure that you use the response forms provided and answer all questions.
Stick to any word/page limits that there may be, and (as a general rule) do not go
altering things like fonts and font sizes and numbering unless expressly permitted.

Be clear about your structure and propositions. Decide on several key propositions
you can use to set your tender apart from others. Review the evaluation criteria to
gain a better understanding of what things the government agency is particularly
looking for and will be evaluating your offer against. If you are not a strong writer,
think about engaging a professional (a range of businesses offer tender writing
services).

Understand the payment terms

When putting together your tender, make sure you are aware of the payment
schedule specified. Government payment schedules will vary from agency to
agency and procurement to procurement.

You may not get paid as soon as the job is finished or goods are delivered. If you
require payment different to that specified, you should detail this in your offer.

Find referees

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Find referees who know your business and can attest to your work.

Give your referees clear information about the tender request so they know what
points to emphasise in their reference. If you have previously supplied goods or
services to a government agency, ask them for a reference.

Check and submit your bid

Make sure you check your proposal carefully before submitting it. Use a checklist to
make sure your bid meets all the requirements (some tenders will include a
checklist that you can also use).

Present your bid

Tender panels responsible for high-value contracts may request a formal
presentation from bidders. If you need to present your offer to an evaluation panel,
stay focused on the key messages in your proposal. Most importantly, prepare.
Plan your presentation carefully, rehearse and, if you don't feel you're a strong
presenter, get some coaching in presentation skills.

Request a debriefing
You should always request a debriefing on the tender after the process, especially if
your bid is unsuccessful. Feedback from the evaluation panel can be extremely
useful in understanding how your offering can be improved and can assist you in
preparing for your next tender. Look for ways to improve your next bid.

Note: Debriefing sessions are not an opportunity to raise complaints; use the
established complaints process instead. You should also not discuss any other
supplier's offer.

Address concerns and complaints

If you have concerns or complaints about a tender process, follow the steps below:

1. Gather evidence to support your concerns.

2. Contact the agency concerned and communicate your issues reasonably and
professionally.
3. If you are a tenderer concerned about an offer you made, please use the
tender complaints process of the relevant agency.

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4. If your concerns haven't been addressed, you can submit a complaint to the
government's Queensland Procurement Policy Compliance Unit (QPP
Compliance Unit). The QPP Compliance Unit can also refer your complaint to
the relevant procuring agency on your behalf. The unit can assist with a range
of concerns you may have about
o supplier or agency behaviour
o agency decisions (e.g. not buying local)
o non-compliance of the Queensland Procurement Policy and our Buy
Queensland approach
5. Email QPPCompliance@hpw.qld.gov.au or call 1300 105 030 between
8.30am and 5pm Monday to Friday.

Types of tendering

When talk about tendering, it is involved some kind of complicated

process and procedure. Before any tendering process can be done,
professional team and employer must make sure all necessary tender
documents have been prepared, checked and approved. The source of
the funding also must have been identified and the project financing put
in place. The procedures for subsequent stages should have been
established with the express consent of the employer to ensure the
tendering process will go smoothly.

What types of tendering that employer want to choose is depends on

nature of contract, complexity of the construction, expertise needed and
several reasons. But usually for the government project all over the
world, is tend to make open tender to ensure the procurement and works
to be done in fairly manner without prejudice. As the researcher mention
before, open tender is one of the types of tendering that commonly used
in this world. Actually there are several types of tender including; open
tender, selective tender, negotiated tender, serial tender and term
tendering.

1. Open tender

Open tendering is the main tendering procedures employed by both the

government and private sector. The client advertises the tender offer in
the local newspaper giving detail and key information of the proposed
works and inviting interested contractor to tender. In the legal sense

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such tender notices constitute invitation to treat, a mere request by the

employer for suitable contractor to submit their bids or offers.

If the pre-requisite to tendering on the form of possession of the

necessary registration has been identified in the tender notice, then the
advertisement is directed to only that particular class of the public
having the said qualifications. In order to reduce number of enquiries,
earnest money is deposited (for private project). Until the receipt of a
bone fide tender selected then it will be returned. Although price is very
important in the decision on which tender or bid to accept, it is not the
only factor taken into account. Client does not bind to accept the lowest
or any offer. The advantages and disadvantages of open tender are
stated below:

Advantages

Disadvantages

 It allows any interested contractor to tender. Therefore it gives

opportunity for an unknown contractor to compete for the work.

 The tender list can be long as too many contractors tendering for
one job.

 Allowing the tender list to be made without bias. Client will obtain
the bargain possible. No favoritisms in selecting contractors.

 Uneconomic use of source.

 Ensuring good competition not obliged to accept any offers.

 Public accountability may be questioned if the lowest offer is not

accepted.

 Traditional method of tendering, familiar to all sector of the

engineering and construction industry.

 Does not attract reputable and established contractor unless they

are forced to, due to lack of work.

2. Selective tender

Selective tendering is the one alternatives developed to address the

limitations of the open tendering procedure. In this method, a short list of
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contractor is drawn up and they are invited to submit tenders. The

purpose of the selective tendering are to improve the quality of the bids
received, to ensure that contractors with the necessary experience and
competence are given the opportunity to submit the necessary bids, due
to urgency work involved, for specific reasons of the employer, eg
security reasons in government projects. etc. and to make the tendering
procedure more manageable and less a burden on the parties involved.
Such list may be prepared through recommendation from the Client’s
professional adviser whom have knowledge of the Contractors
undertaking the work in the past or advertisement through the
newspaper (prequalification). The advantages and disadvantages of the
selective tendering are stated below.

Advantages

Disadvantages

 Only the competent contactors were invited to tender, then the

lowest can be accepted.

 Reduces the availability of work for other contractor’s especially

new contractors.

 It reduced the cost of tendering (economic use of resources,

reduced tender documentation, shorter tender periods, better
management of the tender process, etc.)

 Tender Price may invariably higher than would have been in open
tendering.

 Greater chance of collusion.

 Tendering period longer because it involved two distinct stages.

 Favoritisms may occur in the short listing.

Two Stage Selective Tender

Two stage selective tendering combined elements of competition and

negotiation into a formula where the employer could utilize the
contractor’s expertise at an early stage of the project cycle so as to
maximize innovation, ingenuity and quality and simultaneously optimize
cost, time and resource input. A contractor is selected competitively

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early in the design process. The tender documents contain

approximately quantities of the major value items. As design and
planning proceed, the final tender is developed from cost and priced data
supplied with the initial tender. Two stage selective tendering was very
popular in developed countries. It was different from selective tendering
because has two (2) distinct stages namely:

Selection of suitable contractor

This involves the selection of a suitable contractor and the establishment

of a level of pricing for subsequent negotiations.

The objective is to select suitable contractor as early as possible is to

work together with the professional team and to establish a level of
pricing for subsequent negotiation.

The criteria for short listing are normally confined to items such as
technical and financial capability, experience in similar works and extent
of resources (manpower, plant and equipment).

The pricing document should be flexible enough to cater for adjustment

of price fluctuation for the period between two stages and the pricing of
the second stage.

In selecting a suitable candidate, a basis for pricing the subsequent

second stage should be established accordingly.

Determination of Contract Price

Once a suitable contractor is selected, he will work together with the

project team start contributing to the pre contract process in his capacity
as unbiased but independent construction expert. This contractor will
contribute the following:

Contribution as a Technical Advisor to the Design Process

Practical Skills and Build ability

Minimization of Project Delay

During this stage, a negotiation to reach an agreement on the final

contract price is undertaken and the pre contract process is perfected.

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If no agreement being reached, the employer has an option to abandon

the tendering exercise and re-tender the works using any other
tendering procedure.

The application of two stage selective tendering might be appropriate

where the works are a very complicated nature, where at the time of
selection of the contractor, the magnitude of the work may not be known
with sufficient certainty and where it is an essential pre-requisite for
works to be finished by an early completion date. Table below are some
advantages and disadvantage of two stages selective tendering.

Advantages

Disadvantages

 Benefit of the contractor’s expertise in build ability, specialist

knowledge in proprietary systems, project scheduling, etc resulting
in value for money.

 Its application requires a high level of familiarity and commitment

on the part of employers and contractors.

 Early commencement of work at site even when the magnitude of

the works is not known with sufficient certainty at the time of site
possession.

 Owing to a relatively smaller element of competition, but on the

other hand higher negotiations content, the tender process is
relatively more expensive and longer than other common
procedures.

 Savings of time due to the overlap of the design and tendering

stage.

 Should the second stage be deadlocked or result in no acceptable

agreement being reached, the tender process has to be initiated all
over again, albeit, through a different route. This incurs a time and
cost penalty to the project as a whole.

 The procedure utilizes the best aspects of both competition and

negotiation to arrive at the most favorable arrangement at an
optimum firm price before work commences.

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 This procedures requires a high level of commitment, integrity and

good faith on the part of both sides which sadly is usually lacking,
hence the apparent failures encountered to date.

 Since the contractor is part of the project team at a very stage of

the project, this results in better communication and information
flow.

 Generally there will be fewer claims and disputes in the post

contract award stage due to the contractor’s involvement at the
design / pre contract stage. Experience has shows that the
contractor has a clearer understanding of the requirements and a
better appreciation of the intricacies of the design and contract
documentations.

3. Negotiation Tender

Negotiation tendering is extensively used in the engineering and

construction industry commencing from tendering till dispute resolutions,
i.e. under the styles of pre-contract negotiations and post contract
negotiations. Usually with single contractor but may be up to three
contractors.

Negotiation process involves are as follows:

Identification by the employer of a suitable contractor to negotiate with.

The contractor can be selected either from the employer’s own list of
preferences or on the advice of the professional team.

The contractor being apprised of the work scope.

The selected contractor is issued with details such as the scope of work
involved, relevant drawings, design and /or information to enable him to
appreciate the extents of obligations and the employer’s actual needs.
Some employers prepare and issue to the contractor proper tender
documents inclusive of a nominated bills of quantities to assist contractor
in pricing the works for the forthcoming negotiations. Negotiations can
be applied to the following type of contract:

In partnering type of contracts under the so called win-win formula.

Where the employer has a long term business relationship with the
contractor.

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In situations where the parties are in a relationships of holding and

subsidiary companies.

Where the contractor is involved in the financing of the project.

In situations where the employer finds it advantages to employ the same

contractor to continue an initial or existing contract for the new works

Where there is a pressing need to have a very early start of work on the
site and to complete the works on a fast tract basis.

In special circumstances e.g. Security reasons, emergencies etc where it

is expedient to secure the services of a particular contractor only.

Where there is only a single contractor who is the only one available or
with ether the special skill or resources to carry out the particular works.

The employer’s resources are either limited or constrained thereby

making the use of the other tendering impractical.

Advantages

Disadvantages

 Only reputable contractor are invited for negotiation.

 The cost work is likely higher than competitive tender.

 The Contractor can contribute his expertise during design stage.

 Reduces the availability of work for other contractors.

 Early Commencement of work on site. It shortens the period

involved in appointing the contractor.

 Should the negotiations be deadlock or prove eventually

unsuccessful, this causes wastage of valuable resources on both
sides and loss of time for the employer, thereby delaying the overall
selection of suitable contractor.

 Reduce risk of failure

 Best alternatives for the employer to adopt are special

circumstances such as emergencies, security reasons and etc.

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 Experience has shows that contracts let out this basis result in
fewer disputes and claims during the construction stage.

6. Conventional Tendering Process

As the researcher mentioned before, this chapter will focus on

conventional tender while the next chapter will focus on electronic
tendering. Therefore readers will see clearly background on conventional
tendering and electronic tendering. Conventional tendering process will
involve pre-tender stage, tender advertisement stage, closing of tender,
tender opening process, tender evaluation process and finally tender
award.

(i)Pre-tender Stage

At pre-tender stage, when the clients have an idea, client will appoint
consultant to discuss further about the project. Consultant will do their
job, advising, managing the tender and contract, and also transfer the
idea into the drawing. At this stage client and consultants will
brainstorming about the scope, time to complete and budget that client
willing to allocate. Researcher believes that pre-tender stage is most
crucial matter because it will initiate the next step of a project. If the pre-
tender stage is failed, the project will not successfully complete.

(ii) Tender Advertisement

Tender advertisement also called tender notice. The conventional tender

notice will advertise in local newspaper. In tender notice, basic
requirement should be appearing are:

 Title of the project.

 Class of contractor, head and subhead needed.

 Location, date, and time to obtain the tender document.

 Fees for tender document.

 Location, date and time for submission of tender doc.

(iii) Closing of Tender

In tender notice will mention the time and date of tender closing process.
If the contractors fail to submit their bids within specific time and date, it

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considers the contractors refuse to bid for the tender. At that time also
tender validity period is started. At this period, contractors can withdraw
back their bids if they are no more interested to fight for the tender.
Consultant use this period to make assessment and evaluation each of
the offers.

(iv) Tender Opening and Evaluation Process

Quantity surveyors usually will handle tender opening process. In order

to preserve the integrity of the competitive process, it is imperative that
the evaluation of proposals is undertaken objectively, consistently and
without bias towards particular suppliers. Tenders are usually evaluated
against a pre-determined set of criteria. The evaluation of the tenders
shall be prepared the soonest possible after the tender opening. A report
prepared by the Quantity Surveyor will describe the findings of the said
evaluation and it will be supported by tables and graphs. In the end, the
Quantity Surveyor will recommend which tendered, who in his opinion, is
the most suitable to undertake to execute the project.

(v) Tender Award

An evaluation team will examine each tender received and make

recommendations as to which tender represents best value for money.
Once the contract has been awarded, both the successful and
unsuccessful tenderness will be notified. Once the final decision has been
made on the tender award, the tender administrator creates the tender
results notification which is in letter form, and then sent to all
participating contractors.

TOPIC TWO

ESTIMATING PROJECT

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1 ESTIMATION

Estimation is the scientific way of working out the approximate cost

of an engineering project before execution of the work.

It is totally different from calculation of the exact cost after completion of the
project.

Estimation requires a thorough Knowledge of the construction procedures and

cost ofmaterials & labour in addition to the skill , experience, foresight and
good judgment.

2 ESTIMATE

An estimate of the cost of a construction job is the probable cost of

that job as computed from plans and specifications.

 For a good estimate the, actual cost of the proposed work after
completion should not differ by more then 5 to 10 % from its
approximate cost estimate, provided there are no unusual,
unforeseen circumstances.

3 NEED FOR ESTIMATE

1. It help to work out the approximate cost of the project in order to decide its
feasibility with respect to the cost and to ensure the financial resources, it the
proposal is approved.

2. Requirements of controlled materials, such as cement and steel

can be estimated for making applications to the controlling
authorities.

3. It is used for framing the tenders for the works and to check
contractor’s work during and after the its execution for the purpose of
making payments to the contractor.

4. From quantities of different items of work calculated in detailed

estimation, resources are allocated to different activities of the
project and ultimately their durations and whole planning and
scheduling of the project is carried out.

4 SITE CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE OVERALL COST

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1 = Each type of work requires a different method of construction.

Construction may be of an ordinary house or office and it may also be of
a Dam, Tunnel, Multistory building, Airport, Bridge, or a Road, already in
operation. Each of these works requires totally different construction
techniques, type of machinery, and formwork.

2 = Quality of labour and labour output varies in different localities.

3 = Weather conditions greatly affect the output and, hence, the overall cost.

4. Ground conditions vary and change the method of construction.

For example, excavation may be dry, wet, hard, soft, shallow or deep
requiring different efforts.

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5. The work may be in open ground such as fields or it may be in

congested areas such as near or on the public roads, necessitating
extensive watching, lightening, and controlling efforts, etc.

6.The source of availability of a sufficient supply of materials of good quality is also

a factor.

7.The availability of construction machinery also affects the method of construction.

8. Access to the site must be reasonable. If the access is poor,

temporary roads may be constructed.

ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF A GOOD ESTIMATOR

• In preparing an estimate, the Estimator must have good

knowledge regarding the important rules of quantity surveying.

• He must thoroughly understand the drawings of the structure, for

which he is going to prepare an estimate.

• He must also be clearly informed about the specifications showing

nature and classes of works and the materials to be used because the
rates at which various types of works can be executed depend upon
its specifications.

A good estimator of construction costs should possess the following capabilities,

also:-

1 = A knowledge of the details of construction work.

2 = Experience in construction work.

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3 = Having information regarding the materials required, machinery

needed, overhead problems, and costs of all kinds.

4 = Good judgment with regard to different localities, different jobs and different
workmen.

5 = Selection of a good method for preparing an estimate.

6 = Ability to be careful, thorough, hard working and accurate.

7 = Ability to collect, classify and evaluate data relating to estimation.

8 = Ability to visualize all the steps during the process of construction.

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Before preparing the estimate, the estimator should visit the site and
make a study of conditions, there. For example, if the construction of
a large building is planned, the estimator or his representative should
visit the site and:

• Note the location of the proposed building.

• Get all data available regarding the soil.

• Make a sketch of the site showing all important details.

• Obtain information concerning light, power, and water.

• Secure information concerning banking facilities.

• Note conditions of streets leading to railway yards and to material dealers, and

• Investigate general efficiency of local workman.

10 TYPES OF ESTIMATES

 There are two main types of

estimates:-1 = Rough cost
estimate.
2 = Detailed estimate.

 Depending upon the purpose of estimate, some types of detailed

estimate are as follows:-a) Contractor's estimate
b) Engineer's
estimate c)
Progress
estimate

11 I = Rough cost estimate

• Estimation of cost before construction from plans or architectural

drawings of the project scheme, when even detailed or structural
design has not been carried out, is called Rough cost estimate.

• These estimates are used for obtaining Administrative Approval

from the concerning Authorities.

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• Sometimes, on the basis of rough cost estimates, a proposal may be dropped

altogether.

12 Rough cost estimate (-ctd-)

• Unit cost is worked out for projects similar to the project under
consideration carried out recently in nearly the same site conditions.

• Unit cost means cost of execution of a unit quantity of the work.

13 Rough cost estimate (-ctd-)

• To find rough cost of any project, this worked average unit cost is
multiplied with total quantity of the present work in the same units.

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• For example, in case of a building, plinth area (sq. ft.) of the proposed
building is worked out, which is then multiplied by the cost per unit
area (Rs. /ft2) of similar building actually constructed in the near past
in nearly the same site conditions, to find out the rough cost estimate
of the building.

• This cost is sometimes adjusted by the average percentage rise in the

cost of materials and wages.

14 Rough cost estimate

 The rough cost estimate may be prepared on the following basis for
different types of projects:

Cost per square foot of covered area (plinth area) is the most
1. commonly adopted

criterion for preparing rough cost estimate for most of the residential
buildings.

For public buildings, cost. Per person (cost per capita) is used.
2. For example,

Students hostel———————-—cost per student

Hospitals————————————Cost per bed

Hotel—————————————Cost
per Guest 15 Rough cost estimate (-ctd-)

3. Cost per cubic foot is particularly suitable for commercial offices,

shopping centers, and factory buildings, etc.

4. For water tank/reservoir, cost may be worked out on the basis of

capacity in gallons of water stored.

5. For roads and railways, cost may be found out per mile/kilometer of length.

6.

6. For streets, cost may be per hundred feet/meters of length.

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7. In case of bridges, cost per foot/meter of clear span

may be calculated. 16 EXAMPLE

 Calculate the total rough cost estimate and cost per Flat for a multi-
storey (4-storeyed) block consisting of 40 residential flats. Other
details are given in the table:

17

18 Add the following costs as Lump Sum :

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1- Road and Walkways = 15,00,000/-

2- Land Scapping = 12,00,000/-

3- External Sewerage = 7,00,000/-

4- External Water Supply, Overhead and Underground Water Tanks with

pumping machinery for each set of Flats = 19,00,000/-

5- External Electricity = 3,00,000/-

6- Boundary Wall = 6,00,000/-

7- Miscellaneous unforeseen items

=8,00,00
0/-8- Add 6 %
development charges. 9-
Add 3 % consultancy
charges

19 EXAMPLE 2

• Prepare a Rough-cost Estimate of a residential building project with a

total plinth area of all building of 1500 sq.m. given that:

• linth Area Rate = Rs: 950.00 / sq. ft.

• Extra for special architectural treatment = 1.5 % of the buiding cost.

• Extra for water supply and sanitary installations = 5 % of the building cost.

• Extra for internal installations = 14 % of the buiding cost

• Extra for Electric & Sui gas services = 16 % of buiding cost

• Contigencies 3 % overall

• Supervision charges = 8 % overall

• Design charges = 2 % overall

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20 EXAMPLE 3

• Prepare a Rough-cost Estimate based on unit costs of per unit plinth

area basis of a four storeyed office building having a carpet area of
2000 sq.m. for obtaining the administrative approval of the
Government. It may be assumed that 30 % of the built up area will be
taken by the corridors, verandas, lavatories, staircase, etc. and 10 % of
built up area will be occupied by walls. The following data is given:

• Plinth Area Rate = Rs: 1100.00 / sq. ft.

• Extra for special architectural treatment = 0.5 % of the buiding cost.

• Extra for water supply and sanitary installations = 6 % of the building cost.

21 Example 3

• Extra for internal installations = 14 % of the buiding cost

• Extra for electric services = 12.5 % of buiding cost

• Extra for sui gas services = 6 % of buiding cost

• Extra due to deep foundations at site = 1.0 % of buiding cost

• Contigencies = 2.5 % overall

• Supervision charges = 8 % overall

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• Design charges = 2.5 % overall

22 Example 4

• Prepare a Rough-cost Estimate for obtaining the administrative

approval of the Government for a hospital project to serve both
indoor and outdoor patiesnts in an important rural area. The
hospital will consist of the following:

• Main administrative office with dispensing operations, etc.

• Two general wards, each of 20 general beds.

• Superintendent Doctor’s Residence.

• Two Assistant Doctor’s Residences.

• Eight single Nurses Quarters.

• Four Compounder’s Quarters.

• Twelve lower staff’s Quarters.

23 DETAILED ESTIMATE

• Detailed estimates are prepared by carefully and separately calculating

in detail the costs of various items of the work that constitute the whole
project from the detailed working drawings after the design has been
finalized.

• The mistakes, if any, in the rough cost estimate are eliminated in the detailed
estimate.

• Detailed estimates are submitted to the competent authorities for

obtaining technical sanction.

24 DETAILED ESTIMATE

• The whole project is sub-divided into different items of work or

activities. The quantity for each item is then calculated separately

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from the drawings as accurately as possible. The procedure is known

as "taking out of quantities".

• The quantities for each item may be estimated and shown in the
pattern which is called "Bill of quantities."

• The unit, in which each item of the wok is to be calculated, should

be according to the prevailing practice as followed in various
departments of the country.

25

26

27 DETAILED ESTIMATE

• Each item of the work is then multiplied by its estimated current rate
calculated by a fixed procedure to find out cost of the item.

• At the end, a total of all items of the work are made to get the total estimated cost.

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• The rates are usually as per Schedule of Rates for the locality plus a
premium to allow for rise in labor and material rates over and above
the schedule of rates.

• A percentage, usually 5% is also provided on the total estimated cost

for the work to allow for the possible contingencies due to unforeseen
items or expenditure or other causes, besides 2% establishment
charges.

28 DETAILED ESTIMATE

 Besides drawings and details of measurements and calculation of

quantities (Bill of Quantities), the following documents are also
usually submitted with the detailed estimate for obtaining
Technical Sanction:

1. A report explaining History, necessity, scope and main features of the

project, its design, and estimate, etc.

2.

2. Specifications lying down the nature and class of work and material to
be used in various parts of the work.

3. The abstract of cost (priced Bill of Quantities) showing the total

quantities under each sub-head, rate per unit of measurement, and
cost.

4. Calculation sheets showing calculations for important parts of the

structure. In fact, in estimating the art and skill lies only in the
computation of details without any omissions, of all parts of the
building or work.

29 CLASSIFICATION DEPENDING UPON PURPOSE OF DETAILED ESTIMATE

1- CONTRACTOR ESTIMATE

It is made by the contractor for determining the price or prices to be bid.

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It is usually a carefully prepared detailed estimate.

2- ENGINEER’S ESTIMATE

This type of estimate is made by the Engineer (Consultant) usually for the
purposes of financing the work and for checking bids and running bills
submitted by contractors.

30 3- PROGRESS ESTIMATES

• These are made by the Engineer at regular intervals for the completed
parts of the project during the progress of the work for determining the
amounts of partial payments to be made to the contractor.

• On large contracts, such estimates are commonly made each

month and, hence, are frequently called monthly estimates.

31 UNFORESEEN ITEMS IN DETAILED ESTIMATE

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• While preparing a detailed estimate, one had to be very careful to see

that all items of the work are incorporated.

• It is likely that a few Items, though unimportant in nature, might have

been overlooked and which may result in raising the estimate of the
project.

• There may be also certain unforeseen circumstances affecting the project.

• Hence, a certain allowance usually 5 to 10% of the total cost, is made in

the estimation which will take care of all these items that are
unforeseen or are overlooked and are known as "Contingencies".

32 METHODS OF DETAILED ESTIMATE

• The dimensions, length, breadth and height or depth are to be taken

out from the working drawings (plan, elevation and section).

• Junctions of walls, corners and the meeting points of walls require special
attention.

• For symmetrical footings, which is the usual case, earthwork in

excavation in foundations, foundation concrete, brickwork in
foundation and plinth, and brickwork in superstructure may be
estimated by either of the two methods:

(1) SEPARATE OR INDIVIDUAL WALL METHOD

(2) CENTER LINE METHOD

33 SEPARATE OR INDIVIDUAL WALLS METHOD

• The walls running in one direction are termed as "long walls” and the
walls running in the transverse direction, as "Short waLls", without
keeping in mind which wall is lesser in length and which wall is greater
in length.

• Lengths of long walls are measured or found "Out-to out" and those of
short walls as "In-to-in".

• Different quantities are calculated by multiplying the length by the

breadth and the height of the wall.

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• The same rule applies to the excavation in foundation, to concrete

bed in foundation, D.P.C., masonry in foundation and super
structure etc.

34 SEPARATE OR INDIVIDUAL WALLS METHOD

• For symmetrical footing on either side, the center line remains same
for super structure, foundation and plinth. So, the simple method is to
find out the centre-to-centre lengths of long walls and short walls from
the plan.

• Long wall length out-to-out

=Center to center length + half breadth on one Side + half breadth on other side.

=Center to center length + one breadth

• Short wall length in-to-in = Center to Center length - one breadth.

35 SEPARATE OR INDIVIDUAL WALLS METHOD

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This method can also be worked out in a quicker way., as follows:

 For long walls

• First of all, find the length of the foundation trench of the long wall
“out-to-out” in the same manner as explained above.

• The length of the foundation concrete is the same.

• For the length of the first footing or first step of the brick wall,
subtract two offsets (2x6"=12") in foundation concrete from the
length of the trench or concrete.

• For the second footing subtract from the length of the 1st footing two offsets
(2x2.25"=
4.5"), for 3rd footing subtract from the length of the 2nd footing 2
offsets (4.5") and in this way deal with the long walls up to the super-
structure.

 For short walls

Follow he same method but instead of subtracting add two

offsets to get the corresponding lengths in-to-in.

36

37 CENTRE LINE METHOD

• In this method, total length of centre lines of walls, long and short, has to be found
out.

• Find the total length of centre lines of walls of same type, having same
type of foundations and footings and then find the quantities by
multiplying the total centre length by the respective breadth and the
height.

• In this method, the length will remain the same for excavation in
foundations, for concrete in foundations, for all footings, and for
superstructure (with slight difference when there are cross walls or
number of junctions).

• This method is quicker but requires special attention and

considerations at the junctions, meeting points of partition or cross
walls.
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38 CENTRE LINE METHOD

• For rectangular, circular polygonal (hexagonal, octagonal etc)

buildings having no inter or cross walls, this method is quite simple.

• For buildings having cross or partition walls, for every junction,

half breadth of the respective item or footing is to be deducted
from the total centre length.

• Thus in the case of a building with one partition wall or cross wall
having two junctions, deduct one breadth of the respective item of
work from the total centre length.

39

40 CENTRE LINE METHOD

• For buildings having different types of walls, each set of walls

shall have to be dealt separately.

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• Find the total centre length of all walls of one type and proceed in
the same manner as described above. Similarly find the total centre
length of walls of second type and deal this separately, and so on.

• Suppose the outer walls (main walls) are of A type and inner cross walls are of
B type.

• Then all A type walls shall be taken jointly first, and then all B
type walls shall be taken together separately.

• In such cases, no deduction of any kind need be made for A type

walls, but when B type walls are taken, for each junction
deduction of half breadth of A type walls (main Walls) shall have
to be made from the total centre length of B type walls.

41 CENTRE LINE METHOD

• At corners of the building where two walls are meeting, no

subtraction or addition is required.

• In the figure, the double cross-hatched areas marked P,Q,R, & S

come twice, while blank areas, A,B,C, & D do not come at all, but
these portions being equal in magnitude, we get the correct
quantity.

42
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TOPIC THREE

Illumination
As a body is gradually heated above room temperature, it begins to radiate energy in the surrounding
medium in the form of electromagnetic waves of various wavelengths. The nature of this radiant energy
depends on the temperature of the hot body.

The usual method of producing artificial light consists in raising a solid body or vapour to incandescence
by applying heat to it. It is found that as body is gradually heated above room temperature, it begins to radiate
energy in the surrounding medium in the form of electromagnetic waves of various wavelengths. The nature of
this radiant energy depends on the temperature of the hot body. Thus, when the temperature is low, the
radiated energy is in the form of heat waves only, but when a certain temperature is reached, light waves are
also radiated out in addition to heat waves and the body becomes luminous. Further increase in the
temperature produces an increase in the amount of both kinds of radiations but the colour of light or visual
radiations change from bright red to orange, to yellow and finally, if the temperature is high enough, to white.
As the temperature is increased, the wavelength of visible radiation goes on becoming shorter. It should be
noted that heat waves are identical to light waves except that they are of longer wavelength and hence produce
no impression on retina. Obviously, from the point of view of light emission, heat energy represents wasted
energy.

Radiant efficiency of the luminous source is defined as the ratio of “energy radiated in the form of light”
to “total energy radiated out of the hot body” and it depends on the temperature of the source. As the
temperature is increased beyond that at which the light waves were first given off, the Radiant efficiency
increases, because the light energy will increase in greater proportion than the total radiated energy. When
emitted light becomes white, i.e. it includes all the visible wavelengths, from extreme red to extreme violate,
then a further increase in temperature produces radiations which are of wavelengths smaller than that of
violate radiations. Such radiations are invisible and are known as ultra violate-radiations. It is found that
maximum radiant efficiency would occur at about 6200 0 C and even then the value of this maximum efficiency
would be 20%. Since this temperature is far above the highest that has yet been obtained in practice, it is
obvious that the actual efficiency of all artificial sources of light i. e. those depending on temperature
incandescence, is low.

Light is thus a part of radiant energy that propagates as a wave motion through ether, approx velocity
8 -5
being 3x10 m/sec.
The wavelengths which can produce sensation of sight have a range from 4x10 cm to
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-5 -8 -10
cm 7.5x10
. For expressing wavelength of light, another unit called Angstrom Unit (1 A.U. = 10 cm= 10 m) is
used. Thus the visible radiation lies between 4000 AU to 7500 AU. Typically a wavelength of 6000 AU produce
yellow colour and 4000 AU produces violate colour.

For a wave motion we have

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Definitions
a) Plane angle- A plane angle is subtended at a point and is enclosed by two straight lines lying in the same

plane. In radians, plane angle is the ratio .

b) Solid angle- A solid angle (ω) is subtended at a point in space by an area and is the angle enclosed in the
volume formed by an infinite number of lines lying on the surface of the volume and meeting at the
point. In steradian, solid angle is the ratio . It can also be defined as the angle subtended at the
centre of the sphere by a part of its surface having an area equal to (radius) 2.
The solid angle subtended by a point at the center by whole of the spherical surface in all directions in
space = .
Relationship between plane angle (θ) and solid angle (ω) is given by ω=2π (1-cos )

c) Luminous flux is the light energy radiated out per second from the body in the form of luminous light
waves. It is thus the rate of energy radiation in the form of light. It is energy per second (and hence
comparable to Power). Its unit is lumen. Approximate relation between lumen and electric unit of power
i.e. watt is given as:
1 lumen=0.0016 watt (approx) or 1 watt=625 lumen (approx)

d) Lumen is defined as the luminous flux emitted in a unit solid angle by a source of one candle power. i. e.
Lumen=candle power x solid angle= cp x ω.

e) Luminous intensity (I) or Candle-power of a point source in a given direction is the luminous flux
(number of lumens) radiated out per unit solid angle. In other words, it is solid angular flux density of a
source in a specified direction. Its unit is Candela (cd) or lumens per steradian. A source of one candela
emits one lumen per steradian. Hence total flux emitted by it all-round is 4πx1=4π lumen.
An ordinary 60-watt lamp as used for domestic lighting, when viewed from the floor, havs a luminous
intensity of about 70- candle power, while a search light viewed from above the beam may have a
luminous intensity of as much as a million candle power.

f) Mean spherical candle-power (MSCP): Generally, the luminous intensity or candle power of a source is
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different in different directions. The average candle-power of a source is the average value of its candle
power in all the directions. Obviously, it is given by flux (in lumen) emitted in all directions in all planes
divided by 4π. This average candle-power is also known as mean spherical candle-power (MSCP).
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Mean Hemispherical candle-power (MHSCP): It is given by the total flux emitted in a hemisphere
(usually the lower one) divided by the solid angle subtended at the point source by the hemisphere.

g) Illumination (E) or Illuminance: When the luminous flux falls on a surface, it is said to be illuminated.
Illumination is the luminous flux received by a surface per unit area. Its unit is Lux or metre-candle or
lumens per m2.
Imagine a sphere of radius of one meter around a point source of one candela. This flux falls normally on
the curved surface of the sphere which is 4π m2.Obviously, illumination at every point on the inner
surface of this sphere is
Also, Illumination= = . But ω where is the distance between the area and the point
where solid angle is formed.

Residential Commercial
Kitchen 200 Classroom 300-400
Bathroom 300 Jewellery Work 700-800
Bedroom 300 Entrance 150-200
Foyers
Dining 150 Office 200-300
Stairs 100 Hospital 400-500
Treatment
Room
Study 300 Stairs 80-100
Drawing Hall 300 Laboratories 300-400
Living 300

Note: For industrial lighting, ask for the specific requirements from the consultants/ users.

h) Brightness of a surface is defined as the luminous intensity per unit projected area of the surface in the
given direction. Unit of brightness is Lambert.
i) Color Rendering Index (CRI) is a measure of the effect of light on the perceived color of objects. A low
CRI indicates that some colors may appear unnatural when illuminated by the lamp.
j) Specific output or efficiency of a lamp is the ratio of luminous flux to the power intake. Its unit is lumens
per watt (lm/w).
PREPAIRED BY:MOUREEN

Type of light source Typical Luminous Efficiency (lm/W)

Incandescent bulb 8-18
Fluorescent Lamp 46-60
Mercury Vapour Lamp 44-57
CFL 40-70
Sodium Vapour Lamp (Low 101-175
Pressure or LPSV)
Sodium Vapour Lamp (High 67-121
Pressure or HPSV)
Metal Hallide 60-80
LED 30-50
Best LED 105
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Lamps and Their Working Principle

I) Sodium Vapour Lamps:
Sodium vapour has the highest theoretical luminous efficiency and gives monochromatic orange-yellow light.
The monochromatic light makes objects look grey, on account of which these lamps are used for street and
highway lighting.

The lamp consists of a discharge tube having special composition of glass to withstand the high temperature of
the electric discharge. The discharge tube is surrounded by an outer tube as shown in fig. For heating the
cathode a transformer is included. Sodium below 600C is in solid state. For starting the lamp the electric
discharge is allowed to take place in neon gas. The temperature inside the discharge tube rises and vaporizes
sodium. Operating temperature is around 3000C. It takes about 10 minutes for the sodium vapour to displace
the red colour of the neon by its own yellow colour. The lamp takes around half an hour to reach full output. A
choke is provided for stabilizing the electric discharge and a capacitor for power factor improvement. Although
the theoretical efficiency is 475 lumens/watt, the practical light output is around 40-50 lumen/watt.

HPSV lamps are used for lighting of public thoroughfares, storage yards, open-air work sites, process plants,
interiors with high ceiling heights, etc.
SUPPLY

CHOKE

TRANSFORMER FOR HEATING CATHODE

OUTER TUBE

CATHODE

INNER TUBE

SODIUM VAPOUR LAMP

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II) Mercury Vapour Lamps:

It is similar to construction of the sodium vapour lamp. The electrodes are tungsten coils containing an
electron emitting material, which may be small piece of thorium or an oxide mixture. Argon is introduced to help
start the lamp. The electric discharge first takes place through argon and this vaporizes the mercury drops inside
the discharge tube. The electron emitting material supplies electrons to maintain the arc.

The space between two bulbs is filled with an inert gas. The pressure inside the discharge tube may
range from one to ten atmospheres in lamps used for lighting purposes, as at these pressures the radiation is in
visible spectrum. Although the theoretical efficiency is 298 lumens/watt, the practical light output is around 20-
30 lumen/watt. (The ordinary tungsten filament or incandescent bulb has practical efficiency of 10-20
lumens/watt as against theoretical efficiency of 143 lumens/watt)

HPMV Lamps are used for lighting of secondary roads, car parking areas, parks and gardens, factory
sheds, etc.

SUPPLY

C
CAPACITOR

CHOKE

OUTER TUBE

ELECTRODE

ELECTRODE

DISCHARGE TUBE
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MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP

S
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III) Fluorescent Lamps:

In the mercury vapour lamp considerable amount of radiation is in ultra-violate range. By coating the
inside of the tube by phosphor, this ultra violate radiation is converted in visible light. Phosphors have definite
characteristic colours, but when mixed together, they produce a large variety of colours. These phosphors are
stable compounds and give a high output throughout the life of the lamps. The colours of fluorescence produced
by various phosphors are given below:

Phosphor Colour
Zinc Silicate Green
Calcium tungstate Blue
Cadmium Borate Pink
Calcium Halo Phosphate White of various shades
Magnesium tungstate. Bluish white

Tungsten cathode Preheated Type Fluorescent lamp: In these types, the electrons are produced by
thermionic emission. Lower starting and operating voltages are adequate. A transient voltage of 300-600 V,
applied by the starter, initiates the arc stream. The cathodes, which are coated with emitting materials, lose a
little bit of this material every time the lamp is started. The constant impact of electrons on the cathode also
dislodges some of the emitting material. Finally so little of the materials remain that it is not possible to emit any
electrons and the lamp becomes dead. Therefore this type of lamp is unsuitable for frequent starting.

The efficiency is dependent on the mercury vapour pressure (and hence temperature) inside the tube.
For efficient light production, these types of lamps are not used below a temperature of 100C surrounding.

Fluorescent lamps produce flicker or stroboscopic effect, since on 50 Hz supply; they are extinguished
100 times a second. Single lamps cannot be operated without flicker. Flicker correction can be applied to pairs of
lamps. Radio interference is another effect produced by fluorescent lamps and has to be removed by suitable
filter circuits.

Starters of automatic starting switches care of two types i) thermal type, and ii) glow discharge type.
The thermal starter has a heater coil which heats a bimetallic strip. The heater coil remains energized to keep
the bimetallic switch open throughout the operation of lamp. It, therefore, consumes a small amount of power.
electrodes

Choke or ballast

1.condenser for radio interference 2.bimetallic switch 3.heater coil

Thermal starter

P.f. capacitor

supply

FLUORESCENT LAMP USING THERMAL STATE

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When the supply is switched on, the contacts of the bimetallic switch are closed and the current passes
through the electrodes and heat them. But after an interval of few seconds, the heater coil heats up the bimetal
strip and the bimetallic switch contacts open. This starts a high voltage transient across the electrode due to the
presence of choke or ballast in the circuit. An arc is struck between the electrodes, due to the high voltage
transient. The high frequency radio interference is bypassed through the filter circuit provided by the radio
interference suppression condenser.

The glow starter is enclosed in a glass bulb filled with neon or argon gas. One of the electrodes is a
bimetallic strip.

When the normal voltage is applied to the lamp, a glow discharge takes place across the glow switch and
a small amount of current flows through the electrodes. The bimetallic strip expands due to the heating effect of
current in the glow discharge. The expansion of bimetallic strip causes the electrodes touch each other (???) and
the electrodes get pre-heated due to the flow of appreciable amount of current. Meanwhile the bimetal cools,
the glow switch opens and the resultant high voltage transient starts the arc discharge through the tube. If the
lamp does not strike, the foregoing cycle is repeated. The switch cannot glow after the lamp has started
operating, as the available electrical potential is not high enough to establish the glow discharge. Thus the
starter consumes no power during the normal lamp operation.
ELECTRODES

STARTER

GLOW SWITCH

CHOKE OR BLAST
SUPPLY

FLOURESCENT LAMP USING GLOW STARTER

C-RADIO INTERFERENCE SUPPRESSION CONDENSER

*****

References:

i. A course in Electrical Power by Soni, Gupta, Bhatnagar

ii. A Text book of Electrical Technology by B. L. Theraja, A. K. Theraja
iii. Utilisation of Electrical Energy by E. Openshaw Taylor
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Note: Refer above books for numerical based on illumination design.

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Design of Lighting Schemes and Layouts

A well designed lighting scheme is one which

 Provides adequate illumination

 Avoids glare and hard shadows
 Provides sufficiently uniform distribution of light all over the working plane.

Following two factors are important for lighting design:

i) Utilization factor or Coefficient of Utilization: it is the ratio of the lumens actually received by a particular
surface to the total lumens emitted by a luminous source. It is an indication of the effect of the lighting
equipment and the interior combined in producing horizontal illuminance. For example UF of 0.3 means that the
lumen reaching horizontal plane is 30% of the lumens of the lamp operated bare under standard conditions.

The value of this factor varies widely and depends on the following factors:

Type of lighting system, whether direct, indirect etc

The type and mounting height of fittings
The colour and surface of walls and ceiling
To some extent the shape and dimensions of the room.

ii) Depreciation factor/ Maintenance factor: It is the ratio of illuminance halfway through a cleaning cycle, to
what the illuminance would be if the installation was clean. This factor allows for the fact that the effective
candle power of all lamps or luminous sources deteriorates due to blackening and/ or accumulation of dust or
dirt on the globes and reflectors etc. Similarly walls and ceilings also do not reflect as much light as when they
are clean.

Taking into consideration the utilization and depreciation or maintenance factors, the expression for gross
lumens required is:

Total lumens

Example:

The illumination in a drawing office 30 m x 10 m is to have a value of 250 lux and is to be provided by a
number of 300-Watts filament lamps. If the coefficient of utilization is 0.4 and depreciation factor is 0.9,
determine the number of lamps required. The luminous efficiency of each lamp is 14 lm/W.

Solution: Given E= 250 lm/sqm, A=30x10= 300 sq m, D.F. = 0.9, U.F. = 0.4.

Total lumens
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Flux emitted per lamp = 300x14= 4200 lm. ∴ Number of lamps required = 208333/4200 = 50.
 Questions:

A. Explain construction and working of sodium vapour lamp. (6M)

B. Explain various factors related to illumination. (6M)
C. Write a short note on Polar Curves. (6M)
D. Define following terms: Lumen, Candle power, MHCP, MSCP, Luminous flux, depreciation factor,
Maintenance factor, Coefficient of utilization. (1 M each)
E. Derive relationship between plane angle & solid angle. (4M)
F. With the help of a neat sketch, explain the working principle of mercury vapour lamp and compare the
same with the other light sources. (6M)
G. Explain working principle of fluorescent lamps. (5M)
H. Which type of lighting fittings is used for a section having hazardous chemicals in a factory? (3M)
I. Give a list of different types of lamps available in market and discuss their luminous efficacy (lm/W) (5M)

Numerical

1. A playground of 10 meters x 45 meters size is to be illuminated by 10 lamps of 1000 W each. The luminous
efficiency of each lamp is 20 lumens/ watt. Allowing a depreciation factor of 0.75 and utilization of 0.45,
determine the illumination on ground. (7M)
2. Design a suitable lighting scheme for a factory 120 m x 40 m with a height of 7 met. Illumination required is
60 lux. State the number, location and mounting height of 40 W fluorescent tubes giving 45 lumens/ Watt.
Assume depreciation factor of 1.2, utilization factor of 0.5) (7M)
3. A hall measuring 15 m x 30 m is illuminated by 20 lamps of 500 Watts each. The luminous efficiency of each
lamp is 15 lumens/ watt. Allowing a depreciation factor of 0.7 and coefficient of utilization of 0.5, determine
the illumination on floor. (7M)
4. A hall measuring 40 m x 16 m is illuminated by certain number of tube light fixtures of 80 W each. The
illumination efficiency of each fixture is 80 lumens/ W. Allow depreciation factor of 0.65 and coefficient of
utilization of 0.75. Determine the total number of fixtures required to achieve an average illumination of 175
lux on the floor. (7M)
5. A hall of 50 m x 30 m is illuminated by indirect lighting. An average illumination of 150 lumens/ sqm is to be
provided on a horizontal plane parallel to the floor and 0.75 m above it. The walls and ceilings are brightly
painted. Design a suitable scheme of illumination using filament lamps. Coefficient of utilization is 0.35 and
depreciation factor is 0.9.
If instead of indirect lighting, 80 W fluorescent lamps are used, what would be the saving in power
consumption? (7M)
6. The flux emitted by a lamp in all the directions is 800 lumens. Calculate MSCP. (4M)
7. A lamp having a uniform CP of 200 in all directions is provided with a reflector which directs 60 % of total
light uniformly on a circular area of 10 m diameter. The lamp is hung 6 m above the area. Calculate the
illumination (i) at the center (ii) at the edge of the surface; with and without reflector.
Determine also the average illumination over the area without reflector. (7M)
8. A room 12x 8 m is to have indirect lighting giving illumination of 80 lux on the working plane 70 cm
above floor. Coefficient of utilization is assumed to be 0.5 and depreciation factor is 0.8. Find out the number
of lamps and their ratings. Lamp efficiency may be taken as 15 lumens per watt. (6M)

1
 *****

TOPIC FOUR

DESIGN PROCEDURE

2. Lumen Method Calculations

The lumen method is based on fundamental lighting calculations. The lumen method formula is easiest to appreciate in
the following form.

(1)
where E = average illuminance over the horizontal working plane
n = number of lamps in each luminaire
N = number of luminaire
F = lighting design lumens per lamp, i.e. initial bare lamp luminous
flux
UF = utilisation factor for the horizontal working plane
LLF = light loss factor
A = area of the horizontal working plane

2.1 Light Loss Factor

Light loss factor (LLF) is the ratio of the illuminance produced by the lighting installation at the some specified time to
the illuminance produced by the same installation when new. It allows for effects such as decrease in light output
caused by
(a) the fall in lamp luminous flux with hours of use,

2
(b) the deposition of dirt on luminaire, and
(c) reflectances of room surfaces over time.
In fact, light loss factor is the product of three other factors:

(2)
where LLMF = lamp lumen maintenance factor
LMF = luminaire maintenance factor
RSMF = room surface maintenance factor

2.1.1 Lamp Lumen Maintenance Factor

Lamp lumen maintenance factor (LLMF) is the proportion of the initial light output of a lamp produced after a set time
to those produced when new. It allows for the decline in lumen output from a lamp with age. Its value can be
determined in two ways:
(a) by consulting a lamp manufacturer's catalog for a lumen depreciation chart, and
(b) by dividing the maintained lumens by the initial lamps.

2.1.2 Luminaire Maintenance Factor

Luminaire maintenance factor (LMF) is the proportion of the initial light output from a luminaire after a set time to the
initial light output from a lamp after a set time. It constitutes the greatest loss in light output and is mainly due to the
accumulation of atmospheric dirt on luminaire. Three factors must be considered in its determination:
(a) the type of luminaire,
(b) atmospheric conditions, and
(c) maintenance interval.

2.1.3 Room Surface Maintenance Factor

Room surface maintenance factor (RSMF) is the proportion of the illuminance provided by a lighting installation in a
room after a set time compared with that occurred when the room was clean. It takes into account that dirt
accumulates on room surfaces and reduces surface reflectance. Figure 4 shows the typical changes in the illuminance
from an installation that occur with time due to dirt deposition on the room surfaces.

2.2 Utilisation Factor

Utilisation factor (UF) is the proportion of the luminous flux emitted by the lamps which reaches the working plane. It
is a measure of the effectiveness of the lighting scheme. Factors that affect the value of UF are as follows:
(a) light output ratio of luminaire
(b) flux distribution of luminaire

3
(c) room proportions
(d) room reflectances
(e) spacing/mounting height ratio

2.2.1 Light Output Ratio of Luminaire

Light output ratio of luminaire (LOR) takes into account for the loss of light energy both inside and by transmission
through light fittings. It is given by the following expression.

(3)

Example 1
The total, upward and downward lamp output from a lamp are 1000 lm, 300 lm and 500 lm respectively.
Calculate upward light output ratio (ULOR), downward light output ratio (DLOR), light output ratio (LOR) of luminaire
and percentage of light energy absorbed in luminaire.

Amount of light energy absorbed in luminaire = 100 - 80 = 20 %

A greater DLOR usually means a higher UF.
A simple classification of luminaires according to their distribution is based on flux fractions, as shown in Figure
5. Upward flux fraction (UFF) and downward flux fraction (DFF) are used as a basis of comparison.

Example 2
For data given in Example 1 determine upward flux fraction (UFF), downward flux fraction (DFF) and flux fraction
ratio (FRR).

4
Figure 5 Flux Fraction of Various Luminaires

2.2.2 Flux Distribution of Luminaire

Direct ratio is the proportion of the total downward luminous flux from a conventional installation of luminaires which
his directly incident on the working plane. It is used to assess the flux distribution of luminaire. Since the intensity
distribution pattern of the light radiated from a luminaire in the lower hemisphere will affect:
(a) the quantity of the downward flux falls directly on the working plane and
(b) the quantity of flux available for reflection from the walls in a given room,
Direct ratio depends on both the room proportions and the luminaires. Direct ratio has a low value with a narrow room
(small room index) and a luminaire which emits most of its light sideways (BZ 10), and on the contrary, a high value
with a wide room (large room index) and a luminaire which emits most of its light downwards (BZ 1).

2.2.3 Room Proportion

Room index (RI) is the ratio of room plan area to half the wall area between the working and luminaire planes.

(4)
where L = length of room
W = width of room

5
Hm = mounting height, i.e. the vertical distance between the working plane and the luminaire.

2.2.4 Room Reflectances

The room is considered to consist of three main surfaces:
(a) the ceiling cavity,
(b) the walls, and
(c) the floor cavity (or the horizontal working plane).
The effective reflectances of the above three surfaces affect the quantity of reflected light received by the working
plane.

2.2.5 Spacing to Height Ratio

Spacing to Height ratio (SHR or S/Hm) is defined as the ratio of the distance between adjacent luminaires (centre to
centre), to their height above the working plane. For a rectangular arrangement of luminaires and by approximation,

(5)
where A = total floor area
N = number of luminaires
Hm = mounting height
Under a regular array of luminaires the illuminance on the working plane is not uniform. The closer spaced the
luminaires for a given mounting height, the higher the uniformity; or the greater the mounting height for a given
spacing, the greater the uniformity. If uniformity of illuminance is to be acceptable for general lighting,
(a) SHR should not exceed maximum spacing to height ratio (SHR MAX) of the given luminaire as quoted by the
manufacturer, and
(b) geometric mean spacing to height ratio of the luminaire layout should be within the range of nominal spacing to
height ratio (SHR NOM) of the given luminaire as quoted by the manufacturer, i.e.

(6)

3. Summary of Procedures for Lumen Design Method

(a) Calculate the room index.
(b) Determine the effective reflectances of the ceiling cavity, walls and floor cavity.
(c) Determine the utilisation factor from the manufacturer's data sheet, using the room index and effective surface
reflectances as found in (a) and (b) above.

6
(d) Determine the light loss factor.
(e) Inert the appropriate variables into the lumen method formula to obtain the number of luminaires required.
(f) Determine a suitable layout.
(g) Check that the geometric mean spacing to height ratio of the layout is within the SHR NOM range:

(h) Check that the proposed layout does not exceed the maximum spacing to height ratios (SHR MAX).
(i) Calculate the illuminance that will be achieved by the final layout and check against the standard.

Example 3
Design a lighting installation for a college seminar room so that the average illuminance is 500 lux on the horizontal
working plane, using the data listed below. Suggest the layout and check appropriate spacing to mounting height.
Room dimensions: 12 m long x 8 m wide x 3.2 m high
Working plane at 0.7 m above floor
Reflection factors: Ceiling 70 %
Walls 50 %
Working plane 20 %
Light Loss factor: 0.779
Luminaires: 1800 mm twin tube with opal diffuser
Ceiling mounted
Downward light output ratio 36 %
SHR MAX 1.60 : 1
SHR NOM 1.50 : 1
Dimensions : 1800 mm long x 200 mm wide
Lamps: 1800 mm 75 W plus white
5800 average initial lumens per lamp
2 lamps per luminaire

Solution
(a) Initial calculation

7
From manufacturer's photometric data sheet (Table 3), utilisation factor (UF) is 0.5336 by interpolation.

Therefore, the number of luminairs is 10.

Initial check on S/Hm ratio gives:

From the manufacture's photometric data, maximum S/Hm is 1.6 : 1. Therefore, it should be possible to use 10
luminaires.
(b) Proposed layout
A 5 x 2 array is proposed fro the lighting installation. (A 10 x 1 array is an alternative.)
(c) Checking the proposed layout
Since 2 x 1.8 m = 3.6 m < 8 m (width of room), the proposed layout will fit.
(Usually checking only the linear dimension of the fitting for space is enough as the other dimension (i.e. 200 mm in
this case) is much smaller.)
For long axis,

8
For short axis,

ILLUMINATION
9
 Definition – Laws of illumination – Polar curves – Calculation of MHCP and MSCP. Lamps:
Incandescent lamp, Sodium Vapour lamp, Fluorescent lamp. Requirement of good lighting scheme –
Types, Design and Calculation of illumination. Street lighting and Factory lighting – Numerical

Problems

Introduction:
Light is the prime factor in the human life as well as activities of human beings ultimately depend upon the
light. Where there is no natural light, use of artificial light is made. Artificial lighting produced electrically, on account
of its cleanness, ease of control, reliability, steady output, as well as its low it is playing an increasingly important
part in modern everyday life. The science of illumination engineering is, therefore, becoming of major importance.

Nature of light:
Light is a form of radiant energy. Various forms of incandescent bodies are the sources of light and the light
emitted by such bodies depend upon the temperature of bodies. Heat energy is radiated into the medium by a body
which is hotter than the medium surrounding it. The heat of the body, as seen, can be classified as red hot or white-
hot.

A hot body about 500-800°C becomes a red hot and about 2,500-3,000°C the body becomes white hot. While
the body is red-hot, the wavelength of the radiated energy will be sufficiently large and the energy available in the
form of heat. Further, the temperature increases, the body changes from red-hot to white-hot state, the wavelength
of the radiated energy becomes smaller and enters into the range of the wavelength of light. The wavelength of the
light waves varying from 0.0004 to 0.00075 mm, i.e. 4,000-7,500 Å (1 Angstrom unit = 10-10 mm).

Relative Sensitivity:

The reacting power of the human eye to the light waves of different wavelengths varies from person to person, and
also varies with age. The average relative sensitivity is shown in Fig

The sensitivity of eye to yellow-green radiation is taken as unity or 100% and the sensitivity to other
wavelengths is expressed as a fraction or percentage of it. The relative sensitivity at awave length is written k and is

10
known as relative luminosity factor.

11
 Colour: The sensation of colour is due to the difference in the wave lengths of the light radiations. Visible light
can have wave lengths of the light between4,000A and 7,500A as shown in the figure1.1.

Fig 1.1 wave lengths of the light

Wavelength of the colour light

Illumination:
Illumination differs from light every much, though generally these terms are used more or less synonymously.
Strictly speaking light is the cause and illumination is the result of that light on surfaces on which it falls. Thus the
illumination makes the surface look more or less bright with certain colour and it is this brightness and colour which
the eye sees and interrupts as something useful or pleasant or otherwise. Light may be produced by passing electric
current through filaments as in the incandescent lamps, through arcs between carbon or metal rods, or through
suitable gases as in neon and other gas tubes. In some forms of lamps the light is due to fluorescence excited by
radiation arising from the passage electric current through mercury vapour. Some bodies reflect light in some
measure, and when illuminated from an original source they become secondary source of light. The good example is
the moon, which illuminates earth by means of the reflected light originating in the sun.

Terms used in Illumination:

1. Plane Angle: The angle subtended at a point in a plane by two converging straight lines and its magnitude is shown by

It is measured in Radians.

The largest angle subtended at a point is ‘2π 'radians.

12
Radian: The angle subtended at a point by an arc whose length is equal to the radius.

13
2. Solid angle : A Solid angle is subtended at a point in space by an area and is the angle enclosed in the volume formed by an
infinite number of lines lying on the surface of the volume and meeting at the point. It is represented by greek letter ω.and is
measured in steradian.

( )
Solid Angle ω= steradian

The largest solid angle subtended at centre of a sphere

= =
3. Light: It is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body which produces the visual sensation upon the human eye. It is
usually denoted by ‘Q’expressed in Lumen-Hours and is analogues to watt-hours.

4. Luminous Flux (F): It is defined as total quantity of light energy emitted per second from a luminous body. It
is represented by the symbol ‘F’and is measured in Lumens.

5. Luminous Intensity (I): It is the luminous flux per unit solid angle in a given direction.It is represented by I and is

=
measured in (lumen/steradian or) candela (cd).

6. Lumen: Luminous flux emitted by a source of one candle power in a unit solid angle. Lumen= candle
power of source X solid angle

=c.p X ω
It is the unit of luminous flux.
7. Candle Power (C P): The candle power of a source is defined as the number of lumens emitted by that source in a unit solid
angle in a given direction.

C.P= lumen/steradian or candela

8. Illumination (E) : Illumination of a surface is defined as the luminous flux received by the surface per unit area. It is
represented by the symbol ‘E’ and is measured in lux (or lumen/m2).

.
= = =

Light is the cause and illumination is the effect.

9. Brightness or Luminance (L): It is defined as luminous intensity per unit projected area of a given surface in a given
direction.

14
= / I= Luminous Intensity (candela) A=

Projected area (m2)

15
10. Mean Horizontal Candle Power (M.H.C.P): It is defined as the mean of candle power in all directions in the
horizontal plane containing the source of light.
11. Mean Spherical Candle Power of candle power in all
(M.S.C.P): It is defined as the mean
directions and in all planes from the source of light.

. . .=

12. Mean Hemi-Spherical Candle Power (M.H.S.C.P): It is defined as the mean of candle power in all directions above or
below horizontal plane passing through the source of light.

13. Reduction Factor: Reduction factor of a source of light is the ratio of its mean spherical candle power to its mean
horizontal candle power.

. . .
= . . .

14. Lamp Efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the luminous flux to the power input. It is expressed in Lumens /
Watt.
15. Space Height Ratio: it is the ratio of horizontal distance between lamps and the height of their mountings.
16. Utilisation Factor or Co-efficient of utilisation (UF): It is the ratio of total lumens reaching the working plane and the total
lumens given out by the lamp.
17. Maintenance Factor (MF): It is the ratio of illumination under normal working conditions to the illumination under clear
and clean conditions.
18. Depreciation Factor (DF): It is the ratio of initial illumination to the maintained illumination on the working plane. DF >
1 always.
19. Glare: Brightness within the field of vision such a character as to cause annoyance, discomfort, interference with the
vision of eye fatigue. This is found in car head lights.

Relationship between and :

Solid angle =

= ( )

SZ=OZ-OS
h=r – r cos
Substituting h in eq (1) we get = r (1-cos ) (2)
(
=
16
− )

= ( − )

17
 Laws of Illumination: There are two laws of illumination

1. Law of inverse squares

2. lamberts cosine law
Inverse square law :
This law states that ‘the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of distance between the
surface and a point source’.
Proof:
Let, S= a point source of luminous intensity
I= candela, the luminous flux emitting from source
A1 A2, and A3= Three parallel surface area’s in square meters,
d, 2d, and 3d =distances of A1 A2, and A3 from the point source respectively as shown in Fig For area A1

solid angle =
Flux on area A1= luminous Intensity X solid angle

=I X = x

= (1)

Illumination E1 on surface A1 =

= X

E1 = lux (2)

E2 =(
)
umination 'E2' on the surface area A2 is:
Sim ilarly, ill lux

( )
and illumination ‘E3’ on the surface area A3 is: E3 = lux

:( :(
E1 : E2 : E3 :: ) )

Lambert's cosine law: This law states that ‘illumination, E at any point on a surface is directly proportional to
the cosine of the angle between the normal at that point and the line of flux’.

18
Proof:
While discussing, the Lambert's cosine law, let us assume that the surface is inclined at an angle ‘θ’ to the lines of flux
as shown in Fig
Let PQ = The surface area normal to the source and inclined at ‘θ’ to the vertical axis.
RS = The surface area normal to the vertical axis and inclined at an angle θ to the source ‘O’.

19
 From above fig

From fig (b)

Substituting ‘d' from the above equation in Equation

POLAR CURVES:
They are the plot drawn between the Candle Power and Angular Position. The light intensity is not same in all
directions in most of the lamps because of their unsymmetrical shape. The luminous intensity in all directions can be
represented by polar curves. They help to find the distribution of candle power, i.e. light in different directions.

20
 Horizontal polar curves: it is the curve drawn showing the distribution of
candle power on a horizontal plane about a vertical axis passing through the
source of light. The dip at 90º is due to coiled coil filament occupying an arc
subtending an angle less than 360º.

Vertical polar curves: it is the plot drawn showing the relation

between the candle power and the angle of illumination on a vertical plane passing
through the lamp. The dip at 180º is due to the position of lamp holder.

Polar curves are used to determine:

-MHCP and MSCP.

-Actual illumination of a surface with the help of these curves.

-MHCP can be determined from horizontal polar curves by taking mean

of candle powers in horizontal direction. This can be done drawing a planar graph
between angular direction and the candle powers and deriving the mean form that
graph.

-MSCP can be derived from vertical polar curves by Rousseau’s construction

diagram.

Rousseau’s construction:

When vertical plane is in the form of two lobes, symmetrical about the vertical axis YOY` . Construction steps:

-Draw circle with convenient radius with O as center.

-Draw CD // YOY` and equal to vertical diameter of

the circle.

-Draw any line OFA meeting the polar curve in F and

circle at A. let the projection be G.

-At G erect an ordinate GH = OF

-By similar construction draw other ordinates.

-The curve CSTGDBHL obtained by joining these ordinates is known as Rousseau’s curve. The mean ordinate of the
curve gives the MSCP.

-Mean ordinate of the curve =

-The area can be determined by using a graph or by Simpson rule.

21
ARTIFICIAL SOURCES OF LIGHT:

There are several alternative schemes that act as substitute for sunlight. But light be electricity is pollution free and
easy control method. Illumination by electricity is mainly classified into three types they are:

1. By temperature incandescence.( incandescent lamps)

2. By producing an arc between electrodes.(arc lamps)

3. By discharge of electrons.( fluorescent lamps and vapour lamps).

INCANDESCENT LAMPS:

Electric current is passed through a filament of thin wire placed in vacuum or an inert gas. The current generates
sufficient heat to raise the temperature of the filament to luminosity. Their output depends on the temperature of
the filaments so they are termed as “Temperature Radiators”. The fine wire is known as filament placed inside it.

Construction:

It consists of a evacuated glass globe structure. The evacuation is to:

- To prevent oxidation and

- Convectional currents of filament.

- To prevent decrease of temperature by radiation. Coiled coil is employed

to avoid convectional currents. The coiled- coil filament is the heart of the
lamp, where the light is created. It is supported at two intermediate points
by fine molybdenum wires, slightly springy. The electrical current is carried
to the filament by a pair of nickel plated steel lead-in wires. a very special
alloy which forms a gas-tight seal between the glass and wire is welded to a
copper plated steel wire which makes the electrical connection to the cap.
In one or both of these outer leads there is a fuse wire section. The lead
wires are held in a glass assembly called the stem, through which a smaller
glass tube, the exhaust tube is also sealed. This is kept open at the top of
the stem which allows the air to be pumped out of the bulb after
sealing. The cap is affixed to the bulb with special heat-curing cement, and the copper lead wires pass through eyelets
in the end of the cap where they are fluxed and soldered to the brass contact plates.
The terminals are insulated from each other by a special black glass called vitrite, which offers high
electrical resistance even at elevated temperatures. a mixture of Argon and Nitrogen in the ratio of 85% Argon

22
 -15% Nitrogen are employed.

Properties of filament made of ideal material:

-High melting point.

-High resistivity.

-Low temperature coefficient.

-Low vapour pressure.

-Ductility

-Sufficient mechanical strength to withstand vibrations during use.

Materials used for making filaments:

Property Carbon Tantalum Tungsten
Resistivity (ρ) 10 - 70 µ Ω - m 0.056 µ Ω - m 0.124 µ Ω - m
Temperature coefficient (α) -0.0002 to -0.0008 0.0036 0.0045
Melting point 3500ºC 2996 ºC 3400 ºC
Density 1.7- 3.5 kg/m3 16.6 kg/m3 19.3 kg/m3
(maintained
at
1800 ºC to avoid blacking)
Efficiency (η) 4.5 lumen/watt 2 lumen/watt 18 lumen/watt at
2000 ºC in vacuum bulb.

Filament made of tungsten is most preferred instead of carbon filament due to the accumulation of ash on the walls of
the bulb as life goes on leading to reduction of life of bulb.

Aging effect:

Decrease in light output of lamp with time is called aging effect. The cause for aging effect is evaporation of
filament that results in blackening of bulb and also reduces the diameter of the filament which increases the
resistance. The aged filament draws less current and operates at lower temperature that decreases the light output
and efficiency.

The total depreciation of light output is roughly 15% over the life range.

Filament manufacturing:

Pure tungsten powder is pressed in steel mould for small bars. The mechanical strength of the bars is

23
improved by heating electrically near to the melting point. Bars are then hammered at red heat and drawn into
filaments. To increase the efficiency of the bulb it is filled with inert gas Argon and small percentage of Nitrogen. To
decrease the convectional currents due to gas molecules in the bulb, the filament is wound into a close spiral and
suspended horizontally in the form f a circular arc.

- Efficiency is 30 lumen/watt for a gas filled coiled coil at working temperature of 2500ºC.

24
 The diameter of tungsten filament depends upon voltage and wattage.
- Size is as small as 10 microns (1/6th of human hair).

- Diameter depends upon current rating.

- In vacuum:

Heat produced = heat lost by radiation.

= =
2
=
2 4

=
2
2
2

Heat lost/ sec α surface area x emissivity

4
α( )

Clear gas filled incandescent lamps: They facilitate light control. It is used where lighting units are to be distributed
accurately. They are used in flood lights, projectors, car head lights.

Disadvantage is they produce hard shadows and glare from the filament.

Inside frosted gas filled lamps: their luminous output is 2% less than clear glass lamps of same rating. They produce
soft shadows and practically eliminate glare from filaments. Used in industrial open fittings located in line of sight at
low mounting heights. These are used in diffuse fittings of opal glass type in order to avoid the presence of filament
striations on the surface of glass ware.

Inside silica coated lamps has high diffusion of light output due to fine coating of silica. They are less glaring and
produce soft shadows. The brightness of reflection from shiny surfaces is minimized.
Halogen filled incandescent lamps: as the life of incandescent lamp falls with time due to

- Slow evaporation of filament

- Black deposit formed on the inside of bulb.

When the bulb is filled with halogen vapour is filled along with filling gas it restores a part of evaporated
filament due to chemical reaction i.e. by “Regenerative Cycle Process”.
Advantages: - life time is about 2000 hrs
- Very high operating temperature.

- increased luminous efficiency from 22 to 33 lumen/watt

- Reduced blacking effect.

25
 - No depreciation of lumens.
DISCHARGE LAMPS:
An electric current is passed through a gas or vapour which renders its luminous. The light is produced by the
process of gaseous conduction. The commonly used elements are Neon, Mercury, Sodium vapours. The color depends
on the nature of gas or vapour.

26
Neon: Orange Red Light. Mercury:
Bluish.
Sodium: Orange Yellow.

Discharge lamps are categorized into two types they are:

i) Vapour discharge lamps. ii) Fluorescent lamps.
SODIUM VAPOUR LAMP:
This type of the lamp has low luminosity, so length of lamp is large. To get required length it is made in form
of U tube. Two oxide coated electrodes are sealed with the ends. The tube contains Neon and Sodium gas. The U
tube is enclosed in a double walled vacuum flask to keep the temperature within the working range. It employs
high leakage reactance transformer to provide sufficient voltages to increase the temperature of the oxide coated
electrodes that emits the electrons to liberate light. Due to this transformer the regulation will be poor and the
power factor will be low about 0.3. Capacitor at the input terminals is provided to improve power factor to 0.8.

Working:

Before stating the Sodium in the solid form is deposited on the walls
of the tube. When the supply is fed by closing the switch, the bulb operates
as low pressure Neon lamp with pink color. The lamp gets warm and the
Sodium is vaporized and radiates yellow light. After 10-15 minutes it
illuminates full light.

For a 40 W lamp, 380 V is required to start the discharge. For

100W lamp 450V is required. These voltage levels are obtained from the high
reluctance transformer or auto transformer.

The no-load voltage is high, which decreases gradually when the

lamp starts glowing on account of production of electron current between
the electrodes, which results in poor regulation of transformer.

Specifications:

- Efficiency of lamp is about 40-50%.

- Available in 45W, 60W, 85W, 140W ratings.

- Average life is 3000 hrs.

- It is not affected by voltage variations.

- At the end of life output is reduced by 15% due to aging.

Causes for failure of lamp:

- Burn out or breaking of filament.

- Cathode stops to emit electrons.

27
- Sodium particles may concentrate on one side of the tube.

28
 - The blackening of lamp due to sodium vapour action on the glass.

Applications:

These lamps are employed where color discrimination is not required.

- Highway lighting.

- Outdoor lighting.
FLUORESCENT LAMPS:

It is a low pressure mercury vapor lamp. It consists of a glass tube 25 mm in diameter and 0.6 m, 1.2 m and
1.5 m in length. The tube contains argon gas at low pressure about 2.5 mm of mercury. At the two ends, two
electrodes coated with some electron emissive material are placed.

Fluorescent lighting has a great advantage over other light sources in many applications. The tubes can be
obtained in a variety of length, with illumination in a variety of colours. It is possible to achieve quite high lighting
intensities without excessive temperature rise and owing to the nature of light sources, the danger of glare is
minimized. The efficiency of the fluorescent tube is about 40 lumens per watt, about three times the efficiency of an
equivalent tungsten filament lamp. The fluorescent tube consists of a glass tube 25m.m in diameter and 0.38m-
1.52m in length. The inside surface of the tube is coated with the thin layer of fluorescent material in the form of a
powder

A starting switch is provided in the circuit, which puts the electrodes directly across the supply mains at the
time of starting, so that electrodes may get heated and emit sufficient electrons. A stabilizing choke is connected in
series with it, which acts ballast in running condition and provides a voltage impulse for starting. A capacitor is
connected across the circuit to improve the power factor at the supply side. The filament is connected to a starter
switch which is small with bimetal strip connecting the two electrodes.

Working:

When the starter is cold the electrodes are open.When supply is given the current traces the closed path
through the mains - choke – electrode 1 - starter – electrode 2 - mains. At this time the bimetallic strip of the
29
starter operates depending on the type of starter used . when the electrodes

30
 are raised to a certain temperature and liberate electrons that bombard on the phosphor coating on the walls of
the tube to emit light. Thus the electrons close the path between the electrodes reducing the voltage across the
starter which cools down gradually, where the choke provides the necessary voltage transient across the
electrodes. The radio interference effect may be reduced to minimum by connecting a small capacitor (0.05ÅF)
across starter.
Advantages of Fluorescent Tube:
1. Voltage fluctuation has very small effect on light output.
2. The luminous efficiency is more as length of rod is more.
3. It gives light close to natural light.
4. Heat radiations are negligible.
5. High efficiency.
6. The life of the lamp is three times of the ordinary filament lamp.
7. Less chances of glare.
Although the fluorescent lamp has the above advantages, it sufferers form the following
disadvantages
1. The initial cost is high because of choke and starter.
2. The starting time as well as the light output of the lamp will increases because of low ambient temperature.
3. Because of the presence of choke, these lamps suffer from magnetic humming and may cause disturbance.
4. The stroboscopic effect of this lamp is objectionable.

Stroboscopic effect:
We all know that because of ‘the alternating nature of supply, it crosses zero two times in a cycle’. For 50-Hz
frequency supply of the alternating current, a discharge lamp will be extinguished twice in a cycle and 100 times per
second (for 50-Hz supply). A human eye cannot identify this extinguish phenomenon, because of the persistence of
vision. If this light falls upon a moving object, the object appearing like slow moving or fast moving or moving in
reverse direction, sometimes stationary. This effect is due to the extinguishing nature of the light of the lamp. This
effect is called as ‘stroboscopic effect’.

This effect can be avoided by employing any of the two

techniques listed below.

1. If we have three-phase supply, then the fluorescent lamps

that are adjacent should be fed from different phases. Then,

no two lamps will not be in same phase at zero instant of AC
supply, so light is present at any instant.
Fig. Lead-lag circuit

31
 2. If the available supply is single phase, then twin tube circuitry as shown in above Fig. we can eliminate stroboscopic

effect.

In this lead-lag arrangement, one of the lamps is operating at 0.5 lagging, the other, provided with capacitor, is
operating at 0.5 leading.

In general, the life of a fluorescent lamp is about 7,500 hr. Based on the operating conditions, the lamp's
actual life can be varied from 5,000 to 10,000 hr. It is recommended to replace a lamp after 4,000-5,000 of its
working hours.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF LIGHT CONTROL:

When light falls on a surface, depending up on the nature of the surface of the light, some portion of light
energy is reflected, some portion is transmitted through the medium of the surface and the rest is absorbed. The
ratio of reflected light energy to the incident light energy is known as reflection factor.

There are two basic types of reflections:

(i) Mirror or specular reflections

(ii) Diffuse reflection

In case of specular reflection a beam of light is reflected but in the path of the reflected beam, the eye

is placed in the path of the existence of the light. Moreover, if the eye is placed in the path of the reflected

beam, he sees, not the illuminated surface, but the light source.

Surfaces causing specular reflection or silvered mirrors, highly polished

metals etc. with diffused reflection the reflected light is scattered in all

directions, and the viewer sees the illuminated surface, not the light

source. Surface causing diffused reflection are paper, frosted glass, chalk,

dry-earth, plaster etc.

If a surface that is uniformly illuminated by a beam of light appears to

be equally when viewed from all possible angles, the reflection is said to be

perfectly diffused. Perfect mirror surfaces and perfect diffusing materials are

ideals that do not exist in nature. The reflection from do not exists in

nature. The reflection from any actual surface is partly specular and partly

diffused the promotional varying widely. A surface that is almost free from

mirror deflection is called “Mat Surface”.

TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES:

The distribution of light emitted by lamps is usually controlled to some extent by means of reflectors and

translucent diffusing screens or even lenses. The interior lighting schemes can be
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classified as
(i) Direct lighting

(ii) Semi- Direct lighting

(iii) Semi- in direct lighting

(iv) Indirect lighting

(v) General lighting

Direct lighting schemes:
Direct lighting scheme is most
widely used for interior lighting scheme.
In this scheme, by using
deep reflectors, it is possible to make 90% of light falls just below the lamp. This scheme is more efficient but it
suffers from hard shadows and glare. Hence, while designing such schemes, all the possibilities that will cause
glare on the eye have to be eliminated. It is mainly used for industrial and general outdoor lighting.
Semi direct lighting schemes:
In semi direct lighting scheme, about 60-90% of lamps luminous flux is made to fall downward directly by
using some reflectors and the rest of the light is used to illuminate the walls and ceiling. This type of light
scheme is employed in rooms with high ceiling. Glare can be avoided by employing diffusing globes. This
scheme will improve not only the brightness but also the efficiency.
Indirect lighting schemes :
In this lighting scheme more than 90% of total flux is thrown upwards to the ceiling for diffuse reflection by
using inverted or bowl reflectors. In such a system the ceiling acts as the light source, and the glare is reduced to
minimum. The resulting illumination is softer diffused, the shadows are less prominent and the appearance of the
room is much improved over that which results from direct lighting. It is used for decoration purposes in cinemas,
theatres and hotels etc, and in workshops where large machines and the other obstructions would cause trouble
shadows if direct lighting is employed.

Semi-Indirect Lighting:
In this lighting scheme 60 to 90%of total light flux is thrown upwards to the ceiling for diffuse reflection and
the rest reaches the working plane directly except for some absorption by the bowl. This lighting scheme is with
soft shadows and glare free. It is mainly used for indoor light decoration purposes.
General lighting scheme:
This scheme of lighting use diffusing glasses to produce the equal illumination in all directions. Mounting
height of the source should be much above eye level to avoid glare. Lamp fittings of various lighting schemes are
shown in above Fig.

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 DESIGN OF LIGHTING SCHEMES:
The lighting scheme should be such that it may,
1. Provide adequate illumination,
2. Provide light distribution all over the working plane as uniform as possible,
3. Provide light of suitable colour and
4. Avoid glare and hard shadows as far as possible.
The following factors are required to be considered while designing the lighting schemes.
1. Illumination Level:
It is the task of illumination to give objects a distributed brightness. Body colours have property of reflection
light in different degrees. It is this differential brightness which gives essential perception of details. For each type of
work there is a range of brightness most favorable to output i.e which causes minimum fatigue and gives maximum
output in terms of quality and quantity.
2. Uniformity of Illumination: The human eye adjusts itself automatically to the brightness within the field of vision. If there
is a lack of uniformity, pupil or iris of the eye has to adjust more frequently and thus fatigue is caused to the eye and
productivity is reduced. Local lighting without using matching general lighting creates psychological feelings of loneliness,
gloom and unfriendliness.
3. Color of the Light: The appearance of the body color entirely depends up on the color of the incident light. In general
composition of the light should be such that the color appears natural. Day light fluorescent tubes now a day make it possible to
illuminate economically even large spaces with artificial day light giving good color rending and at sufficiently high level. For
certain applications such as street lighting, color of light does not matter much if different components have not be
distinguished from each other by their colors, highly efficiency discharge lamps, which cause color distortion, can be used.
4. Shadows: In lighting installations, formation of long and hard shadows causes to give eyes and therefore is considered to
be a short-coming. Perhaps to popular opinion a certain amount of shadows is desirable in artificial lighting as it helps to give
shape to the solid objects and makes them easily recognized. Objects illuminated by shadow less light appear flat and
uninteresting, contours are lost and it is difficult for the eye to form a correct judgment of the shape of an object.
5. Glare: It may be direct (or) reflected. Direct glare from a source of light is the more common, and is more often a
hindrance to vision. A glance at the sun proves that an extremely bright light source causes acute eye discomfort.
6. Mounting Height: In the case of direct lighting in the rooms of large floor area, the luminaries should be mounted as close
to the ceiling as possible. In the case of indirect lighting it would of course be desirable to suspend luminaries far enough down
from the ceiling in order to give reasonably uniform on the ceiling.
7. Spacing of Luminaries: Correct spacing is one of great importance to provide uniform illumination over the whole area
and thus do away with comparatively dark areas which are so often when the fittings are badly spaced.

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8. Color of Surrounding Walls: The illumination in any room depends upon the light reflected from the walls and ceilings.
White walls and ceilings reflect more light as compared to colored ones.
FACTORY LIGHTING:

Adequate lighting of factories is of vital importance, as it provides improved amenities for the
employees, increased production and has a definite economic value in reducing accidents with their consequent
loss of time and compensation payments.

General Requirements and Types of Illumination: A factory lighting installation in common with other in order
equipments should provide an adequate illumination on the working plane and give a good distribution of light,
employ simple and easily cleaned fittings and avoid glare. It is essential not only to avoid glare from the lamp itself
but also reflected glare from any polished surface, which may be within the line of vision.
General Lighting: The usual scheme in factories workshops is to mount a no. of lamps at a sufficient height so that
uniform distribution of light over the working plane is obtained. Since light colored walls and ceiling add to the
effectiveness of an installation, therefore it is necessary to get white washing (or) painting done.
Local Lighting: On some points fairly intense illumination is required. For this purpose local lighting can be
provided means of adjustable fittings attached to the machine or bench in question or mounted on portable
floor standards. Such lamps should be mounted in deep reflectors. So that glare is avoided. Low voltage lamps of
not more than 50 volts are recommended for use as portable hand lamps because such lamps have thicker
filament, more robust is also avoided in these few volt lamps. Local lighting should never be employed alone,
good general lighting is essential so that the dark places between the local lighting units are avoided dark
places between the local lighting units cause fatigue to the eyes on account of its continually to adjust itself to new
conditions.

Emergency Lighting:
Some lights, such as for
(i) internal pilot lighting required for safe and speedy evacuation of personnel after main lighting circuit is off
(ii) external pilot lighting, provided with careful shades leading to shelters required for evacuation of
personnel
(iii) for control posts, first aid centres etc.
(iv) dials and gauges in important plants required to be watched regularly are required during an air raid when
all the factory lights are off as a matter of air raid precaution.
Industrial lighting fittings: Reflectors for industrial purpose must be sinple in design and easily cleaned. The
requirements of most of the installations can be met by one of the following types of fittings.
Standard Reflectors: These reflectors are made to accommodate lamps of ratings from 40 to 1,500 watts and
designed so that they give adequate and uniform illumination when they are mounted at a

35
 spacing equal to about 1.5 times their mounting height above the working plane.
Angle Reflectors: Angle reflectors are used to provide illumination in a vertical plane when concentrating type
reflectors are used. These can be mounted on suitable stanchions or the walls.
Maintenance: In order to maintain the fittings in a condition of reasonable efficiency it is necessary to clean the light
fittings periodically. The frequency of cleaning depends on the conditions in the particular factory under
consideration and varies from once or twice a week for very dirty surroundings to every four or six weeks under the
best conditions.
Types of Lamps : The discharge lamps have been used in where colour rendring is not important, The fluorescent
lamps are widely employed on account of its natural day light colour, its even illumination and absence of glare and
in some cases, the fact that it gives rise to considerably less than filament lamps of the same light output.
STREET LIGHTING:

The main objectives of street lighting are

(i) To make the traffic and obstructions on the road clearly visible in order to promote safety and convenience.
(ii) To make the street more attractive.
(iii) To increase the community value of the street.
The principle employed for street lighting is different from that of interior lighting. There are no walls and
ceiling which reflect or diffuse light, hence only direct lighting scheme can be employed and hard shadows and high
contrast cannot be avoided.
Two general principles are employed in the design of street lighting installations, namely
(i) diffusion principle (ii) specular reflection principle
Two general principles are usually employed in the design of street lighting installations ,namely Diffusion
and specular reflection principle.
Diffusion principle: In this case the lamps fitted with suitable reflectors are used. The reflectors are so designed that
they may direct the light downwards and spread as uniformly as possible over the road surface. in order to avoid
glare the reflectors are made to have a cut-off between 30 0 to 450 so that the filament is not visible except from
underneath it. The diffusion nature of the road surface causes the reflection of a certain proportion of the incident
light in the direction of the observer. The illumination at any point on the road surface is calculated by applying point
to point or inverse-square law method. Over certain properties of the road the surface is illuminated from two lamps
and the resultant illumination is the sum of the illuminations due to each lamp.
Specular Reflection principle:

The specular reflection principle enables a motorist to see an object about 30 m ahead. In this case, the reflectors are
curved upwards, so that the light is thrown on the road at a very large angle of incidence. This can be explained with
the help of below Fig. An object resides over the road at ‘P’ in between the lamps S1, S2, and S3 and the observer at
‘Q’.
Thus, the object will appear immediately against the bright road surface due to the lamps at a longer

36
 distance. This method of lighting is only suitable for straight
sections along the road. In this method, it is observed that
the objects on the roadway can be seen by a smaller
expenditure of power than by the diffusion method of
lighting.
Illumination Level For Street Lighting And
Mounting Height Of Lamps:
The illumination required depends up on the class of street
lighting installations. In class A installations
i.e. in important shopping centers and road junctions, illumination level of 30 lumens/m 2 is required where as a in
poorly lighted suburban streets, illumination level of 4 lumens/m2 is sufficient. An average well lighted street will
require illumination level between 8 to 15 lumens/m2. Excellent illumination is considered when the distance apart is
not more than the roads and as far as possible lamps near large trees should be avoided.
Types of Lamps for Street Lighting: Mercury vapour and sodium discharge lamps have been found to have
certain particular advantage for street lighting purpose: lower power consumption for a given amount of light,the
overall cost of an installation with discharge lamps less than that employing filament lamps. The color and mono-
chromatic nature of the light produced by discharge lamps do not matter much in street lighting installations.
METHODS OF LIGHTING CALCULATIONS

There are so many methods have been employed for lighting calculation, some of those methods are as follows.
1. Watts-per-square-meter method.
2. Lumen or light flux method
3. Point-to-point method

Watts-per-square-meter method:
This method is very handy for rough calculations.It consists in making an allowance of watt per square meter
of area to be illuminated according to the illumination desired on the assumption of an average figure of overall
efficiency of the system.
Lumen or light flux method:
This method is applicable to those cases where the sources of light are such as to produce an approximate uniform
illumination over the working plane.
Total lumens required = No.of lamps X wattage of each lamp X efficiency of each lamp (in terms of lumen/watt) X
coefficient of utilization X maintenance factor

Point-to-point method:
This method is applicable where the illumination at a point due to one or more sources of light is required,the candle
power of the sources in the particular direction under consideration being known. This method is not much used
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(because of its complicated applications);it is employed only in some

38
special problems, such as flood lighting,yard lighting etc.

Where N=No.of lamp fitting needed,

E=Required Illumination (lux)
A= working area ( square meter)
O= Luminous flux produced per lamp (lumens) UF=
Utilisation factor or co-efficient of utilization
MF=Maintaince factor

Example 1: A room 20 × 10 m is illuminated by 60 W incandescent lamps of lumen output of 1,600 lumens.

The average illumination required at the workplace is 300 lux. Calculate the number of lamps required to be
fitted in the room. Assume utilization and depreciation factors as
0.5 and 1, respectively.

Solution:

The area of the room (A) = 20 × 10 m = 200 m2.

Total illumination required (E) = 300 lux. T he

wattage of each lamp = 60 W

The luminous output of the lamp (ij) = 1,600 lumens UF = 0.5,

DF = 1.

∴ Maintenance factor,

∴ The number of lamps required:

Example 2 : A drawing, with an area of 18 × 12 m, is to be illuminated with an average illumination of about 150 lux.
The lamps are to be fitted at 6 m height. Find out the number and size of incandescent lamps
required for an efficiency of 20 lumens/W. UF = 0.6, MF = 0.75.
Solution:
Given data:

η= 120 lumens/W

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E= 150 lux A= 18 × 12 = 216 m2 UF = 0.6 MF= o.75

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 Let, if 24 lamps are arranged to illuminate the desired area. For space to height ratio unity, i.e., 6 lamps are taken
along the length with a space of 18/6 = 3m, and 4 lamps are along the width giving a space of 12/4 = 3 m.

The arrangement of 24 lamps in a hall of 18 × 12 m is shown in Fig

Example: Four lamps 15 m apart are arranged to illuminate a corridor. Each lamp is suspended at a height of 8 m
above the floor level. Each lamp gives 450 CP in all directions below the horizontal; find the illumination at the
second and the third lamp.

Solution:
Given data:
Luminous intensity = 450 CP
Mounting height = 8 m.

Distance between the adjacent lamps = 15 m

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The illumination at ‘P’ = the illumination due to L1 + the illumination due to L2
+ the illumination due to L3 + the illumination due to L4.

The Illumination at ‘P’ due to L1, E1=

But = 8 + (22.5) = 23.88

ℎ 8
= =23.8 = 0.34
8
∴ 1= =
450 0.34 = 0.26
23.88

The Illumination at ‘P’ due to L2, E2=

But = 8 + (7.5) = 10.96

ℎ 8
= =10.9 = 0.73
6
∴ 2= =
450 0.73 = 2.73
10.96

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Similarly, the illumination at ‘P’ due to the lamp L3 ‘E3’ = the illumination at ‘P’ due to the lamp ‘L2’, ‘E2’, and the
illumination at ‘P’ due to the lamp L4, ‘E4’ = illumination at ‘P’ due to the lamp ‘L1’, ‘E1.'
∴ The total illumination at ‘P = E1+ E2 + E3+ E4
= 2E1+ 2E2
= 2(E1+ E2)
= 2 (0.26 + 2.73) = 5.98 lux.

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