Power Systems

Operation/Dynamics
and Control
Developer: Dr Kiprono Letting

Programme
:
COURSE PURPOSE
To equip learners with the knowledge and skills necessary to understand, analyze, and optim
operation of electrical power systems

EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, learners will be able to:
1. Explain the operating states of electrical power systems and the control strategies
employed in energy management centers.
2. Solve complex economic dispatch problems to optimize power system operation.
3. Identify and select suitable methods for unit commitment in power system
networks.
4. Design effective algorithms for voltage and frequency control within power
systems.

COURSE CONTENT
Introduction to Power Systems Operation and Control: power system operating states, control
objectives in each operating state, SCADA system in energy management centres. Economic
Dispatch in Power Systems: principles of economic dispatch, optimization techniques for
minimizing production cost, case studies and applications. Unit Commitment in Power System
Networks: Fundamentals of Unit Commitment, Mathematical Formulation and Modelling,
Solution Algorithms and Techniques, Practical Considerations and Constraints. Voltage and
Frequency Control: importance of voltage and frequency control, control strategies for voltage
regulation, control strategies for frequency regulation, devices and technologies for voltage and
frequency control.

LIST OF MODULES
MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION
MODULE 2: SCADA SYSTEMS IN ENERGY MANAGEMENT CENTRES
MODULE 3: POWER SYSTEM OPTIMIZATION
MODULE 4: ECONOMIC DISPATCH – PART I
MODULE 5: ECONOMIC DISPATCH – PART II
MODULE 6: UNIT COMMITMENT – PART I
MODULE 7: UNIT COMMITMENT – PART II

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MODULE 8: VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER CONTROL
MODULE 9: AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
COURSE PURPOSE ................................................................................................. 1
COURSE CONTENT ................................................................................................ 1
Expected Learning Outcomes .................................................................................. 1
List of modules ........................................................................................................ 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................ 2
MODULE 1: Introduction to power systems operation ............................................... 9
Module Overview ............................................................................................. 9
Learning Outcomes ......................................................................................... 9
Learning Activities/Task List ...................................................................... 10
INTRODUCTION TO power systems operation ..................................................... 10
Introduction to Power Systems Operation and Control ...................................... 10
Role and Importance of Power Systems in Society .............................................. 10
Why We Need to Manage and Control Power Systems ........................................ 12
VIDEO 1 ........................................................................................................... 12

Key parts in the power system structure ...................................................................... 12

ACTIVITY 4: QUIZ 1 .......................................................................................... 13
Power System Operating States ............................................................................. 15
Definition of a Power System Operating State .................................................... 15
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 Power System Stability ....................................................................................... 18
ACTIVITY 6: QUIZ 2 .......................................................................................... 23
N-1 Criterion ......................................................................................................... 25
What is the N-1 Criterion? ................................................................................. 25

2. Power System Security vs Power System Reliability ........................... 28

ACTIVITY 8: ONLINEDISCUSSION ................................................................... 31
ACTIVITY 9: QUIZ 3 .......................................................................................... 31
REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER READING ..................................................... 33

.................................................................................................................... 33
TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION ....................................................... 33
What’s Next? ......................................................................................................... 33
MODULE 2: SCADA SYSTEMS IN ENERGY MANAGEMENT CENTRES ................. 34
Module Overview................................................................................................... 34
Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................ 34
Learning Activities/Task List ...................................................................... 35
energy management centres .................................................................................. 35
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF ENERGY MANAGEMENT CENTRES ..................... 37
SCADA Communication Channel........................................................................ 39
Standard SCADA Configurations ........................................................................ 41
ACTIVITY 2: QUIZ 1 .......................................................................................... 44
Power System Automation ..................................................................................... 46
Evolution of Automation Systems in Power Systems .......................................... 46
SCADA in Power Systems ................................................................................... 47
ACTIVITY 4: QUIZ 2 .......................................................................................... 52
Advantages of SCADA in Power Systems ............................................................ 54
Risks and Challenges of SCADA in Power Systems ............................................. 56

Troubleshooting Techniques for Common SCADA-Related Issues in Electrical

Power Systems .................................................................................................... 59
ACTIVITY 6: CASE STUDY .................................................................................... 63

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 Case Study: SCADA Implementation and Troubleshooting in ABC Power Utility . 63

Answer Key: ....................................................................................................... 67

REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER READING ..................................................... 67

.................................................................................................................... 68
TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION ....................................................... 68
What’s Next? ......................................................................................................... 68
MODULE 3: power system optimization .................................................................. 69
Module Overview................................................................................................... 69
Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................... 69
Learning Activities/Task List ...................................................................... 70
Introduction .......................................................................................................... 70
1. Fundamentals of Optimization and Problem Formulation .............................. 70
1.2 Unconstrained, Linear, and Non-Linear Programming for Power System
Operations ......................................................................................................... 71
1.3 Optimization Problem Formulation in Power Systems: ................................ 72
2. economic load dispatch ............................................................................... 75

1. Types of Power Plants and Their Roles in ELD: ............................................... 76

2. Load Curve and Generation Allocation: ........................................................... 76

3. Challenges in ELD: ......................................................................................... 77

Thermal Generating Unit Characteristics ............................................................ 78

activity 2: QUIZ 1 ............................................................................................... 82
3. ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH METHODS ..................................................... 85
ACTIVITY 3: READING MATERIAL .................................................................. 85
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 ...................................................................................... 86
2. Gradient Methods .......................................................................................... 87
3. Lagrange Multiplier Method ........................................................................... 89

Basic Idea: ................................................................................................................. 89

Objective Function: ................................................................................................. 89

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 Lagrangian Formulation: .......................................................................................... 89
ACTIVITY 5: CASE STUDY .................................................................................. 100
ACTIVITY 6: QUIZ 3 ........................................................................................ 102
REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER READING ................................................... 106

.................................................................................................................. 106
TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION ..................................................... 106
MODULE 4: Economic Dispatch -PART I ........................................................... 107
Module Overview ......................................................................................... 108
Learning Outcomes ..................................................................................... 108
Learning Activities/Task List .................................................................... 109
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 109

ACTIVITY 2: QUIZ 1 ........................................................................................ 120

3. economic dispatch including losses-SOLution procedure .................................... 124
ACTIVITY 5: CASE STUDY .................................................................................. 134
REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER READING ................................................... 136
TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION ..................................................... 137

WHAT’S NEXT? .................................................................................................... 137

MODULE 5: economic dispatch – PART II ............................................................ 138
Module Overview ......................................................................................... 138
Learning Outcomes ..................................................................................... 138
Learning Activities/Task List .................................................................... 139
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 139
Base Point and Participation Factors Method ...................................................... 139
ACTIVITY 2: QUIZ 1 ........................................................................................ 142
worked Example 1 ............................................................................................ 146
ACTIVITY 3: CASE STUDY .................................................................................. 147
REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER READING ................................................... 152

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 .................................................................................................................. 152
TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION ..................................................... 152

WHAT’S NEXT? .................................................................................................... 152

MODULE 6: unit commitment – PART I ................................................................ 153
Module Overview ......................................................................................... 153
Learning Outcomes ..................................................................................... 153
Learning Activities/Task List .................................................................... 154
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 154
formulation of unit commitment problem ........................................................... 156
ACTIVITY 2: QUIZ 1 ........................................................................................ 157
Constraints on the Unit Commitment (UC) Problem ........................................... 159
ACTIVITY 4: QUIZ 2 ........................................................................................ 165
REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER READING ................................................... 167
TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION ..................................................... 167
MODULE 7: unit commitment solution methods ................................................... 168
Module Overview ......................................................................................... 168
Learning Outcomes ..................................................................................... 168
Learning Activities/Task List .................................................................... 169
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 169
priority list method ............................................................................................. 170
Priority List Scheme with Simple Shut-Down Algorithm .................................. 171
activity 2: QUIZ 1 ............................................................................................. 173
dynamic programming ........................................................................................ 177
ACTIVITY 5: QUIZ 2 ........................................................................................ 179
VIDEO 2 ......................................................................................................... 182
ACTIVITY 7: CASE STUDY .................................................................................. 184
REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER READING ................................................... 191

.................................................................................................................. 191

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 TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION ..................................................... 191
MODULE 8: voltage and reactive power control ..................................................... 192
Module Overview ......................................................................................... 192
Learning Outcomes ..................................................................................... 192
Learning Activities/Task List .................................................................... 193
voltage control ........................................................................................................ 193
VIDEO 1 ......................................................................................................... 193
activity 3: QUIZ 1 ............................................................................................. 197
reactive power control ......................................................................................... 200
ACTIVITY 4: VIDEO 2...................................................................................... 200
ACTIVITY 6: CASE STUDY .................................................................................. 205
REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER READING ................................................... 209

.................................................................................................................. 210
TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION ..................................................... 210

WHAT’S NEXT? .................................................................................................... 210

MODULE 9: automatic generation control .............................................................. 211
Module Overview ......................................................................................... 211
Learning Outcomes ..................................................................................... 212
Learning Activities/Task List .................................................................... 212
Introduction to Load Frequency Control ............................................................. 212
generator speed control .......................................................................................... 213
ACTIVITY 2: VIDEO 1 ............................................................................................ 213
activity 3: QUIZ 1 ............................................................................................. 214
automatic generation control............................................................................... 216
Activity 4: VIDEO 2 .......................................................................................... 216
VIDEO 2 ......................................................................................................... 216
ACTIVITY 6: CASE STUDY .................................................................................. 222

Case Study: Automatic Generation Control (AGC) in the Indian National Grid .. 222
activity 7: QUIZ 3 ............................................................................................. 224

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REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER READING ................................................... 227

.................................................................................................................. 228
TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION ..................................................... 228

WHAT’S NEXT? .................................................................................................... 228

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MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO POWER SYSTEMS
OPERATION

INSTRUCTIONAL HOURS: 4

MODULE OVERVIEW
In this module, you will learn about the fundamental components and operations of
electrical power systems. You will explore the key elements that make up a power
system, including generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity. This module
also introduces the critical role of control in ensuring the reliability and stability of
power systems. Additionally, you will differentiate between various operating states,
such as normal, alert, and emergency states, and understand the specific control
measures used in each scenario. By the end of this module, you will have a solid
understanding of how electrical power systems function and the importance of
maintaining operational control.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Define the key components and functions of electrical
power systems.
2. Explain the role of generation, transmission, and distribution
in power systems.
3. Discuss the importance of control measures for ensuring
system stability.
4. Differentiate between the normal, alert, and emergency
operating states of power systems.

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LEARNING ACTIVITIES/TASK LIST
1. Watch Lecture Video
2. Review power presentation PDF
3. Watch lecture related videos
4. Complete participation assignment: Quiz 1
5. Complete personal introduction video
6. Review concept assignment : Quiz 2

INTRODUCTION TO POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION

ACTIVITY 1: READING MATERIAL

INTRODUCTION TO POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL

Power systems operation and control refers to the processes and strategies used to manage and
optimize the generation, transmission, and distribution of electrical power.
It involves monitoring and adjusting the power system to ensure the stable and reliable delivery of
electricity to consumers while maintaining system security and operational efficiency.
The operation of a power system covers aspects like load balancing, voltage control, frequency control,
and dispatching generation resources efficiently.
Effective control is necessary to handle real-time fluctuations in demand and supply, ensure system
stability, and prevent failures that could lead to widespread outages.

ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF POWER SYSTEMS IN SOCIETY

The power system plays a crucial role in modern society by ensuring the continuous supply of
electricity, which is fundamental for various aspects of daily life, economic development, and
technological advancement. Here are the key roles and importance of the power system to society:

1. Facilitating Economic Growth

• Role: Power systems provide the necessary energy for industries, businesses, and services to
operate. Factories, offices, and commercial establishments rely on consistent and reliable
electricity to maintain productivity.
• Importance: A reliable power system supports industrialization, job creation, and economic
growth, enabling countries to compete globally.

2. Improving Quality of Life

• Role: Power systems provide electricity for households, enabling access to lighting, heating,
cooling, and a range of electrical appliances that improve the quality of daily life.
• Importance: Access to electricity enhances education, healthcare, communication, and
entertainment, contributing to the overall well-being of society.

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3. Supporting Technological Innovation

• Role: Modern technologies, such as computers, telecommunications, and the internet,

depend on reliable electricity from power systems. Innovations in science, research, and
development are facilitated by the energy provided by power systems.
• Importance: Power systems fuel advancements in technology, automation, and digital
services, which are essential for progress in fields like healthcare, education, and
infrastructure.

4. Ensuring National Security and Stability

• Role: Critical infrastructure, such as defense systems, emergency services, and law
enforcement, relies on a stable and resilient power system. Hospitals, military bases, and
governmental operations need continuous power to function effectively.
• Importance: A stable power system ensures that essential services are available during
emergencies, natural disasters, or security threats, maintaining societal stability and safety.

5. Enabling Access to Clean Water and Sanitation

• Role: Power systems are essential for water supply and sanitation systems, including water
pumping stations, treatment plants, and waste management facilities.
• Importance: A reliable power system ensures access to clean water and proper sanitation,
critical for public health and the prevention of diseases.

6. Driving Sustainability and Renewable Energy Integration

• Role: Modern power systems are transitioning toward renewable energy sources, such as
wind, solar, and hydroelectric power, to reduce carbon emissions and promote
environmental sustainability.
• Importance: By integrating renewable energy, power systems help combat climate change
and reduce dependency on fossil fuels, contributing to global environmental goals.

7. Supporting Global Connectivity

• Role: Power systems enable the operation of telecommunications networks, internet

infrastructure, and data centers, which are crucial for global connectivity and
communication.
• Importance: Reliable electricity ensures that people and businesses remain connected
globally, facilitating trade, education, and information exchange in real-time.

8. Fostering Innovation in Transport Systems

• Role: Electric transportation systems, such as trains, electric vehicles, and public transit
networks, rely on power systems for their operation.
• Importance: Power systems are central to the development of sustainable transport
solutions, reducing carbon footprints and enabling more efficient movement of people and
goods.

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WHY WE NEED TO MANAGE AND CONTROL POWER SYSTEMS
Managing and controlling power systems is essential for several reasons:
1. Reliability: To ensure the continuous and dependable supply of electricity to consumers. Without
proper control, power systems can suffer from blackouts or instability.
2. Efficiency: Proper control ensures that electricity is generated and delivered in the most cost-
effective and energy-efficient manner.
3. Stability: Power systems are dynamic, and maintaining stable voltage and frequency is critical to
avoid damaging equipment and ensuring safe operation.
4. Security: To protect the system from faults, failures, and external disturbances, ensuring that power
continues to flow even under adverse conditions.

ACTIVITY 2: Video on Power System Structure

Please watch the video below on power system structure. Take notes as you watch
the video.

VIDEO 1 (Power System Structure)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmhmflP0gYw

ACTIVITY 3: READING MATERIAL

Key parts in the power system structure

1. Generation: The production of electrical energy from various primary energy sources, including
fossil fuels, hydro, nuclear, and renewable sources such as wind and solar.
Power plants generate electricity at relatively high voltages to efficiently connect to transmission
systems.
2. Transmission: The process of moving bulk electricity from power plants to substations over long
distances. Transmission occurs at high voltage levels (110 kV to 765 kV) to reduce energy losses.
3. Distribution: The process of delivering electricity from substations to end consumers. Distribution
occurs at lower voltage levels (4 kV to 35 kV).

The typical voltage levels for power generation vary depending on the energy source and the scale of
the plant. Here are the typical voltage levels for different generation types:

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 Power Generation Type Typical Voltage Range Explanation

Hydroelectric 11 kV to 33 kV Hydroelectric power plants

generate at 11 kV to 33 kV
to facilitate voltage stepping
for transmission.

Solar Photovoltaic (PV) 400V to 1.5 kV (DC) Solar PV systems generate

DC electricity at low
voltages (400V to 1.5 kV).
Inverters convert it to AC
and transformers step it up
for grid integration.

Geothermal 11 kV to 13.8 kV Geothermal plants typically

generate at 11 kV to 13.8 kV
before stepping up for
transmission.

Wind 690V to 33 kV Wind turbines generate at

690V, with the voltage
stepped up to 11 kV or 33
kV at substations for
transmission.

ACTIVITY 4: QUIZ 1

Instructions to Learners:
1. Read each question carefully and consider all the answer choices provided.
2. Select two correct answers for each question. Each question has exactly two
correct answers.
3. Mark only two answers per question. If you select more than two, the question
will be marked as incorrect.
4. Take your time, and review your answers before submitting.

1. Why are power systems crucial for the modern economy?

• A. They ensure the reliable supply of electricity to drive industrial, commercial, and
household activities
• B. They provide a means to transport goods efficiently
• C. They regulate the flow of information in telecommunications
• D. They enhance the mobility of people between regions
• E. They manage global fuel prices
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2. Which of the following best describes the importance of managing and controlling power
systems?

• A. To reduce the cost of fuel used in power plants

• B. To ensure the system remains stable, secure, and operates efficiently under
changing conditions
• C. To ensure a continuous supply of renewable energy
• D. To maintain high levels of consumer demand for electricity
• E. To minimize system downtime

3. What is the primary reason for generating electricity at high voltages in power plants?

• A. To decrease the generation cost

• B. To ensure safety in residential areas
• C. To reduce energy losses when transmitting electricity over long distances
• D. To increase the efficiency of electricity delivery
• E. To improve control of power distribution

4. Which component of a power system is responsible for stepping up the voltage generated
at power stations for long-distance transmission?

• A. Distribution transformer
• B. Circuit breaker
• C. Step-up transformer
• D. Substation
• E. Power inverter

5. Why is the voltage stepped down in distribution networks before it reaches consumers?

• A. To facilitate long-distance electricity transfer

• B. To ensure that it is at a safe level for household and commercial use
• C. To allow easier connection to renewable energy sources
• D. To prevent excessive energy losses
• E. To increase the grid's reliability

6. What is the main purpose of SCADA systems in power system control?

• A. To generate electricity from renewable sources

• B. To monitor and control power system operations in real time
• C. To protect transmission lines from physical damage
• D. To store energy for future use
• E. To coordinate system maintenance schedules

7. Which of the following describes the primary role of transformers in a power system?

• A. To generate electricity more efficiently

• B. To step up or step down voltage levels for safe and efficient transmission or
distribution
• C. To store excess energy during low demand periods
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 • D. To regulate the frequency of the electricity grid
• E. To convert DC to AC power.

POWER SYSTEM OPERATING STATES

ACTIVITY 5: READING MATERIAL

DEFINITION OF A POWER SYSTEM OPERATING STATE

A power system operating state refers to the specific condition of the electrical power system at any
given time, determined by factors such as voltage levels, frequency, power flow, and load demands. It
describes the overall performance of the power system, including its ability to meet the demand for
electricity while maintaining stability, security, and reliability.
Operating states can vary from normal operation to various levels of stress or disturbance. The system
transitions between these states based on
internal or external changes, such as fluctuations in demand, faults, or failures of equipment.

Fig. Power System Operating States

1. Normal Operating State

- Operating Conditions: The system operates within secure and stable limits. Voltage, frequency, and
power flows are within prescribed standards, and all loads are being served without issues.
-Control Measures: Routine control measures are in place, such as load balancing, voltage control,
and frequency regulation. The system operates efficiently, meeting demand through economic
dispatch, without the need for corrective actions.
Transition to Next State: The system moves to an alert state if an imbalance between supply and
15
demand begins to develop or if equipment is approaching capacity limits, leading to stress on the
system.
Transition to Previous State: This is the default state, so no further transitions are required when
the system remains balanced and stable.

2. Alert Operating State

Operating Conditions: The system is still operating within acceptable limits but is experiencing
stress due to rising demand, equipment nearing capacity, or external disturbances such as extreme
weather conditions. The system remains secure, but margins for stability and reliability are reduced.
Control Measures: Preventative actions are taken to avoid a deterioration of system performance.
These may include increasing generation reserves, reducing demand (through voluntary load
shedding or demand-side management), and closely monitoring system parameters like voltage and
frequency.
Transition to Next State: If the stress on the system continues or escalates (e.g., equipment failure,
continued increase in demand), the system may enter an emergency state where operational limits are
violated.
Transition to Previous State: If control measures successfully relieve the stress (e.g., load decreases,
additional generation comes online), the system can return to the normal state.

3. Emergency Operating State

Operating Conditions: The system is under severe stress, and key operating parameters such as
voltage, frequency, or power flow exceed safe limits. The system is unable to maintain a stable balance
between supply and demand, resulting in potential equipment damage or cascading failures.
Control Measures: Immediate corrective actions are required to prevent widespread outages. This
may include automatic or manual load shedding, islanding parts of the network, or bringing additional
emergency generators online. Protective relays may trip circuits to isolate faulted areas.
Transition to Next State: If corrective measures fail and the system deteriorates further, it may enter
an in-extremis state, where major sections of the grid experience outages or blackouts.
Transition to Previous State: If corrective measures are successful in stabilizing the system (e.g.,
load shedding reduces demand, faults are isolated), the system may return to the alert state for further
monitoring.

4. In-Extremis Operating State

Operating Conditions: The power system is in a critical condition where large portions of the grid
have failed, resulting in blackouts or outages across significant areas. The system is no longer able to
meet the load, and cascading failures may have occurred.
-Control Measures: This state requires the most drastic measures, including controlled blackouts,
restarting of generation plants, and coordination between various grid operators to prevent total
system collapse. Efforts may focus on saving critical infrastructure (hospitals, defense installations,
etc.).

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Transition to Next State: The system can transition to the restorative state once immediate crises are
managed and efforts are made to bring sections of the grid back online.
Transition to Previous State: There is no direct transition to previous states. The goal is to recover
from this state by restoring system components gradually.

5. Restorative Operating State

Operating Conditions: The system is in the process of recovering from an emergency or in-extremis
state. Parts of the grid may still be offline, but efforts are underway to restore power and return to
normal operations.
Control Measures: Careful coordination is required to bring generators back online, reconnect loads,
and stabilize frequency and voltage. This may involve black start procedures, reconnecting isolated
sections of the grid, and ramping up generation incrementally.
Transition to Next State: As power is restored and operating parameters return to acceptable limits,
the system can transition back to the normal state.
Transition to Previous State: If restoration efforts are unsuccessful or further disturbances occur,
the system could fall back into the in-extremis state or emergency state.

Operating Operating Control Transition

State Conditions Measures

Normal System operates Routine control Moves to Alert

within stable measures such as state if system
limits, voltage load balancing, stress increases.
and frequency frequency
are normal. regulation.

Alert System is under Preventative Transitions to

stress but still measures like Emergency if
within increasing system stress
acceptable reserves, escalates or
limits, reducing parameters
equipment demand. exceed limits.
nearing capacity.

Emergency Severe stress, Immediate Moves to In-

operating corrective Extremis if
parameters actions including corrective
exceed safe load shedding measures fail.
limits, risk of and isolating
failure or faults.
cascading
outages.

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 In-Extremis Large portions of Drastic measures Transitions to
the grid fail, like controlled Restorative once
blackouts occur, blackouts and crisis is
cascading restarting managed.
failures likely. generation.

Restorative System is Careful Transitions back

recovering from coordination to to Normal once
an emergency, restore power system stabilizes.
efforts underway through black
to restore power. start and
reconnecting
loads.

POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

Definition:
Power system stability refers to the ability of an electrical power system to return to a steady state
of operation following a disturbance. Stability ensures that system components such as generators,
transformers, and transmission lines remain synchronized, maintaining normal operation without
uncontrollable fluctuations in voltage or frequency.

Types of Power System Stability:

1. Rotor Angle Stability: The ability of synchronous generators to remain in synchronism

after a disturbance, such as a fault or sudden load change.
2. Frequency Stability: The ability of the power system to maintain steady frequency
following a severe system imbalance between generation and demand. Acceptable
frequency deviation typically falls within ±0.1 Hz to ±1 Hz of the nominal value.
3. Voltage Stability: The ability of the system to maintain acceptable voltage levels under
normal conditions and after disturbances. The voltage must remain within ±5% to ±10% of
the nominal voltage to avoid equipment damage and inefficiencies.

Conditions Describing a Stable Power System:

• The system maintains synchronized operation of generators.

• Frequency and voltage remain within acceptable limits.
• The system is capable of returning to a steady-state operating point after minor or major
disturbances.
• Reactive power demand is managed, preventing voltage collapse.

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Synchronous Operation

When synchronous generators are operating in synchronism, it means that multiple generators
connected to the same power grid are operating with the same frequency and phase angle. This
coordinated operation ensures that the generators rotate at the same speed and produce alternating
current (AC) that is in sync with each other, allowing them to supply power to the grid without
causing instability.

For synchronous operation:

1. Same Frequency: All generators must maintain the same frequency (e.g., 50 Hz or 60 Hz,
depending on the grid standard). If one generator's frequency differs, it would create
conflicts in the power supplied, leading to imbalances and potentially damaging equipment.
2. Same Phase Angle: The AC waveforms produced by each generator must have the same
phase relationship. The phase angle must match so that the peaks and troughs of the voltage
and current waveforms align across all generators in the system.
3. Same Rotational Speed: Since the frequency of the generated electricity is directly
proportional to the rotational speed of the generator's rotor, synchronous generators must
maintain the same speed to ensure that their output frequencies remain synchronized.

Why Synchronism is Important:

• Stable Power Supply: Synchronism ensures that all generators contribute evenly to the grid
without creating disturbances, such as power surges or voltage drops.
• Load Sharing: When generators operate in synchronism, they can share the load efficiently.
Each generator will supply power proportional to its capacity without overloading one
machine.
• System Stability: Loss of synchronism (also known as generator "out of step") can lead to
severe system instability, potentially causing power oscillations, equipment damage, or
widespread blackouts.

Frequency Stability

Definition:
Frequency stability refers to the ability of a power system to maintain its nominal operating
frequency (e.g., 50 Hz or 60 Hz) following disturbances or fluctuations in generation and load.
Maintaining stable frequency is essential because significant deviations can damage equipment and
lead to system instability.

Conditions Affecting Frequency Stability:

1. Mismatch Between Generation and Load:

o Overgeneration: When power generation exceeds demand, the system frequency
tends to rise above the nominal value. Generators may accelerate because the
electrical load is not absorbing all the energy being produced.
o Under-generation: When demand exceeds power generation, the system frequency
decreases as the generators slow down due to insufficient energy to meet the load.
This condition is particularly dangerous, as it can lead to a system-wide collapse if
not corrected quickly.
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 2. Inertia of the Power System:
o Inertia is the natural resistance of the rotating masses (such as turbines in power
plants) to changes in speed. A system with high inertia can absorb frequency
fluctuations more smoothly, while a system with low inertia (e.g., due to higher
integration of renewable energy sources like wind and solar) is more vulnerable to
rapid frequency changes.
o A lower inertia system experiences faster frequency deviations after a disturbance,
making it harder to maintain stability.
3. Imbalance in Power Supply After Disturbances:
o Generator Trips: The sudden disconnection of a large generator from the grid
reduces the total power supply, leading to a frequency drop.
o Sudden Load Changes: Rapid changes in load, such as large industrial machinery
starting or stopping, can create frequency swings.
4. Reserve Capacity:
o The availability of spinning reserves (online but not fully loaded generators) helps
maintain frequency stability by quickly supplying power when needed.
o Inadequate reserve capacity makes it difficult to restore balance in the event of a
disturbance, leading to frequency instability.
5. Automatic Frequency Control Systems:
o Primary Frequency Control (or load-frequency control) involves automatic
adjustments of generator output to maintain frequency within acceptable limits. If
control systems are slow or malfunctioning, the system may struggle to recover from
frequency fluctuations.
o Governor Action: If the speed governors of generators do not react quickly enough
to frequency deviations, stability may be compromised.

Voltage Stability

Definition:
Voltage stability refers to the ability of a power system to maintain steady acceptable voltage levels
at all buses (substations and load points) during normal operation and after disturbances. Voltage
instability can lead to voltage collapse, where voltage levels drop uncontrollably, resulting in
blackouts.

Conditions Affecting Voltage Stability:

1. Reactive Power Balance:

o Reactive power is essential for maintaining voltage levels in the system. A
mismatch between reactive power supply and demand can lead to voltage instability.
o Lack of Reactive Power Supply: If there is insufficient reactive power support
(e.g., from generators, capacitors, or voltage control devices), voltage levels can
drop, especially during peak demand or faults.
o Excessive Reactive Power Demand: Certain loads, like induction motors and
heavily loaded transmission lines, require high reactive power. If the demand for
reactive power exceeds the system's capacity, voltage stability is compromised.
2. Transmission Line Overloading:

20
 o When transmission lines are heavily loaded, the impedance (resistance) increases,
causing voltage drops along the line. If this persists, it can lead to voltage collapse,
especially during high-demand periods or system faults.
o Long transmission lines, especially in remote areas, require more reactive power to
maintain stable voltage levels. Insufficient reactive power compensation can lead to
voltage drops.
3. Generator Voltage Control:
o Generators equipped with automatic voltage regulators (AVRs) play a crucial role
in maintaining voltage stability. These regulators control the excitation of generators,
adjusting the voltage output to match system requirements.
o If generators are operating at their reactive power limits, they may not be able to
provide sufficient voltage support, leading to voltage instability.
4. Load Characteristics:
o Voltage-sensitive loads (e.g., industrial machinery) can cause voltage drops when
there is a sudden increase in demand. Loads like motors can draw more reactive
power during start-up, reducing voltage at nearby buses.
o Motor Loads: When motors start, they draw large amounts of reactive power, which
can cause local voltage drops. If not properly managed, these voltage drops can
propagate through the system.
5. Voltage Collapse During Faults:
o Faults (e.g., short circuits) in transmission or distribution systems can cause sharp
voltage drops. If reactive power support is inadequate or the system is already
stressed, this can trigger voltage instability.
o After faults, voltage must be restored quickly to avoid cascading failures, especially
in heavily loaded areas of the grid.
6. Reactive Power Compensation Devices:
o Devices like capacitor banks, synchronous condensers, and FACTS (Flexible AC
Transmission Systems) help maintain voltage levels by providing or absorbing
reactive power as needed.
o If these devices are unavailable, inadequate, or slow to respond, the system may
experience voltage instability.
7. Distance from Generation Source:
o Voltage tends to drop as distance from the generation source increases, particularly
in areas served by long transmission lines. Without proper compensation, remote
areas can experience low voltage during peak load conditions.

Power System Security

Definition:
Power system security refers to the ability of the electrical grid to continue delivering electricity
even in the face of unexpected disturbances or failures, such as equipment faults, line outages, or
external disruptions like natural disasters. Security involves ensuring that the system is resilient to
these events and capable of preventing widespread blackouts or system failures.

Conditions Describing a Secure Power System:

21
 • The system can withstand faults or failures of major equipment without losing service to
consumers.
• Protective measures like relays and circuit breakers are in place to quickly isolate faults
and protect the system from cascading failures.
• The system has redundancies (e.g., backup generators, alternative transmission paths) to
ensure continued operation during a fault or emergency.
• There is adequate reserves and generation capacity to handle fluctuations or failures in
supply.

Relationship Between Power System Operating States and Power System

Stability

• Normal Operating State:

In the normal state, the power system is stable, with synchronized operation of all generators
and transmission components. Voltage and frequency remain within the prescribed limits,
and minor disturbances can be easily managed without affecting stability. Control measures
like frequency regulation and voltage balancing ensure that the system remains in a stable
state.
• Alert Operating State:
In the alert state, the system begins to experience stress but remains stable. This could be
due to higher than usual loads or generation nearing capacity limits. While the system is still
stable, control measures like increasing reserves or shifting loads are taken to avoid any
destabilization that could transition the system into an emergency state.
• Emergency Operating State:
In the emergency state, the system stability is compromised. Voltage or frequency may
deviate beyond safe limits, and the system may experience transient or sustained instability.
Immediate corrective actions, such as load shedding or fault isolation, are required to regain
stability. If stability is not restored, the system may deteriorate further into an in-extremis
state.
• Restorative State:
In this state, the system is recovering from an emergency or blackout. Restoration efforts
aim to reestablish stable operation by gradually bringing generators and loads back online
while ensuring synchronized operation and balanced power flows. The system transitions
back to stability as operating conditions are normalized.

Relationship Between Power System Operating States and Power System

Security

• Normal Operating State:

In this state, the system is secure, with all components operating within safe limits. The
system has enough reserve capacity and redundancy to handle minor disturbances. Security
measures such as protective relays, backup generators, and SCADA monitoring ensure that
the system can react to faults without significant disruption.
• Alert Operating State:
In the alert state, the system's security is at risk but not yet compromised. The system may
22
 be approaching its operational limits, but security mechanisms such as load shedding or
dispatching additional generation are put in place to maintain control. If further disturbances
occur, the system's security could degrade, transitioning into an emergency state.
• Emergency Operating State:
In the emergency state, the system's security is threatened. There may be equipment failures,
line outages, or severe generation imbalances that push the system into an insecure
condition. Immediate actions, like isolating faulty sections or redistributing power, are
necessary to prevent a cascading failure. Failure to restore security quickly could lead to a
widespread blackout.
• Restorative State:
In the restorative state, the system is regaining its security after an emergency or in-extremis
situation. The goal is to bring components back online in a controlled manner while
ensuring that security measures, such as relays and redundancy paths, are active and
functioning. Once system conditions are stable and secure, the system can return to a normal
operating state.

ACTIVITY 6: QUIZ 2

Instructions to Learners:
1. Read each question carefully and consider all the answer choices provided.
2. Select two correct answers for each question. Each question has exactly two
correct answers.
3. Mark only two answers per question. If you select more than two, the question
will be marked as incorrect.
4. Take your time, and review your answers before submitting.

1. What is the primary goal of a power system in the "Normal Operating State"?

• A. To increase electricity generation beyond demand

• B. To maintain system stability and security by balancing supply and demand
• C. To handle widespread blackouts
• D. To operate generators at maximum capacity
• E. To minimize energy losses

2. When a power system enters the "Alert Operating State," what condition is likely to be
present?

• A. System frequency is stable and within nominal limits

• B. System is under stress, but voltage and frequency are still within acceptable limits
• C. All generators are disconnected from the grid
• D. A blackout has occurred, and the system is in recovery mode
• E. Reserves are low but manageable

3. What is the most appropriate control measure when a power system is in the "Emergency
Operating State"?

23
 • A. Increasing load demand
• B. Reducing generator output
• C. Implementing load shedding to prevent further instability
• D. Shutting down all generators immediately
• E. Activating backup generation sources

4. Which of the following scenarios might cause a transition from the "Normal Operating
State" to the "Alert Operating State"?

• A. Generation is perfectly matched to demand

• B. Voltage and frequency are stable, and no equipment is overloaded
• C. A sudden increase in demand or generation near capacity limits
• D. Voltage is increased beyond safe limits intentionally
• E. Generators are shut down for maintenance

5. What relationship exists between the "Restorative Operating State" and power
system stability?

• A. Power system stability has already been fully restored, and the system is at normal
operating conditions
• B. The system is in the process of restoring stability by reconnecting loads and
generators
• C. The system is operating at an alert state, but frequency stability is not a concern
• D. Voltage collapse is imminent, and no stability is achievable
• E. The system is disconnected from the grid

6. What might cause a transition from the "Emergency Operating State" to the "In-Extremis
State"?

• A. Successful load shedding to reduce demand

• B. Failure to isolate faults or stabilize voltage and frequency
• C. Implementation of black start procedures
• D. Decrease in system demand below generation capacity
• E. Restoring failed components

7. In the "In-Extremis Operating State," which of the following describes the system
condition?

• A. The grid has failed, and cascading blackouts have occurred

• B. Voltage and frequency are within acceptable limits, but reserves are low
• C. System is fully stable, and all loads are being served
• D. The system is recovering from an emergency
• E. Generators are fully operational

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N-1 CRITERION

ACTIVITY 7: READING MATERIAL

WHAT IS THE N-1 CRITERION?

The N-1 criterion is a security standard used in power system planning and operation to ensure that
the system can continue to operate reliably even if a single element (e.g., transmission line,
generator, transformer) fails. The system must be able to withstand the failure of one major
component without causing widespread outages or instability. This criterion aims to protect the
grid from cascading failures and maintain both system security and stability in the face of
common contingencies.

• "N" represents the total number of critical elements (such as generators, transmission lines,
or transformers) in the system.
• "N-1" means that the system should continue to function normally even after the failure of
one element.

Relationship Between Power System Security and N-1 Criterion

1. Ensuring System Security:

o Power system security refers to the system's ability to continue providing power in
the event of disturbances or failures. The N-1 criterion ensures that the grid is
secure because it requires the system to operate within safe limits even when one
critical component is lost.
o By meeting the N-1 criterion, the system remains resilient against single-point
failures. Protective measures, redundancy, and operational reserves are all part of
ensuring the system can recover from or withstand such a failure without causing a
major disruption.
o The N-1 criterion thus provides operational security by preventing cascading
failures that could lead to widespread blackouts or system collapse.
2. Prevention of Cascading Failures:
o One of the primary goals of power system security is to prevent small disturbances
from escalating into larger system failures. The N-1 criterion ensures that even when
a critical component is lost, the remaining system components can handle the load
without becoming overloaded.
o Without the N-1 criterion, the failure of a key component (such as a major
transmission line or generator) could lead to voltage or frequency instability,
which may cause other parts of the system to trip, leading to cascading failures.
3. Operational Resilience and Stability:
o The N-1 criterion ensures that the system operates with sufficient resilience and
redundancy to maintain stability during disturbances. This helps the system

25
 maintain frequency, voltage, and power flow within acceptable limits, even after a
component failure.
o System operators implement the N-1 criterion by ensuring that reserve capacity, both
for generation and transmission, is available to maintain stability in case of a failure.
This may include spinning reserves or re-routing power flows through alternative
paths in the network.
4. Planning and Grid Expansion:
o In grid planning and expansion, the N-1 criterion is used to design networks with
sufficient capacity to withstand individual component failures. Ensuring N-1
compliance during planning helps build a secure and reliable infrastructure that
can handle varying operational scenarios, ensuring long-term stability and security.
o The N-1 criterion forces planners to consider redundancy in grid design, preventing
bottlenecks or weak points that could jeopardize system security.

Examples of the N-1 Criterion in Action:

• Transmission Networks: If a critical transmission line fails, the N-1 criterion ensures that
the remaining lines in the network can handle the additional load without becoming
overloaded. In some cases, power may be rerouted through alternative transmission paths to
maintain system balance.
• Generation: If a major power plant suddenly goes offline (due to a fault or maintenance),
the N-1 criterion ensures that other generators can quickly ramp up their output to make up
for the loss and keep the system frequency stable.
• Substations: In case a transformer at a substation fails, the N-1 criterion means that another
transformer or substation can take over, preventing voltage instability or outages in the
affected area.

Challenges of Meeting the N-1 Criterion:

• Cost: Implementing the N-1 criterion requires additional investments in redundancy,

backup generation, and grid capacity, which can be costly. This is particularly challenging
in regions with limited infrastructure or growing energy demands.
• Renewable Energy Integration: The increasing integration of intermittent renewable
energy sources like wind and solar complicates N-1 compliance. These energy sources often
provide less predictability and inertia, which can make it harder to maintain system security,
especially during generation shortfalls.
• Low Inertia Systems: Grids with high levels of renewables tend to have lower system
inertia, which can cause frequency stability problems during contingencies. In such cases,
maintaining N-1 security may require additional frequency regulation tools, such as fast-
responding battery storage or synthetic inertia.

Relationship Between Power System Stability and N-1 Criterion

1. Ensuring Stability After a Contingency:

o The N-1 criterion helps ensure that the system remains stable (i.e., maintains
frequency, voltage, and rotor angle stability) even after a component failure. By
designing the system to handle the failure of a single component, the N-1 criterion
prevents severe disturbances from escalating into instability or collapse.

26
 o For example, if a large generator trips offline, the N-1 criterion requires that other
generators in the system can compensate for the lost generation to maintain
frequency stability. If this criterion is not met, the loss of one generator could lead
to under-frequency conditions, threatening overall system stability.
2. Prevention of Cascading Failures:
o Cascading failures are a major threat to system stability. The N-1 criterion helps
avoid these by ensuring that the system can absorb the impact of one failure without
causing further disturbances. If the system fails to meet the N-1 criterion, the loss of
one component could overload other parts of the network, leading to a chain reaction
of failures and a loss of system stability.
o For instance, if a transmission line goes offline, other lines must be able to handle
the increased power flow without becoming overloaded, which would otherwise
result in voltage instability or further line failures.
3. Operational Resilience and Stability:
o The N-1 criterion is designed to ensure operational resilience, which directly
supports system stability. It guarantees that the system can withstand small
disturbances and prevent them from escalating into major stability issues.
o Stability-enhancing measures, such as spinning reserves, frequency regulation,
and voltage support, are part of meeting the N-1 criterion. These measures ensure
that, when a component fails, there are sufficient resources to maintain system
balance and avoid instability.
4. Rotor Angle Stability and Synchronization:
o In systems with synchronous generators, rotor angle stability is crucial to ensuring
that all generators remain synchronized after a disturbance. The N-1 criterion helps
ensure that even if a generator or transmission line is lost, the remaining generators
can maintain their rotor angles in sync with the grid, thus preventing loss of
synchronization, which would destabilize the entire system.
5. Inertia and Frequency Stability:
o Power system stability, particularly frequency stability, depends heavily on the
inertia of the system, which is provided by rotating masses in conventional
generators. The N-1 criterion ensures that enough generation capacity and inertia are
available even after one component fails.
o If a large generator trips offline, the remaining generators must compensate for the
lost inertia to prevent frequency from deviating beyond acceptable limits. If the N-1
criterion is not met, the loss of one generator could lead to rapid frequency drops,
causing further stability issues.
6. Voltage Stability:
o The N-1 criterion also addresses voltage stability, ensuring that sufficient reactive
power is available to maintain voltage levels after a component failure. For example,
if a transmission line that supports voltage stability is lost, the system must have
backup reactive power sources (e.g., capacitors or synchronous condensers) to
prevent voltage collapse.
7. Contingency Planning and Stability:
o The N-1 criterion is used in contingency planning to model possible failure
scenarios and ensure that the system remains stable in each case. This planning is
essential for maintaining system stability by identifying potential weak points where
a failure could lead to instability and addressing them in advance.

27
Examples of the Relationship Between Stability and the N-1 Criterion:

• Generator Trip and Frequency Stability:

If a large generator trips offline (a common N-1 event), frequency stability could be
compromised if the remaining generators cannot ramp up fast enough to compensate for the
lost generation. The N-1 criterion ensures that the system has enough reserves and
frequency regulation capabilities to stabilize frequency without a significant drop or
overshoot.
• Transmission Line Failure and Voltage Stability:
If a major transmission line fails, the N-1 criterion requires that other lines or voltage
support devices (e.g., reactive power compensators) are capable of maintaining voltage
stability across the grid. If the criterion is not met, the system may experience voltage
instability, leading to voltage collapse in certain areas.

2. Power System Security vs Power System Reliability

Definition:
Power system reliability refers to the overall ability of the power system to supply adequate,
continuous, and stable power to consumers over time. Reliability encompasses both the long-term
ability of the system to meet demand and the short-term operational performance to handle
disturbances. It includes both generation adequacy and system security.

• Key Focus: Consistent, dependable supply of power to meet load demands under both
normal and disturbed conditions.
• Long-term Horizon: Reliability considers the long-term adequacy of infrastructure,
generation capacity, and transmission networks, as well as the short-term operational
performance of the system in real-time.
• Components:
o Generation adequacy: Sufficient generation resources to meet peak demand.
o Transmission and distribution reliability: Sufficient infrastructure to deliver
power to end-users.
o System maintenance and asset management: Ensuring that equipment is regularly
maintained and replaced as needed.

Relationship Between Power System Security and Power System

Reliability

1. Security is a Component of Reliability:

o Power system security is one of the fundamental components of overall power
system reliability. A reliable system must not only have adequate generation and
transmission capacity but also be secure enough to withstand disturbances and
continue operating.
o Security ensures operational reliability by preventing sudden disturbances from
escalating into widespread outages. In this sense, security measures (e.g., protective
relays, backup systems) are critical for maintaining reliability under stressed
conditions.
2. Security Focuses on Short-term, Reliability Encompasses Long-term:
28
 o Power system security focuses on the short-term, real-time response of the
system to contingencies or failures. It ensures the system remains stable and
operational during disturbances.
o Power system reliability has a broader scope, including both the short-term
performance (i.e., how secure the system is under disturbances) and the long-term
capability of the system to meet growing demand, handle maintenance, and adapt to
changes.
o For example, a reliable system must have enough generation and transmission
infrastructure to meet future demand, but it also needs to be secure against
unexpected failures that might occur in real time.
3. Security Ensures Reliability During Disturbances:
o Reliability is compromised if the system is not secure. A system that lacks adequate
security (e.g., no redundancy or poor fault management) may fail during
disturbances, resulting in outages and reducing the reliability of power supply.
o Security measures (such as protective devices, isolation procedures, and backup
systems) are critical to ensuring that the system can maintain reliable service even in
the face of faults, generator trips, or line outages.
4. Planning for Both Security and Reliability:
o In planning and operations, both security and reliability are taken into account. For
example, the N-1 criterion is a security standard that ensures reliability by requiring
that the system can withstand the loss of a single component without compromising
service.
o Long-term planning for reliability involves building enough generation capacity
and infrastructure to meet future demand, while security planning involves
designing the system with sufficient redundancy and protective measures to handle
disturbances.
5. Contingency Management:
o Power system security addresses contingencies (unexpected events like faults,
failures, or attacks) to ensure the system can continue operating. Without security
measures in place, contingencies would result in power outages or instability,
affecting reliability.
o Reliability analysis incorporates contingency management to ensure that power can
be supplied continuously, even if contingencies occur. In this sense, contingency
planning helps ensure the long-term reliability of the system by making it secure in
the face of disturbances.
6. Interdependence Between Security and Reliability:
o Power system reliability depends on the security of the system. If a system is not
secure, it cannot be considered reliable because it may fail under stress. A system
with inadequate security measures could experience frequent or severe outages,
reducing its reliability.
o Conversely, even a secure system must have sufficient capacity to be reliable. If
there is not enough generation or transmission capacity to meet demand, the system
may be secure but still unreliable in terms of supply.

Illustrative Example of the Relationship:

• Scenario 1: Security Compromised, Reliability Affected

29
 o Suppose a major transmission line fails during a storm, and the system lacks
sufficient security measures (e.g., no redundancy, poor fault isolation). This could
lead to cascading failures and a system-wide blackout, severely affecting reliability.
o In this case, the failure of power system security compromises the reliability of the
grid, as it is no longer able to meet demand or maintain stable operation.
• Scenario 2: Reliability Compromised, Security Affected
o Suppose the system has enough security measures (protective relays, redundancy),
but there is not enough generation capacity to meet growing demand during peak
hours. The grid may become unstable due to insufficient reserves or overloading,
despite having security mechanisms in place.
o In this case, the lack of generation adequacy (a key part of reliability) creates stress
on the system, which may eventually lead to failures that compromise security.

Summary: Power System Operating States, Stability,

and Security

Operating Power System Power System Control

State Stability Security Measures

Normal Stable; voltage Fully secure; Routine controls

and frequency redundancy and such as load
within limits reserves balancing,
available voltage, and
frequency
regulation

Alert Stable but Security risk; Preventive

stressed; nearing closer actions like
operating limits monitoring and increasing
preventive generation
actions reserves and
closely
monitoring key
parameters

Emergency Instability likely; Security Corrective

voltage/frequency compromised; actions such as
deviations corrective isolating faults,
measures like load shedding, or
load shedding emergency
required generation

In-Extremis Instability; Security lost; Controlled

widespread large portions of shutdowns,
blackouts or grid down, blackouts, and
cascading failures emergency

30
 controlled response to
blackouts prevent further
damage

Restorative Gradually Security being Gradual

restoring stability restored through reintroduction of
as components reconnection and power, black
are reconnected system balancing start procedures,
and stabilization
of voltage and
frequency

ACTIVITY 8: ONLINEDISCUSSION

ONLINE DISCUSSION
Use chats, forums, journals, wikis, blogs, question/answer, message
my teacher to engage others.

Reflect on a recent blackout or grid failures in Kenya (e.g., the frequent blackouts in 2023). How
did failures in system security lead to a loss of system stability?

ACTIVITY 9: QUIZ 3

Instructions to Learners:
1. Read each question carefully and consider all the answer choices provided.
2. Select two correct answers for each question. Each question has exactly two
correct answers.
3. Mark only two answers per question. If you select more than two, the question
will be marked as incorrect.
4. Take your time, and review your answers before submitting.

1. What are the key components of an electrical power system?

o A. Generation
o B. Transmission
o C. Internet infrastructure
o D. Freight transport
o E. Vehicle batteries
2. Why is control essential in maintaining power system stability?

31
 o A. To balance supply and demand in real-time
o B. To decrease the cost of power generation
o C. To prevent voltage and frequency fluctuations
o D. To increase the speed of electricity transmission
o E. To reduce the need for system upgrades
3. What is the main function of the transmission component in a power system?
o A. To transport electricity over long distances
o B. To step up voltage for efficient energy transfer
o C. To distribute electricity to end consumers
o D. To generate electricity from renewable sources
o E. To control the frequency of the grid
4. Which control measures are most critical during an emergency operating state?
o A. Load shedding to reduce demand
o B. Isolating faults to prevent cascading failures
o C. Increasing generation capacity
o D. Delaying the reconnection of loads
o E. Disconnecting renewable energy sources
5. How does a power system transition from the alert state back to the normal state?
o A. By shutting down generators
o B. By restoring supply-demand balance
o C. By increasing energy reserves
o D. By applying frequency control measures
o E. By disconnecting large consumers from the grid
6. Which two factors primarily drive a power system into the emergency state?
o A. Severe imbalance between generation and demand
o B. Increasing system reserves
o C. Major faults or equipment failures
o D. Decrease in system load
o E. Black start conditions
7. Why is the distribution component important in a power system?
o A. It steps down voltage to safe levels for consumers
o B. It delivers electricity to homes and businesses
o C. It transports electricity over long distances
o D. It controls the power flow in the transmission grid
o E. It increases voltage for efficient energy transfer
8. What characterizes the normal operating state of a power system?
o A. Supply and demand are balanced
o B. The system is in recovery mode
o C. Voltage and frequency are within acceptable limits
o D. Faults are detected but not isolated
o E. Load shedding is active
9. Which two conditions are indicative of an alert state in a power system?
o A. The system is under stress but still operational
o B. Voltage and frequency are within limits, but reserves are low
o C. Blackouts are occurring
o D. Load shedding is necessary
o E. System stability is fully restored
10. What is the primary role of generation in the power system?

32
 • A. To produce electrical energy from fuel or renewable sources
• B. To transmit electricity across long distances
• C. To maintain balance between production and consumption
• D. To step down voltage levels for distribution
• E. To regulate frequency and voltage

REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER

READING
1. Jan Machowski, Zbigniew Lubosny, Janusz W. Bialek, James R. Bumby (2020).
Power System Dynamics Stability and Control, John Wiley & Sons. Chapter 1, Page
8-10. Chapter 2, Page 13-20

TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION

Understanding the relationship between power system operating states, stability,
and security is crucial for maintaining a reliable and resilient electrical grid. As
future power professionals, you have the knowledge to ensure systems can
withstand disruptions while adapting to growing demands. Your work will be
essential in creating a sustainable and secure energy future for society.

WHAT’S NEXT?
MODULE 2: SCADA SYSTEMS IN ENERGY MANAGEMENT CENTRES

33
MODULE 2: SCADA SYSTEMS IN ENERGY
MANAGEMENT CENTRES

INSTRUCTIONAL HOURS: 4

MODULE OVERVIEW
In this module, you will learn about the fundamental architecture and components
of SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems and their crucial role in
energy management centers. You will explore how SCADA systems are used to
monitor and control the power grid in real time, ensuring efficient, stable, and secure
operations. The module will also cover the flow of real-time data from sensors and
field devices to control centers, and how this data is processed to support decision-
making. By the end of the module, you will be able to assess the effectiveness of
SCADA in managing power system operations and understand its role in improving
the resilience and reliability of modern energy systems.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
5. Analyze the role of SCADA systems in the automation of
generation, transmission, and distribution of electrical power
systems.

34
 6. Evaluate the effectiveness of real-time data acquisition,
monitoring, and control in ensuring the reliability and stability
of power grids using SCADA.
7. Design a basic SCADA system architecture for an electrical
power utility, incorporating key components such as RTUs,
communication channels, and control centers.
8. Implement troubleshooting techniques for common SCADA-
related issues in electrical power systems, ensuring effective
fault detection and isolation..
LEARNING ACTIVITIES/TASK LIST
7. Watch Lecture Video
8. Review power presentation PDF
9. Watch lecture related videos
10. Complete participation assignment: Quiz 1
11. Complete personal introduction video
12. Review concept assignment : Quiz 2

ENERGY MANAGEMENT CENTRES

ACTIVITY 1: READING MATERIAL

An Energy Management Centre (EMC) is a centralized facility responsible for the monitoring,
control, and optimization of power systems to ensure the reliable, efficient, and secure delivery of
electricity. EMCs play a crucial role in modern electrical grids by integrating various technologies,
processes, and personnel to manage the complex dynamics of energy production, distribution, and
consumption.

Key Functions of an Energy Management Centre

1. Monitoring and Data Acquisition:

o Real-Time Monitoring: Continuously tracks the status of the power grid, including
generation units, transmission lines, substations, and distribution networks.
o Data Acquisition Systems (e.g., SCADA): Collects data from sensors and devices
across the grid to provide a comprehensive view of system performance.
2. Control and Operations:
o Dispatching Generation Units: Determines which power plants should be online to
meet current and forecasted electricity demand efficiently.
o Load Management: Balances electricity supply and demand to maintain grid
stability and prevent outages.
o Automatic Generation Control (AGC): Automatically adjusts the output of
generators to maintain system frequency and power flow within desired limits.
3. Planning and Optimization:
35
 o Demand Forecasting: Predicts future electricity consumption to inform operational
and investment decisions.
o Economic Dispatch: Allocates generation resources in a cost-effective manner
while meeting operational constraints.
o Optimal Power Flow (OPF): Determines the most efficient operating conditions for
the power system, minimizing losses and ensuring reliability.
4. Security and Reliability:
o Contingency Analysis: Evaluates potential system failures or outages and develops
strategies to mitigate their impact.
o Voltage and Reactive Power Management (VAR Support): Maintains appropriate
voltage levels across the grid to ensure efficient power delivery and equipment
safety.
o Emergency Response: Implements rapid corrective actions in response to
unexpected disturbances or failures to maintain grid stability.

Subsystems of an Energy Management Centre

1. Dispatch Subsystem:
o Unit Commitment: Decides which generating units to activate based on demand
forecasts and operational constraints.
o Economic Dispatch: Optimizes the distribution of load among available generators
to minimize operational costs.
o Demand Forecasting: Projects future electricity needs using statistical and
probabilistic methods.
2. Data Subsystem:
o SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition): Facilitates real-time data
collection and control over the power system.
o State Estimation: Analyzes collected data to estimate the current state of the power
grid, identifying any discrepancies or potential issues.
o Alarms and Displays: Alerts operators to abnormal conditions and provides
visualizations of system performance.
3. Security Subsystem:
o Security Monitoring: Continuously assesses the stability and security of the power
system.
o Contingency Analysis: Identifies and prepares for potential system failures or
disruptions.
o Control Actions: Determines and implements necessary control measures
(preventive, emergency, restorative) to maintain system integrity.
o VAR Support: Manages reactive power to uphold voltage profiles and ensure
efficient power transmission.

Hierarchical Control Structure

Energy Management Centres utilize a hierarchical control framework to manage operations

effectively across different time scales:

1. Level 1: Long-Term Planning

o Functions: Load forecasting, unit commitment, and energy trading.
o Time Frame: Hours to days.

36
 o Methods: Probabilistic approaches using historical and statistical data.
2. Level 2: Mid-Term Planning
o Functions: Economic dispatch, optimal power flow, and interchange evaluation.
o Time Frame: Minutes to hours (typically 5-10 minutes).
o Methods: Deterministic optimization based on current system conditions.
3. Level 3: Short-Term and Real-Time Control
o Functions: Automatic generation control, voltage regulation, and state estimation.
o Time Frame: Seconds to minutes.
o Methods: Real-time deterministic controls to address immediate system needs.

Importance of Energy Management Centres

• Enhanced Reliability: By continuously monitoring and controlling the power grid, EMCs
help prevent outages and ensure a stable electricity supply.
• Operational Efficiency: Optimizing the dispatch of generation units and managing demand
reduces operational costs and energy losses.
• Integration of Renewable Energy: EMCs facilitate the integration of variable renewable
energy sources (e.g., wind, solar) by balancing their intermittent nature with reliable control
strategies.
• Security and Resilience: Proactively identifying and mitigating potential threats or failures
enhances the overall security and resilience of the power system.
• Support for Decision-Making: Providing accurate data and advanced analytics aids
operators and planners in making informed decisions regarding grid operations and
infrastructure investments.

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF ENERGY MANAGEMENT CENTRES

The four major components are:

1. SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) System

The SCADA system is the backbone of real-time monitoring and control within the EMC. It is
divided into two subsystems:

• Supervisory Subsystem:
o Responsible for providing real-time displays at the control center showing the status
of essential power system equipment such as circuit breakers, transformers, voltage
regulators, and capacitor banks.
o Facilitates remote control operations, such as tripping breakers, changing
transformer taps, and switching capacitor banks or voltage regulators.
o Operators can take action from the control center to manage grid operations safely
and efficiently.
• Data Acquisition Subsystem:
o Comprises Remote Terminal Units (RTUs), which collect data from power system
instruments and equipment (such as voltage, current, and status of breakers) and
transmit it back to the control center.
o Communication channels such as wireless communication systems and Power Line
Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems provide connectivity between the RTUs
and the control center.
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 o The data acquisition system ensures operators have accurate, real-time information
to make informed decisions.

The SCADA monitoring process is as shown in Figure 1.

Fig. 1 SCADA Monitoring and Control Process

2. Computers

Modern computing systems are central to the functionality of EMCs, with immense capabilities in
terms of processing speed, memory, and reliability. The design of EMCs has evolved to take
advantage of advanced computing technology, with redundancy built into the hardware for critical
operations. Backup systems ensure uninterrupted functionality in case of failures.

Functions of the computing systems include:

• Real-Time Monitoring and Control: Continuously track system status and execute
automated and manual control actions.
• User Interface Management: Support graphical displays, alerts, and operator interactions
with the system.
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 • Operating Studies: Run simulations and optimizations to plan and improve system
operation.
• Maintenance and Testing: Assist in scheduling and managing system maintenance
activities and ensuring equipment health.
• Simulation Studies: Conduct scenario-based analyses to predict system performance and
outcomes under various conditions.

3. User Interface

The user interface provides operators with the tools and information they need to interact with the
system efficiently. With the increasing complexity of power systems, modern user interfaces focus
on ease of use and intuitive design to minimize human error and maximize decision-making speed.

Components of the user interface include:

• Consoles: Where operators interact with the system and execute control actions.
• Data Loggers: Record and store operational data for analysis and reporting.
• Display Units and Screen Projections: Provide real-time visual feedback on system
conditions, alerts, and alarms.
• Graphical User Interface (GUI): Modern systems incorporate advanced graphics,
animations, and visualizations to simplify monitoring and control tasks. The interface may
display geographic maps, system diagrams, and key metrics to assist operators in
understanding the system’s current state.

4. Application Software

Application software provides the algorithms and analytical tools needed to optimize power system
operations. The software performs a wide range of tasks, from ensuring efficient generation
dispatch to maintaining system security and stability.

Key functions of the application software include:

• Unit Commitment (UC): Determines which generating units should be operational at any
given time to meet demand efficiently.
• Economic Dispatch: Optimizes the distribution of load among available generators to
minimize fuel costs.
• State Estimation: Estimates the current operating state of the power system based on real-
time and historical data.
• Optimal Power Flow (OPF): Ensures power flows are optimized, minimizing losses and
ensuring system stability.
• Contingency Analysis: Identifies potential risks or failures within the system and
recommends preventive or corrective actions to mitigate those risks.

SCADA COMMUNICATION CHANNEL

A SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) communication channel refers to the
medium through which data is transmitted between the various components of the SCADA system,
including remote terminal units (RTUs), programmable logic controllers (PLCs), and the central

39
control or monitoring station. The communication channel plays a vital role in ensuring real-time
data acquisition, monitoring, and control of industrial processes.

1. Types of Communication Channels

The communication channel can use various technologies, which include:

• Wired Communication:
o Ethernet: A common choice for local area networks (LANs) due to high-speed data
transfer and reliability.
o Fiber Optic: Offers long-distance communication with low latency and high
bandwidth, ideal for large SCADA systems in power grids or industrial facilities.
o Serial Communication (RS-232/RS-485): Traditional method for point-to-point or
multi-drop communication over short distances, often used in older SCADA
systems.
• Wireless Communication:
o Radio Frequency (RF): Commonly used in remote locations where laying physical
cables is not feasible. RF communication can transmit data over long distances.
o Cellular Networks (GPRS/3G/4G/5G): Useful for systems where devices are
dispersed over a wide area, offering flexibility in monitoring without the need for
physical infrastructure.
o Microwave Links: Used for high-capacity data transmission over long distances,
commonly in energy and water management systems.
o Satellite Communication: Ideal for SCADA systems in geographically isolated or
offshore locations.

2. Components of the SCADA Communication Channel

A typical SCADA communication channel consists of several key components:

• Transmitter/Receiver: Converts data into a suitable format for transmission and receives
data at the other end.
• Modems and Routers: Used to modulate and demodulate the data signals for long-distance
transmission and manage network traffic.
• Data Protocols: Defines how data is formatted and transmitted between devices. Common
SCADA protocols include:
o Modbus: Simple and widely used, especially in industrial applications.
o DNP3 (Distributed Network Protocol): Used in electric utility SCADA systems,
supporting time-stamped data.
o IEC 60870-5-104: Common in power system automation, especially in Europe.
o OPC (OLE for Process Control): Allows real-time data exchange between
different systems.

3. Communication Requirements

For a SCADA communication channel to function effectively, several requirements must be met:

• Reliability: The system must ensure consistent communication between the field devices
and the control center, with minimal interruptions.
40
 • Latency: Low latency is crucial for real-time control and decision-making in critical
infrastructure such as power grids and water treatment plants.
• Security: SCADA communication channels must be secure to protect against cyberattacks,
which could lead to unauthorized access and control of critical systems. Encryption and
secure protocols such as TLS (Transport Layer Security) are often used.
• Bandwidth: Sufficient bandwidth is necessary to handle the volume of data, especially for
large-scale systems that transmit large amounts of telemetry data.
• Redundancy: Backup communication channels ensure that the system remains operational
in case the primary channel fails.

4. Challenges in SCADA Communication Channels

• Distance: Communication over long distances can introduce signal degradation or latency,
particularly in remote areas.
• Interference: Wireless channels can suffer from interference due to physical obstructions,
weather conditions, or other electromagnetic signals.
• Compatibility: In large, integrated SCADA systems, ensuring compatibility between
different communication protocols and devices is essential.

5. Applications of SCADA Communication Channels

• Power Systems: SCADA communication channels are widely used for monitoring and
controlling substations, transformers, and power grids.
• Water Treatment: Data from remote sensors and actuators in water treatment plants is
transmitted to central control systems for real-time monitoring.
• Oil and Gas Industry: Communication channels enable real-time monitoring of pipelines
and offshore platforms.

STANDARD SCADA CONFIGURATIONS

SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems are configured to monitor, control,
and manage processes in industries such as power, water treatment, oil & gas, and manufacturing.
These systems typically consist of several standard configurations that define the architecture and
functionality of the system. Below are the most common configurations:

1. Monolithic (Early or Standalone SCADA)

Monolithic SCADA systems, also known as early or standalone SCADA systems, were the first
generation of SCADA systems. These systems were designed with limited communication
capabilities and were often used in isolated environments.

• Architecture:
o Single central computer or mainframe handling all tasks, including data acquisition,
processing, control, and display.
o Communication with field devices through proprietary protocols.
o Closed system with no external connectivity or integration with other systems.
• Advantages:
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 o Simple setup with minimal network or communication complexity.
o Low risk of cyber threats due to isolation.
• Disadvantages:
o Lack of scalability and flexibility.
o Limited communication capabilities, especially for remote or large systems.
o High dependency on the central computer, leading to system-wide failure if the
central unit crashes.

2. Distributed SCADA Configuration

Distributed SCADA is a more modern system in which multiple components of the SCADA system
are spread across different locations, allowing for a distributed control and data acquisition process.
This configuration improves reliability and scalability.

• Architecture:
o Several distributed servers and nodes handle various tasks like data acquisition,
processing, and control.
o RTUs (Remote Terminal Units) and PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers) are
located at remote sites for local data processing and control.
o The control center connects with distributed RTUs/PLCs via wide-area networks
(WANs) or local-area networks (LANs).
• Advantages:
o Improved scalability for large systems, such as power grids or pipeline networks.
o Increased reliability due to decentralized processing.
o Allows for system expansion without redesigning the entire architecture.
• Disadvantages:
o Higher implementation costs.
o More complex network management due to distributed nodes.
o Potential security risks if not adequately protected.

3. Networked SCADA Configuration

Networked SCADA, often referred to as modern SCADA, is the most widely used configuration
today. It takes advantage of modern networking technologies to connect various SCADA
components, enabling seamless communication and data sharing.

• Architecture:
o SCADA components, including servers, workstations, RTUs, and PLCs, are
connected via a common network (typically Ethernet or wireless networks).
o Uses standard communication protocols such as TCP/IP, Modbus TCP, DNP3, or
IEC 60870-5-104.
o Allows for remote monitoring and control through web-based interfaces or mobile
applications.
o The central control system communicates with RTUs/PLCs through local area
networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), or virtual private networks (VPNs).
• Advantages:
o Supports large-scale and complex systems with real-time data transmission and
control.
o Easier to integrate with other enterprise systems (e.g., ERP, MES).

42
 o Allows for remote access and centralized monitoring from different locations.
o Reduces operational downtime by enabling quick diagnosis and troubleshooting
through remote access.
• Disadvantages:
o Vulnerable to cyberattacks, requiring robust cybersecurity measures.
o High implementation and maintenance costs.
o Complex configuration and setup, requiring skilled personnel.

4. Internet of Things (IoT)-Based SCADA Configuration

This is the most advanced SCADA configuration, integrating the Internet of Things (IoT) to
improve system intelligence, flexibility, and data analytics capabilities. IoT devices are used to
collect data from various field locations, and the data is transmitted to cloud-based SCADA systems
for processing and control.

• Architecture:
o A network of IoT sensors and actuators deployed in field locations collects data and
sends it to the cloud via the internet.
o Cloud-based SCADA system handles data storage, processing, control, and
analytics.
o SCADA system is integrated with big data analytics, machine learning, and artificial
intelligence to optimize process control and decision-making.
o Communication protocols such as MQTT, CoAP, and OPC UA are used to facilitate
communication between devices and the cloud.
• Advantages:
o Allows real-time monitoring and control from anywhere using web-based or mobile
interfaces.
o Provides enhanced data analytics, predictive maintenance, and AI-based
optimization.
o Supports large-scale, complex systems across geographically dispersed locations.
o Easier system scalability with minimal infrastructure changes.
• Disadvantages:
o High risk of cyber threats and data breaches, requiring strong security measures.
o Increased complexity in system integration and management.
o Dependence on internet connectivity and cloud services.

5. Cloud-Based SCADA Configuration

Cloud-based SCADA is a relatively new approach that shifts data storage, processing, and control
from local servers to the cloud, leveraging cloud computing resources for scalability and cost
efficiency.

• Architecture:
o Centralized control system located in the cloud.
o RTUs and PLCs send data directly to the cloud via internet connections.
o Control and monitoring are performed remotely via web applications or mobile
interfaces.
o Cloud services such as Amazon Web Services (AWS) and Microsoft Azure are
commonly used as the platform for SCADA systems.
43
 • Advantages:
o Reduced capital expenditure on infrastructure, as cloud services are on a pay-as-you-
go model.
o Provides remote accessibility and global monitoring capabilities.
o Offers improved system scalability as data storage and processing power can be
expanded without additional hardware.
• Disadvantages:
o Requires reliable internet connectivity.
o Potential security risks, as data is transmitted and stored in the cloud.
o Cloud service downtime can impact SCADA system availability.

6. Hybrid SCADA Configuration

Hybrid SCADA is a combination of both traditional, local SCADA systems and cloud-based
SCADA systems. This configuration allows for data processing and control at both local and
remote levels.

• Architecture:
o Local SCADA systems perform immediate control and monitoring tasks.
o The cloud is used for data storage, analytics, and long-term monitoring.
o The system switches between local control and cloud-based control depending on
the network conditions and requirements.
• Advantages:
o Provides a balance between local control and global monitoring.
o Allows for high reliability due to local processing in case of network failures.
o Combines the advantages of cloud-based data storage with local system control.
• Disadvantages:
o Requires complex integration between local and cloud systems.
o Higher costs due to the need for both local infrastructure and cloud services.

ACTIVITY 2: QUIZ 1

Matching Quiz with Answers

Instructions:

Match each question on the left with the appropriate answer from the right column.

1. What is SCADA primarily designed for?

2. What type of system is better suited for local process control in industrial plants?
3. Which system is often used for discrete control tasks in machinery?
44
 4. What kind of communication channel is needed for high data rate systems like video
surveillance?
5. What communication channel is sufficient for low data rate applications like
temperature monitoring?
6. Which communication channel is typically used for medium data rate systems like
substation control?
7. What makes power transmission systems a good fit for SCADA monitoring?
8. What makes industrial manufacturing plants suitable for SCADA?
9. How do passive sensors like thermocouples receive energy?
10. How do active sensors like strain gauges receive energy?

Matching Options:

A. Ethernet or fiber optic connections

B. External electrical sources

C. The process being monitored (such as heat or light)

D. Monitoring and controlling geographically dispersed assets

E. Serial communication (RS-485)

Answer Key

1. SCADA is primarily designed for:

D - Monitoring and controlling geographically dispersed assets
2. A system better suited for local process control in industrial plants:
E - Serial communication (RS-485)
3. System often used for discrete control tasks in machinery:
B - External electrical sources
4. Communication channel for high data rate systems like video surveillance:
A - Ethernet or fiber optic connections
5. Communication channel sufficient for low data rate applications like temperature
monitoring:
E - Serial communication (RS-485)
6. Communication channel for medium data rate systems like substation control:
A - Ethernet or fiber optic connections
7. What makes power transmission systems a good fit for SCADA monitoring?
D - Monitoring and controlling geographically dispersed assets
8. What makes industrial manufacturing plants suitable for SCADA?
E - Serial communication (RS-485)
9. How passive sensors like thermocouples receive energy:
C - The process being monitored (such as heat or light)

45
 10. How active sensors like strain gauges receive energy:
B - External electrical sources

POWER SYSTEM AUTOMATION

ACTIVITY 3: READING MATERIAL

Power System Automation refers to the use of control systems, communication networks, and
intelligent devices to automate the operation, control, and management of power generation,
transmission, and distribution systems. It involves real-time data acquisition, processing, and
decision-making to ensure efficient and reliable power delivery.

EVOLUTION OF AUTOMATION SYSTEMS IN POWER SYSTEMS

The evolution of power system automation can be broken down into several stages:

1. Manual Operation:
o In the early stages, power systems were operated manually. Control rooms were
staffed with operators who monitored equipment and manually adjusted settings
based on local readings.
2. Telemetering and Remote Control (First Generation Automation):
o Telemetering systems were introduced to measure electrical quantities from remote
locations and transmit the data to a central control room. This was followed by the
development of remote control capabilities, allowing operators to control equipment
at distant substations.
3. SCADA (Second Generation Automation):
o SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems were developed to
automate data acquisition and control tasks. SCADA systems allowed for centralized
monitoring and control of substations, transmission lines, and other assets from a
remote control center.
4. Integration of Communication and Computing (Third Generation Automation):
o The next step in the evolution involved integrating communication technologies such
as Ethernet and wireless networks with advanced computing capabilities. This
allowed for real-time data processing, faster decision-making, and better
coordination between various system components.
5. Smart Grid (Current and Future Automation):
o The modern evolution of power system automation includes the Smart Grid, which
involves the use of intelligent devices, IoT (Internet of Things) sensors, advanced
metering infrastructure (AMI), and AI-based analytics to create self-healing,
adaptive, and highly efficient power networks.

46
SCADA IN POWER SYSTEMS

SCADA plays a crucial role in power system automation by enabling operators to monitor and
control generation, transmission, and distribution systems. Below are the key SCADA functions in
power systems:

(A) Basic Functions of SCADA in Power Systems

1. Data Acquisition:
o SCADA collects real-time data from remote field devices like RTUs (Remote
Terminal Units) and PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers) located at substations,
power plants, and distribution points. The data includes measurements such as
voltage, current, power, frequency, and equipment status.
2. Remote Control:
o Operators can remotely control circuit breakers, transformers, and other equipment
at substations or power plants. This allows for faster response times in case of faults,
load changes, or system reconfigurations.
3. Human-Machine Interface (HMI):
o SCADA systems provide a graphical user interface (GUI) that allows operators to
visualize the power system in real time. This interface includes system diagrams,
alarms, event logs, and control commands for easy interaction.
4. Historical Data Analysis:
o SCADA stores historical data for analysis. This data can be used to detect patterns,
analyze system performance over time, and predict future behavior, helping in
proactive maintenance and system planning.
5. Report Writing:
o SCADA generates detailed reports on system events, equipment performance, power
quality, and operational statistics. These reports are essential for regulatory
compliance, performance tracking, and decision-making.

(B) SCADA Application Functions in Power Systems

SCADA systems in power systems provide several application functions tailored to specific aspects
of power generation, transmission, and distribution. Below are the key SCADA application
functions:

1) Generation Application Functions

1.1 Automatic Generation Control (AGC):

• Function: AGC is a real-time application that automatically adjusts the output of power
generation units to balance supply and demand and maintain the system frequency within
acceptable limits.
• Importance: It ensures the stability and reliability of the power grid by minimizing
frequency deviations and managing inter-area power exchanges.
47
1.2 Economic Dispatch Calculation (EDC):

• Function: EDC optimizes the generation output of different power plants to minimize the
total operating cost while meeting the load demand and maintaining system constraints (e.g.,
transmission limits, generator capacities).
• Importance: It reduces the operational cost of power generation by selecting the most cost-
effective units to generate electricity.

1.3 Interchange Transaction Scheduling (ITS):

• Function: ITS schedules power transactions between different utilities or regions, ensuring
that inter-area power flows are optimized and contracts are honored.
• Importance: It facilitates the exchange of power across regions, enabling utilities to buy
and sell electricity based on demand and supply conditions.

1.4 Transaction Evaluation (TE):

• Function: TE evaluates the feasibility and profitability of proposed energy transactions,

taking into account system constraints, transmission capacities, and economic
considerations.
• Importance: It helps utilities and power producers make informed decisions about power
trading and ensures that all transactions are technically viable and economically sound.

1.5 Unit Commitment (UC):

• Function: UC determines the optimal start-up and shut-down schedule of power generation
units to meet the forecasted demand while minimizing the overall cost of operation.
• Importance: It helps in optimizing the generation schedule by deciding which units should
be online or offline, based on demand and generation costs.

1.6 Short-Term Load Forecasting (STLF):

• Function: STLF uses historical load data, weather forecasts, and other relevant factors to
predict the future electrical load demand for short time periods (hours to days).
• Importance: Accurate short-term load forecasting is essential for efficient scheduling of
generation resources, economic dispatch, and load management.

1.7 Hydrothermal Scheduling:

• Function: Hydrothermal scheduling optimizes the use of both hydroelectric and thermal
power plants to meet demand, considering water availability, fuel costs, and operational
constraints.
• Importance: It ensures the efficient use of water resources in hydroelectric plants while
minimizing fuel consumption in thermal plants, reducing costs and environmental impact.

2. Transmission SCADA Application Functions

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In transmission systems, SCADA plays a key role in ensuring efficient power flow, system
stability, and real-time decision-making. The following are some critical SCADA application
functions specific to transmission systems:

2.1 Network Configuration/Topology Processor:

• Function: The topology processor analyzes the configuration of the transmission network
by mapping out the status (open or closed) of circuit breakers and switches to determine the
current topology or structure of the system.
• Importance: It provides operators with an accurate representation of the power grid,
including which transmission lines and transformers are in operation or out of service. This
is essential for ensuring system security, planning maintenance, and responding to
contingencies.

2.2 State Estimation:

• Function: State estimation uses real-time data from SCADA systems and mathematical
models to estimate the electrical state (such as voltage, current, and phase angle) of the
transmission system.
• Importance: Since not every part of the power system is directly measured, state estimation
provides the operators with a reliable overview of the system's operational state. It is a key
component for detecting anomalies and maintaining grid stability.

2.3 Contingency Analysis:

• Function: Contingency analysis simulates potential failure scenarios (such as transmission

line outages, generator failures, or equipment malfunctions) to predict their impact on the
power system.
• Importance: This analysis helps operators prepare for and mitigate the effects of such
contingencies, ensuring that preventive or corrective actions can be taken before a real issue
escalates.

2.4 Three-Phase Balanced Power Flow:

• Function: This application calculates the flow of active and reactive power in a balanced
three-phase transmission system. It uses input data such as generation, load, and system
configuration to analyze power flow.
• Importance: Balanced power flow ensures optimal utilization of transmission lines and
equipment, prevents overloading, and helps in maintaining system stability.

2.5 Optimal Power Flow (OPF):

• Function: OPF optimizes the power system's operating conditions by determining the best
settings for generation units, transformer tap settings, and other controllable parameters to
minimize operating costs or power losses while maintaining system constraints.
• Importance: OPF ensures efficient operation of the transmission network by reducing
operational costs, improving system security, and maximizing power transfer capability.

49
3. Distribution Automation Application Functions

Distribution automation (DA) refers to the use of SCADA systems and advanced technologies to
monitor, control, and optimize the distribution of electrical power. Distribution management
systems (DMS) integrate SCADA and automation technologies to improve the efficiency and
reliability of the power distribution network.

3.1 Substation Automation:

• Function: Substation automation refers to the automation of substation equipment such as

transformers, circuit breakers, and switches. It involves real-time monitoring and control of
substation operations to ensure reliability.
• Importance: Automation of substations improves operational efficiency, reduces human
intervention, and enhances fault detection and recovery capabilities.

3.2 Feeder Automation:

• Function: Feeder automation involves the control of distribution feeders to manage load
distribution, voltage levels, and fault isolation along feeder lines.
• Importance: Feeder automation helps in reducing downtime by quickly identifying and
isolating faults, as well as optimizing power delivery to end users.

3.3 Customer Automation:

• Function: Customer automation focuses on managing the interaction between the utility
and the customer, including automated meter reading (AMR), demand response, and energy
usage tracking.
• Importance: It improves customer service by providing real-time data on energy usage,
enabling demand-side management, and ensuring more accurate billing.

3.4 Fault Identification, Isolation, and Service Restoration (FIISR):

• Function: FIISR identifies faults in the distribution network, isolates the faulted sections,
and restores power to unaffected areas as quickly as possible.
• Importance: This automation reduces outage duration and limits the number of affected
customers during a fault event, improving reliability.

3.5 Network Reconfiguration:

• Function: Network reconfiguration optimizes the distribution system's topology by

switching feeders and re-routing power flow to balance the load, reduce losses, or restore
service after a fault.
• Importance: It enhances system efficiency, minimizes losses, and helps in quickly restoring
power in case of an outage.

3.6 Load Management/Demand Response:

50
 • Function: Load management involves adjusting or controlling the load on the distribution
network, while demand response is the process of managing customer demand in response
to grid conditions, such as peak load times.
• Importance: Both functions help balance supply and demand, reduce peak load stress on
the system, and improve overall grid efficiency.

3.7 Active and Reactive Power Control:

• Function: This application controls both active power (real power) and reactive power to
maintain voltage stability and minimize transmission losses in the distribution network.
• Importance: Proper control of active and reactive power improves power quality, prevents
voltage fluctuations, and reduces energy losses.

3.8 Power Factor Control:

• Function: Power factor control adjusts the power factor in the distribution system by
managing the flow of reactive power. It ensures that the power being delivered is as efficient
as possible.
• Importance: Maintaining a high power factor reduces losses in the distribution network and
minimizes the demand for reactive power, which can lead to cost savings for both utilities
and customers.

3.9 Short-Term Load Forecasting (STLF):

• Function: Short-term load forecasting predicts the demand for electricity over a short
period (hours to days) based on factors such as historical data, weather forecasts, and system
conditions.
• Importance: Accurate STLF allows utilities to schedule generation, optimize load dispatch,
and manage demand response more effectively.

3.10 Three-Phase Unbalanced Power Flow:

• Function: This application calculates the power flow in unbalanced three-phase systems,
which are common in distribution networks due to uneven loads across phases.
• Importance: Understanding unbalanced power flow helps in mitigating power quality
issues such as voltage imbalances and reduces the stress on the network.

3.11 Interface to Customer Information Systems (CISs):

• Function: The interface to CISs integrates SCADA data with customer information
systems, providing details on energy consumption, service status, and billing information.
• Importance: This allows for better customer service, accurate billing, and efficient
handling of customer queries related to outages or service quality.

3.12 Interface to Geographical Information Systems (GISs):

51
 • Function: The interface to GISs links the SCADA system with geographical maps of the
distribution network, providing spatial data on the location of substations, feeders, and
customers.
• Importance: GIS integration helps in visualizing network assets, planning maintenance,
and responding more effectively to outages by identifying fault locations on the map.

3.13 Trouble Call Management and Interface to Outage Management Systems (OMSs):

• Function: Trouble call management handles incoming customer reports about power
outages or service issues, while the interface to OMSs allows SCADA to coordinate with
outage management systems to manage and resolve service disruptions.
• Importance: This function streamlines the process of identifying, tracking, and resolving
power outages, improving response time and service restoration.

ACTIVITY 4: QUIZ 2

Instructions:

Drag the correct option from the right column to match the statement on the left.

1. Power System Automation

1. Power system automation involves the use of control systems to ______________.

2. The evolution of power system automation has advanced from manual operation to
______________.
3. In the context of SCADA, the term “data acquisition” refers to ______________.
4. Contingency analysis in a transmission SCADA system is used to ______________.
5. Feeder automation in distribution systems focuses on ______________.

2. SCADA in Power System Generation

6. Automatic Generation Control (AGC) is used in power generation to ______________.

7. Economic Dispatch Calculation (EDC) helps power plants ______________.

3. SCADA in Power System Transmission

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 8. State estimation in transmission SCADA is important because it ______________.
9. Three-phase balanced power flow in transmission systems ensures ______________.

4. SCADA in Power System Distribution

10. Fault Identification, Isolation, and Service Restoration (FIISR) is important in distribution
automation because it ______________.

Matching Options:

A. Analyze potential failure scenarios and their impact on the power system.

B. Minimize power generation costs by optimizing the output of generation units.

C. Allows operators to control the output of generators to balance supply and demand.

D. Ensures that power flow is evenly distributed across all phases, preventing overloading.

E. Detects and restores faults automatically, reducing downtime for customers.

F. Monitors the voltage, current, and power output of field devices.

G. Automating the monitoring and control of generation, transmission, and distribution systems.

H. The use of intelligent devices, sensors, and SCADA for real-time data processing.

I. Control the flow of electricity in distribution lines and optimize network performance.

J. Estimates system variables that are not directly measured to provide a complete view of system
operations.

Answer Key

1. Power system automation involves the use of control systems to:

G - Automate the monitoring and control of generation, transmission, and distribution
systems.
2. The evolution of power system automation has advanced from manual operation to:
H - The use of intelligent devices, sensors, and SCADA for real-time data processing.
3. In the context of SCADA, the term “data acquisition” refers to:
F - Monitoring the voltage, current, and power output of field devices.
4. Contingency analysis in a transmission SCADA system is used to:
A - Analyze potential failure scenarios and their impact on the power system.

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 5. Feeder automation in distribution systems focuses on:
I - Control the flow of electricity in distribution lines and optimize network performance.
6. Automatic Generation Control (AGC) is used in power generation to:
C - Allows operators to control the output of generators to balance supply and demand.
7. Economic Dispatch Calculation (EDC) helps power plants:
B - Minimize power generation costs by optimizing the output of generation units.
8. State estimation in transmission SCADA is important because it:
J - Estimates system variables that are not directly measured to provide a complete view of
system operations.
9. Three-phase balanced power flow in transmission systems ensures:
D - Ensures that power flow is evenly distributed across all phases, preventing overloading.
10. Fault Identification, Isolation, and Service Restoration (FIISR) is important in distribution
automation because it:
E - Detects and restores faults automatically, reducing downtime for customers.

ADVANTAGES OF SCADA IN POWER SYSTEMS

ACTIVITY 5: READING MATERIAL

SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems play a critical role in modern power
systems, offering numerous benefits in monitoring, control, and management of power generation,
transmission, and distribution processes. Below are the key advantages of SCADA in power
systems:

1. Real-Time Monitoring

• Functionality: SCADA systems provide real-time data on voltage, current, power flow, and
the operational status of various components (such as transformers, circuit breakers, and
transmission lines).
• Advantage: Real-time monitoring allows operators to detect and respond to issues quickly,
minimizing downtime and enhancing system reliability.

2. Remote Control

• Functionality: SCADA systems enable remote control of substations, power generation

units, and distribution equipment. Operators can open/close circuit breakers, control
generators, and reroute power without physically being at the location.
• Advantage: This reduces the need for on-site personnel, speeds up response times in
emergencies, and enhances operational efficiency, especially in geographically dispersed
networks.

3. Enhanced System Reliability and Stability

• Functionality: SCADA constantly monitors system parameters and can trigger alarms or
initiate automatic corrective actions when abnormalities are detected.
• Advantage: It helps maintain system stability by preventing overloads, under-voltage
conditions, or frequency imbalances, leading to fewer blackouts or brownouts.

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4. Improved Fault Detection and Troubleshooting

• Functionality: SCADA systems can detect faults in the power network, such as short
circuits or equipment failures, and isolate them.
• Advantage: By quickly identifying and isolating faulty sections, SCADA reduces the time
required for fault repair and service restoration, thereby minimizing downtime and
improving service continuity.

5. Data Logging and Historical Data Analysis

• Functionality: SCADA systems store vast amounts of data on system performance,

equipment status, and events.
• Advantage: Historical data analysis can be used to optimize future operations, improve
maintenance schedules, and prevent recurring issues. It also aids in post-event analysis,
regulatory reporting, and decision-making.

6. Cost Efficiency

• Functionality: By automating data collection, control, and reporting, SCADA reduces the
need for manual intervention and physical inspections.
• Advantage: This leads to cost savings on personnel, maintenance, and energy management,
especially when optimizing load distribution and generation scheduling (e.g., Economic
Dispatch Calculation).

7. Better Load Management

• Functionality: SCADA systems help balance supply and demand by adjusting the power
output of generation units in real-time based on load conditions.
• Advantage: This improves energy efficiency, reduces wastage, and prevents system
overloads during peak demand periods, leading to a more stable and balanced power grid.

8. Increased Safety for Operators

• Functionality: Remote monitoring and control reduce the need for personnel to physically
interact with high-voltage equipment, especially during fault conditions.
• Advantage: This improves safety by reducing exposure to dangerous electrical
environments and minimizes the risk of injury to personnel.

9. Scalability and Flexibility

• Functionality: SCADA systems can easily be expanded to accommodate new substations,

generation units, or distribution networks without requiring major infrastructure overhauls.
• Advantage: This makes SCADA highly adaptable to growing power networks, especially
as utilities expand into smart grid technologies or integrate renewable energy sources.

10. Integration with Advanced Technologies

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 • Functionality: SCADA systems can be integrated with other advanced technologies such as
Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Outage Management Systems (OMS), Demand
Response (DR), and Internet of Things (IoT) devices.
• Advantage: This integration improves overall system efficiency and decision-making,
enhances situational awareness, and allows for advanced applications such as predictive
maintenance, better asset management, and real-time customer interactions.

11. Predictive Maintenance

• Functionality: SCADA systems enable predictive maintenance by tracking equipment

performance and identifying wear and tear trends over time.
• Advantage: Predictive maintenance helps to reduce unexpected equipment failures, lowers
maintenance costs, and extends the life of critical power system components.

12. Environmental and Economic Benefits

• Functionality: SCADA optimizes energy use by regulating generation and minimizing

losses through efficient load management.
• Advantage: This leads to better fuel utilization in thermal plants, more efficient dispatch of
renewable energy, and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, efficient use of
energy resources reduces overall operational costs.

RISKS AND CHALLENGES OF SCADA IN POWER SYSTEMS

While SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems provide numerous advantages
in power system automation, they also come with certain risks and challenges. These challenges
must be managed carefully to ensure the reliable and secure operation of power generation,
transmission, and distribution systems.

1. Cybersecurity Threats

• Risk: SCADA systems are increasingly becoming targets for cyberattacks, such as hacking,
malware, ransomware, and denial-of-service (DoS) attacks.
• Challenge: Since SCADA systems are critical infrastructure, unauthorized access or attacks
could lead to widespread power outages, equipment damage, or even cascading failures
across the power grid.
• Mitigation: Implementing robust cybersecurity measures such as firewalls, encryption,
intrusion detection systems, regular security updates, and employee training is essential to
protect SCADA systems.

2. Vulnerability to Physical Attacks

• Risk: SCADA systems, especially in remote locations such as substations and transmission
lines, are vulnerable to physical attacks (e.g., vandalism, terrorism).

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 • Challenge: Physical damage to SCADA infrastructure can cause disruptions in monitoring
and control functions, potentially leading to operational failures.
• Mitigation: Strengthening physical security measures, such as surveillance, alarms,
restricted access, and redundant systems, can reduce this risk.

3. System Complexity

• Risk: As SCADA systems grow more complex and integrate with other technologies (like
GIS, OMS, or smart grids), the system's architecture becomes more difficult to manage and
troubleshoot.
• Challenge: The complexity can lead to configuration errors, communication failures, and
operational inefficiencies.
• Mitigation: Regular training of personnel, standardizing configurations, and using
automated monitoring tools can help manage the complexity of SCADA systems.

4. Reliability of Communication Channels

• Risk: SCADA systems rely heavily on reliable communication channels (e.g., fiber optics,
cellular networks, radio, microwave) to transmit data and control signals. Communication
failures or delays can affect system performance.
• Challenge: Poor or interrupted communication could result in loss of real-time data,
inability to execute remote control commands, and slower fault detection.
• Mitigation: Implementing redundant communication paths, monitoring communication
quality, and upgrading outdated communication infrastructure can help ensure reliability.

5. System Downtime and Maintenance

• Risk: SCADA systems require regular maintenance and occasional downtime for updates,
repairs, or replacements, which can temporarily disrupt power system monitoring and
control.
• Challenge: During maintenance or downtime, the lack of real-time data and control could
affect decision-making, especially in critical moments.
• Mitigation: Scheduling maintenance during low-demand periods, using backup systems,
and minimizing downtime through efficient planning and advanced diagnostic tools can
help mitigate this risk.

6. Integration Challenges with Legacy Systems

• Risk: Many power utilities operate a mix of new SCADA systems and legacy equipment,
leading to integration difficulties.

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 • Challenge: Legacy systems may not be fully compatible with modern SCADA systems,
creating gaps in data acquisition, control, or security.
• Mitigation: Utilities may need to invest in middleware, system upgrades, or entirely
replacing outdated equipment to ensure seamless integration between old and new systems.

7. Data Overload

• Risk: SCADA systems generate vast amounts of data from sensors, meters, and devices,
which can overwhelm operators or cause delays in data processing and decision-making.
• Challenge: Overloading the system with too much data may make it difficult to identify
important events or respond to issues promptly.
• Mitigation: Employing data filtering, prioritizing critical data, using advanced analytics,
and automating responses to routine events can help manage data flow more effectively.

8. Dependence on Vendor-Specific Solutions

• Risk: Many SCADA systems are built using proprietary technology from specific vendors,
which can create dependency on a single provider for upgrades, maintenance, or
troubleshooting.
• Challenge: Vendor lock-in limits flexibility and makes it difficult for utilities to switch
providers or adopt best-in-class solutions from different vendors.
• Mitigation: Choosing SCADA systems with open standards and interoperable technologies
can reduce reliance on a single vendor and increase system flexibility.

9. Aging Infrastructure

• Risk: In many cases, SCADA systems in power utilities operate on aging hardware and
software, which may not meet modern performance and security standards.
• Challenge: Outdated SCADA components are more prone to failures, harder to maintain,
and less secure against emerging threats.
• Mitigation: Investing in periodic system upgrades and migrating to newer technologies that
support advanced features like cloud integration and AI-based analytics can ensure the
system remains efficient and secure.

10. Human Error

• Risk: SCADA systems rely on human operators to interpret data, make decisions, and
execute control actions. Mistakes in configuring or operating the system can lead to
incorrect control actions or misinterpretation of alarms.
• Challenge: Human error can result in incorrect switching, delayed response to faults, or
even unnecessary shutdowns, leading to potential outages.
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 • Mitigation: Continuous training, implementing user-friendly interfaces, and introducing
automated decision-support systems can minimize the impact of human error.

11. High Initial Investment and Maintenance Costs

• Risk: The initial costs of deploying SCADA systems, as well as ongoing expenses for
maintenance, upgrades, and cybersecurity, can be significant.
• Challenge: For smaller utilities or in regions with limited resources, the cost of
implementing and maintaining SCADA systems can be a barrier to adoption.
• Mitigation: Conducting cost-benefit analyses, using modular or scalable SCADA systems,
and prioritizing critical system components for automation can help optimize costs.

12. Data Integrity and Accuracy

• Risk: Errors in data collection, transmission, or processing can result in inaccurate readings,
leading to incorrect decisions and control actions.
• Challenge: Data integrity issues can affect everything from load balancing to fault detection
and economic dispatch calculations.
• Mitigation: Employing redundant data sources, regular calibration of sensors, and real-time
data validation techniques can help ensure the accuracy and integrity of data.

Troubleshooting Techniques for Common SCADA-Related Issues in Electrical

Power Systems

SCADA systems in electrical power systems are critical for monitoring, controlling, and automating
processes. However, issues can arise due to hardware failures, communication disruptions, software
errors, or sensor malfunctions. Effective troubleshooting techniques are essential to ensure the
SCADA system continues to perform optimally, allowing for proper fault detection and isolation.

Here are some key troubleshooting techniques for addressing common SCADA-related issues:

1. Communication Failures

Symptoms:

• Loss of data from Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) or Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLCs).
• Inability to remotely control field devices.
• Delayed or missing real-time data updates in the Human-Machine Interface (HMI).

Troubleshooting Techniques:

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 • Check Physical Connections: Verify the integrity of communication cables, connectors,
and equipment (fiber optics, Ethernet, etc.). Ensure there are no loose or damaged
connections.
• Test Communication Channels: Use diagnostic tools like ping tests to check for packet
loss or delays in network communication. Monitor bandwidth usage to ensure it’s within
acceptable limits.
• Inspect Communication Protocols: Ensure that SCADA protocols like Modbus, DNP3, or
IEC 60870-5-104 are properly configured and that both ends of the communication are
using the correct settings (e.g., baud rate, parity).
• Check Network Configuration: Ensure proper IP addressing and subnet configuration, and
verify that firewalls or other security measures are not blocking necessary communication
ports.

Effective Fault Detection and Isolation:

• Implement redundant communication channels to ensure data is transmitted through

backup routes if the primary path fails.
• Use communication logs to identify the time and source of communication breakdowns for
faster isolation of the problem.

2. Hardware Malfunctions

Symptoms:

• RTUs or PLCs not responding or failing to collect and transmit data.

• Sudden loss of connection to field devices or frequent resets of equipment.
• Unusual electrical readings (e.g., voltage, current) due to sensor malfunctions.

Troubleshooting Techniques:

• Perform Equipment Diagnostics: Use built-in diagnostics on RTUs, PLCs, and other field
devices to check for hardware errors or malfunctions. This may include checking power
supplies, input/output (I/O) modules, and processing units.
• Inspect Sensors and Actuators: Ensure that sensors and actuators connected to the
SCADA system are functioning correctly. Check for corrosion, loose connections, or signal
degradation.
• Replace Faulty Components: If diagnostic checks indicate a hardware failure, replace the
faulty component with a working one and retest the system for functionality.
• Monitor for Power Supply Issues: Check the power supply to SCADA hardware and
ensure there are no voltage fluctuations or electrical disturbances causing equipment failure.

Effective Fault Detection and Isolation:

• Implement preventive maintenance schedules to regularly inspect and service SCADA

hardware.
• Use redundant hardware to ensure critical devices, such as RTUs, have backups that can
automatically take over in the event of failure.
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3. Software and Configuration Errors

Symptoms:

• Incorrect data displayed on HMI or failure to execute control commands.

• Inconsistent behavior of SCADA applications (e.g., alarms triggered incorrectly, missed
events).
• Configuration changes not being reflected in real-time operations.

Troubleshooting Techniques:

• Review SCADA Configuration: Verify that all configuration settings, such as tag names,
communication protocols, and data points, are correctly entered in the SCADA system.
Ensure recent changes to the configuration have been properly saved and deployed.
• Check for Software Updates and Patches: Ensure that the SCADA software is up to date,
with the latest security patches and bug fixes applied. Outdated software may cause
unexpected errors.
• Monitor Data Points and Alarms: Use the system logs to review recent alarm activity and
data point updates. Cross-check the readings and logic to verify that the alarms are
configured correctly.
• Test SCADA Application Logic: If control commands are not executing correctly, review
the SCADA application’s control logic or scripts. Ensure there are no coding errors or
incorrect conditions in the control loops.

Effective Fault Detection and Isolation:

• Perform simulation testing of SCADA control logic and alarms in a test environment
before deploying changes in the live system.
• Implement version control for SCADA software and configurations to allow rollback to a
known working configuration if errors are introduced.

4. Sensor and Data Point Failures

Symptoms:

• Incorrect or missing sensor readings in the SCADA interface.

• Sudden fluctuations in monitored parameters (e.g., voltage, current) without corresponding
changes in the system.
• Alarms triggered based on incorrect data.

Troubleshooting Techniques:

• Verify Sensor Functionality: Use handheld devices to manually measure the same
parameters being monitored by the sensor (e.g., voltage, current). Compare manual readings
to SCADA data to check for discrepancies.
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 • Calibrate Sensors: Ensure sensors are properly calibrated to provide accurate readings.
Miscalibrated sensors can cause incorrect data to be fed into the SCADA system.
• Check Data Point Mapping: Verify that the correct sensors are mapped to the right data
points in the SCADA system. Incorrect mappings can lead to the display of wrong data.
• Inspect for Environmental Factors: Ensure that environmental factors (e.g., heat,
moisture, vibration) are not affecting sensor performance. Use protective housing or
insulation where necessary.

Effective Fault Detection and Isolation:

• Implement redundant sensors at critical points in the power system to cross-verify data and
ensure accurate readings.
• Use data validation algorithms to detect and flag anomalous readings that fall outside
expected parameters, enabling early detection of faulty sensors.

5. Cybersecurity Threats

Symptoms:

• Unauthorized access to SCADA controls or data.

• Slow or unresponsive SCADA system due to cyberattacks (e.g., denial-of-service).
• Unexpected changes in system configuration or data manipulation.

Troubleshooting Techniques:

• Monitor Network Traffic: Use network monitoring tools to detect unusual traffic patterns
or suspicious activity on the SCADA network. Investigate any spikes in data traffic or
attempts to access unauthorized devices.
• Check Access Logs: Review system access logs to identify unauthorized login attempts or
access from unknown IP addresses.
• Scan for Malware and Viruses: Regularly scan SCADA systems and connected devices
for malware or viruses that could compromise system integrity.
• Strengthen Access Control: Ensure that only authorized personnel have access to critical
SCADA functions. Use strong passwords, multi-factor authentication (MFA), and role-
based access controls.

Effective Fault Detection and Isolation:

• Implement firewalls and intrusion detection systems (IDS) to protect SCADA networks
from external attacks.
• Use encryption for communication between SCADA components to prevent unauthorized
access or tampering.

6. Latency or Delays in Data Transmission

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Symptoms:

• Data updates from field devices are delayed, causing a lag in real-time monitoring.
• Control actions take longer than expected to execute.
• Inconsistent data flow between SCADA components and the control center.

Troubleshooting Techniques:

• Measure Network Latency: Use network diagnostic tools to measure the latency between
field devices and the control center. Identify any bottlenecks or high-latency links in the
communication chain.
• Check for Network Congestion: Ensure that SCADA data traffic is prioritized over other
types of network traffic to avoid delays, especially during peak periods.
• Review SCADA Polling Rates: Adjust the polling rates of RTUs and sensors to balance the
frequency of data updates with system performance. Polling too frequently can overwhelm
the network, while polling too slowly can delay updates.
• Upgrade Communication Infrastructure: If latency is due to outdated or overloaded
communication infrastructure (e.g., slow links or bandwidth issues), consider upgrading to
higher-speed connections (e.g., fiber optic).

Effective Fault Detection and Isolation:

• Use quality-of-service (QoS) settings to prioritize SCADA data traffic in the network,
ensuring real-time data updates are not delayed.
• Implement redundant communication paths to reroute data in case of delays or
interruptions on the primary channel.

ACTIVITY 6: CASE STUDY

Case Study: SCADA Implementation and Troubleshooting in ABC Power Utility

Background:

ABC Power Utility is a regional power company serving a large urban area with a mix of industrial,
commercial, and residential customers. As part of its modernization efforts, ABC Power decided to
implement a SCADA system to improve its ability to monitor, control, and manage power
distribution across its network of substations and feeders. Prior to SCADA implementation, the
utility faced several challenges:

• Manual operations: Substations were operated manually, leading to delays in responding

to faults.
• Frequent outages: Outages were common due to the slow detection of faults and inefficient
restoration processes.
• High operational costs: With no real-time data, the utility had difficulties optimizing its
load management and often over-relied on manual intervention.

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To address these issues, ABC Power launched a three-phase SCADA deployment project, aimed at
automating the monitoring and control of their transmission and distribution networks.

SCADA Implementation:

Phase 1: Transmission Network Automation

• Objective: Automate monitoring and control of high-voltage substations and transmission

lines.
• Implementation: Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) were installed at major substations to
provide real-time data on voltage, current, and breaker status. The system allowed operators
to monitor power flow and control breakers from a central control room.
• Outcome: This phase improved system visibility and reduced outage times by 30% due to
faster fault detection and remote control capabilities.

Phase 2: Distribution Network Automation

• Objective: Automate fault detection, isolation, and service restoration (FIISR) in the
distribution network.
• Implementation: Automated feeder switches and sectionalizers were installed, allowing
SCADA to automatically identify faults and isolate the affected sections without manual
intervention. Distribution substations were also equipped with RTUs for real-time data
acquisition.
• Outcome: The distribution automation reduced average downtime during faults by 45%,
particularly in densely populated areas.

Phase 3: Generation Monitoring

• Objective: Optimize power generation by integrating SCADA into the generation units.
• Implementation: SCADA was used to collect real-time data on generation output and
automate economic dispatch calculations (EDC) to ensure the most cost-effective power
plants were online based on demand.
• Outcome: Improved system efficiency by optimizing generation scheduling, leading to a
10% reduction in fuel costs.

Challenges and Troubleshooting Issues:

Issue 1: Communication Failure in Distribution Network

• Problem: Two weeks after the distribution network automation, operators noticed that data
from a particular set of RTUs was not being received at the control center. Remote control
of several feeder switches also failed.
• Troubleshooting:
o The utility first checked the physical connections, including fiber optic lines, but
found no visible damage.
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 o Diagnostic tests revealed that the communication module in one RTU was
malfunctioning due to a power surge.
o Solution: The faulty communication module was replaced, and additional surge
protection was installed at the substation.

Issue 2: Inconsistent Data from Sensors

• Problem: Several voltage sensors in the transmission network began sending inconsistent
readings, leading to false alarms in the SCADA system.
• Troubleshooting:
o The utility conducted a manual check using handheld devices and compared the data
with SCADA readings. The handheld readings were accurate, indicating an issue
with the sensors.
o Upon further inspection, it was discovered that some sensors were miscalibrated due
to extreme weather conditions.
o Solution: The sensors were recalibrated, and the utility decided to perform regular
sensor calibration checks during scheduled maintenance to prevent future issues.

Issue 3: SCADA Software Malfunction

• Problem: The SCADA software at the control center crashed twice during peak load hours,
preventing operators from viewing real-time data or controlling field devices.
• Troubleshooting:
o IT staff reviewed the system logs and found that the software was overloaded with
redundant data from multiple RTUs, which was not properly filtered.
o Solution: A software patch was applied to filter non-critical data during high load
periods, and additional server capacity was added to handle future data increases.

Issue 4: Cybersecurity Threat

• Problem: A cybersecurity vulnerability was detected when the SCADA system’s firewall
logs showed unusual traffic attempting to access the control network from an unauthorized
external source.
• Troubleshooting:
o The utility’s IT team immediately implemented a security lockdown, cutting off
external access while investigating the threat.
o The investigation revealed that the breach attempt originated from a weak password
on a VPN connection used by a third-party vendor.
o Solution: Password policies were strengthened, multi-factor authentication (MFA)
was implemented, and regular security audits were scheduled to mitigate future
threats.

Key Lessons Learned:

1. Proactive maintenance: Regular calibration of sensors and testing of communication

equipment can prevent issues like faulty data transmission or incorrect readings.

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 2. Redundancy in communication channels: Ensuring redundancy in communication
infrastructure (e.g., backup fiber optic lines) is critical for maintaining system reliability.
3. Importance of cybersecurity: The detection of external threats highlighted the need for
continuous monitoring and strengthening of cybersecurity protocols, especially as SCADA
systems become more interconnected.
4. Data management: Managing data flow is crucial in preventing SCADA overloads,
particularly during high-demand periods.

ACTIVITY 7: LEARNING ASSESSMENT

1. What was the main objective of ABC Power Utility’s Phase 1 SCADA implementation?
o A) Automating fault detection in the distribution network
o B) Automating the monitoring and control of high-voltage substations
o C) Optimizing generation dispatch for cost savings
o D) Improving data management in the control room
2. Which issue was caused by a power surge at one of the distribution substations?
o A) Communication failure
o B) Inconsistent sensor data
o C) SCADA software crash
o D) Cybersecurity vulnerability
3. How did ABC Power Utility resolve the issue of inconsistent sensor data in the
transmission network?
o A) Replacing faulty RTUs
o B) Replacing faulty communication cables
o C) Recalibrating the sensors and performing regular calibration checks
o D) Installing additional sensors for redundancy
4. What was the root cause of the SCADA software malfunction during peak load hours?
o A) A cyberattack on the SCADA system
o B) Overload of redundant data from multiple RTUs
o C) Power failure at the control center
o D) Outdated software not compatible with RTU data
5. What additional measure did ABC Power take after resolving the cybersecurity
threat?
o A) Replaced all RTUs with newer models
o B) Implemented multi-factor authentication (MFA) and scheduled regular security
audits
o C) Installed a second SCADA control center for redundancy
o D) Removed all third-party vendors from the system
6. What benefit did ABC Power Utility see after implementing distribution automation in
Phase 2?
o A) Reduced fuel costs by 10%
o B) Improved response time for cybersecurity incidents
o C) Reduced average downtime during faults by 45%
o D) Increased power generation capacity by 20%
7. What was the main action taken to address the software crash in the SCADA system?
o A) Reinstalling the software
o B) Applying a software patch to filter non-critical data
o C) Restarting the control center's servers

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 o D) Replacing the control room’s hardware
8. How did the installation of surge protection help resolve the communication issue in
the distribution network?
o A) It prevented further communication failures due to power surges.
o B) It improved the calibration of voltage sensors.
o C) It increased the bandwidth available for SCADA communications.
o D) It enabled better control of power generation.
9. Why was it important for ABC Power to perform regular sensor calibration after
experiencing inconsistent data?
o A) To ensure that power surges were prevented in the future
o B) To prevent further false alarms and ensure accurate monitoring
o C) To allow the SCADA software to filter non-critical data
o D) To improve the bandwidth of communication channels
10. What major advantage did ABC Power gain from SCADA in Phase 3 related to
generation monitoring?
o A) Increased system visibility
o B) Optimized economic dispatch and reduced fuel costs
o C) Improved cybersecurity measures
o D) Faster fault detection and isolation

Answer Key:

1. B - Automating the monitoring and control of high-voltage substations

2. A - Communication failure
3. C - Recalibrating the sensors and performing regular calibration checks
4. B - Overload of redundant data from multiple RTUs
5. B - Implemented multi-factor authentication (MFA) and scheduled regular security audits
6. C - Reduced average downtime during faults by 45%
7. B - Applying a software patch to filter non-critical data
8. A - It prevented further communication failures due to power surges.
9. B - To prevent further false alarms and ensure accurate monitoring
10. B - Optimized economic dispatch and reduced fuel costs

REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER

READING
2. M.S. Thomas, J.D. McDonald (2015). Power System SCADA and Smart Grids.
Chapter 1, Page 1-19

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 TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION
As you complete this learning module on SCADA in power systems, remember that
you are stepping into a future where technology drives the efficiency, reliability, and
security of critical infrastructure. SCADA systems are at the heart of modern power
grids, enabling real-time decision-making, automation, and smarter energy
management.

WHAT’S NEXT?
MODULE 3: POWER SYSTEM OPTIMIZATION

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MODULE 3: POWER SYSTEM OPTIMIZATION

INSTRUCTIONAL HOURS: 4

MODULE OVERVIEW
In this module, you will learn about the essential mathematical optimization
techniques used in power system operations and planning. This includes an
introduction to unconstrained optimization approaches, linear programming (LP),
and non-linear programming (NLP). You will explore how these methods are applied
to optimize power generation, transmission, and distribution, particularly focusing on
minimizing costs, improving efficiency, and ensuring system reliability.
Additionally, you will gain an understanding of how to formulate optimization
problems, including defining objective functions and constraints, as well as how to
solve these problems using appropriate methods. The module also covers
introduction to economic dispatch in power systems and highlights the challenges
posed by system complexity, scalability, and uncertainties.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
9. Understand the fundamental principles of optimization and
their application in solving power system problems, such as
economic dispatch and optimal power flow.

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 10. Formulate mathematical optimization problems, including
unconstrained, linear, and non-linear programming, for
power system operations and planning.
11. Apply optimization techniques to real-world power system
case studies, ensuring efficient resource utilization and cost
minimization while meeting system constraints.
12. Evaluate economic dispatch including generator limits while
neglecting losses.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES/TASK LIST
13. Watch Lecture Video
14. Review power presentation PDF
15. Watch lecture related videos
16. Complete participation assignment: Quiz 1
17. Complete personal introduction video
18. Review concept assignment : Quiz 2

INTRODUCTION

ACTIVITY 1: READING MATERIAL

Power systems are inherently complex, consisting of numerous interconnected

components, such as generators, transmission lines, transformers, and loads. These
systems are influenced by a wide range of unpredictable factors, including equipment
failures, fluctuating demand, and environmental changes. To manage these systems
effectively, optimization techniques are applied to ensure that electricity is generated,
transmitted, and distributed in the most efficient, reliable, and cost-effective manner.
This module provides an overview of mathematical optimization techniques
commonly used in power system optimization, including unconstrained optimization,
non-linear programming (NLP), and linear programming (L.P.). These methods are
essential for solving the challenging problems associated with power system
operation, planning, and utilization, particularly from a commercial perspective.

1. Fundamentals of Optimization and Problem Formulation

1.1 What is Optimization?

Optimization is the process of finding the best solution to a problem, typically by
minimizing or maximizing an objective function, subject to a set of constraints. The
objective function represents the cost, profit, or performance that needs to be
optimized, while constraints are limitations or conditions that must be met.
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In power systems, optimization problems might involve minimizing fuel costs,
reducing transmission losses, or maximizing system reliability, while adhering to
technical and regulatory constraints.

1.2 UNCONSTRAINED, LINEAR, AND NON-LINEAR PROGRAMMING FOR

POWER SYSTEM OPERATIONS
1. Unconstrained Programming
Unconstrained programming refers to optimization problems that do not have any explicit constraints
on the decision variables. The objective is to minimize or maximize a given objective function without
any restrictions on the variables involved. In power systems operations and planning, unconstrained
problems may occur when optimizing certain aspects of system operation that are not limited by
physical or operational constraints (e.g., optimizing the generation cost of a power plant in a simplified
system).

Key points:

- No constraints on decision variables.

- Objective: Optimize (minimize or maximize) a function.

- Useful in simple power system models or components without restrictions.

Example in Power Systems: Maximizing the profit of a power generation plant when there are no fuel
limits or emission constraints.

2. Linear Programming (LP)

Linear programming (LP) is an optimization technique where the objective function and the
constraints are linear in terms of the decision variables. LP models are widely used in power systems
for tasks such as economic dispatch, optimal power flow, and energy management. Linear
programming is efficient and solvable for large-scale systems due to the linear nature of the equations
involved.

Key points:

- Objective function and constraints are linear.

- Well-suited for problems like economic dispatch in power systems.

- Efficient for solving large-scale power system problems.

Example in Power Systems:

- Economic Dispatch: The goal is to minimize the total generation cost while ensuring that the total
power generated meets the demand, subject to generation limits.

- Objective: Minimize the total cost C ( x) = ∑ c P , where ( c ) is the cost coefficient and ( P ) is the
i i i i

power generated by generator ( i ).

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 - Constraints: ( ∑P = P
i D ) (Total generation meets demand ( D )) and ( Pmin ≤ Pi ≤ Pmax )
(Generation limits).

3. Non-Linear Programming (NLP)

Non-linear programming deals with optimization problems where either the objective function, the
constraints, or both are non-linear. In power systems, non-linear programming is often required for
more complex tasks like optimal power flow, unit commitment, or minimizing losses in transmission
networks. Non-linearities in power systems arise due to factors like transmission losses, voltage
relationships, or generator characteristics.

Key points:

- Objective function or constraints are non-linear.

- Required for complex, real-world power system problems like optimal power flow.

- Often solved using iterative methods due to the complexity.

Example in Power Systems:

- Optimal Power Flow (OPF): In OPF, the goal is to minimize generation costs, losses, or other
objectives while satisfying non-linear power flow equations.

C ( x)
- Objective: Minimize = ∑ c P + L( x) , where ( L( x) ) represents the non-linear losses in the
i i

system.

- Constraints: Power flow equations (non-linear) that describe the relationship between voltage,
current, and power at different nodes in the grid.

1.3 OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM FORMULATION IN POWER SYSTEMS:

Formulation of Power System Optimization Problem

Power system optimization involves determining the most efficient way to operate the various
components of a power system, such as generators, transmission lines, and loads, to meet specific
objectives. The optimization problem can be formulated using three key elements: Decision
Variables, Objective Function, and Problem Constraints.

1. Decision Variables

Definition:
Decision variables represent the quantities or factors that can be controlled or adjusted within the
optimization problem. These variables typically describe system operations, such as generator
outputs, voltage levels, or power flows.

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The decision variables are presented as:

 
x 
 1
x =  x2 
 
 
 xn 

where x is the vector of the decision variable.

Common Decision Variables in Power Systems:

• Generator Output ( Pi ): The power generated by each generator in the system. These are
typically constrained by the capacity of the generator.
• Transmission Power Flow ( Fij ): The amount of power flowing through transmission lines
between nodes i and j. These values must respect the physical limits of transmission lines.
• Voltage Magnitudes ( Vi ): Voltage at various buses in the power system. Voltages are
typically constrained to stay within acceptable limits.
• Power Purchases/Sales: For systems involved in electricity markets, the amount of power
bought or sold can be a decision variable.

Example:
For a system with three generators, the decision variables could be P1 , P2 , P3 where Pi represents
the output power of the i th generator.

2. The Objective Function

Definition:
The objective function is the mathematical expression that needs to be optimized—either
minimized or maximized—based on the problem's goal. In power system optimization, the
objective function often aims to minimize costs, losses, or emissions, or to maximize system
efficiency or profits.

Common Objective Functions in Power Systems:

• Minimization of Generation Costs:

A common objective is to minimize the total cost of generating electricity. This can be
expressed as:

N
Minimize C = ∑ Ci ( Pi )
i =1

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 where:

o Ci ( Pi ) is the cost of generation for generator i , often modeled as a quadratic

function of the power output Pi :

Ci ( Pi ) =ai + bi Pi + ci Pi 2

ai , bi , ci are cost coefficients for generator i , and N is the total number of

o
generators.
• Minimization of Power Losses:

Another objective might be to minimize transmission losses in the power grid, which can be
expressed as:

N
Minimize PL = ∑ ( PL ,i )
i =1

where PL ,i represents the losses in the transmission system associated with power flows.

• Maximization of Profit:

In deregulated power markets, the objective could be to maximize profits by selling power
at the most favorable prices:

N
Maximize profit
= ∑ Revenue
i=1
i − Cost i

3. Problem Constraints

Definition:
Constraints in optimization problems represent the limitations or requirements that must be
satisfied. In power system optimization, constraints typically include power balance, generator
limits, voltage limits, and transmission line capacities.

Common Constraints in Power Systems:

• Power Balance Constraint (Equality Constraint):

The total power generated must equal the total power demand, accounting for any losses.
This can be written as:

∑ P=
i =1
i PD + PL

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 Where PD is the total load demand, and PL accounts for transmission losses.

• Generator Capacity Limits (Inequality Constraint):

Each generator has minimum and maximum power output limits. These are usually
represented as:

Pi ,min < Pi < Pi ,max

Where Pi ,min and Pi ,max represent the minimum and maximum output limits of generator i .

• Voltage Limits (Inequality Constraint):

The voltage at each bus must be maintained within a specified range to ensure stable system
operation. This can be written as:

Vi ,min < Vi < Vi ,max

Where Vi represents the voltage at bus i , and Vi ,min and Vi ,max are the lower and upper
voltage limits, respectively.

• Transmission Line Capacity Limits (Inequality Constraint):

The power flowing through each transmission line must not exceed its thermal or stability
limit. This can be represented as:

Fij ≤ Fij ,max

Where Fij is the power flow between nodes i and j , and Fij ,max is the maximum allowable
power flow for that line.

2. ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH

The Economic Load Dispatch (ELD) problem is a key function in power system operation. It
involves allocating power generation among available units in such a way that total generation costs
are minimized, while also meeting various operational constraints.

The main importance of economic load dispatch lies in its ability to optimize power generation
across various units, balancing cost, demand, and operational constraints. This process ensures:

• Cost Minimization: By dispatching lower-cost generation units first, ELD helps reduce the
overall operating costs of the power system.
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 • Efficient Resource Use: ELD allocates generation efficiently among thermal, hydro, and
other resources, considering their availability and limitations.
• System Reliability: ELD ensures that generation matches demand while maintaining
system reliability and adhering to operational limits.

1. Types of Power Plants and Their Roles in ELD:

• Thermal (Steam and Gas) Power Plants:

These are the main contributors to ELD and economic analysis because their fuel costs
directly impact the overall generation cost. As a result, minimizing the fuel cost while
maintaining an optimal generation level is the primary goal of ELD.
• Hydroelectric Power Plants:
Hydroelectric plants do not incur fuel costs, which makes them highly economical when
available. However, they are constrained by water availability, storage capacity, and flow
rate limitations. These plants are usually coordinated with thermal units to balance
generation, especially during peak demand or when water resources are limited.
• Nuclear Power Plants:
Nuclear plants typically provide baseload power. Since their generation is constant and not
easily adjustable, they are not actively considered in real-time economic dispatch
calculations. Once they are running, they supply a fixed portion of the demand due to their
long startup times and high fixed costs.
• Distributed Generation and Renewable Energy Sources:
These include solar, wind, and other distributed generation units. Although they have
become increasingly significant in modern power systems, they are often not part of large-
scale economic dispatch due to their intermittent and variable nature. Renewable energy is
typically managed separately from traditional ELD, though integration efforts are ongoing
with advanced energy management systems.

2. Load Curve and Generation Allocation:

The load curve, as referenced in your text, typically shows the variation of demand over time, such
as over a 24-hour period. A typical load curve is shown in Figure 1.

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 Figure 1 Load curve

The curve can be divided into three distinct regions:

• Baseload:
This is the minimum demand that must always be met. Nuclear and some hydroelectric
plants are typically used to supply baseload due to their constant output characteristics.
• Controllable Load:
This portion of the load is subject to ELD and can be met using adjustable thermal plants.
This is where the cost optimization process of ELD plays a crucial role, as the system
adjusts generation levels of thermal plants to minimize fuel costs.
• Peak Load:
During peak demand periods, all available generation units, including thermal and
hydroelectric, are brought online to meet the demand. Peaking units, such as gas turbines,
which can be started quickly, are used during these periods, even though they may have
higher operating costs.

3. Challenges in ELD:

• Incorporating Renewable Energy:

Renewable energy sources such as wind and solar are variable and intermittent. While they
are increasingly used in the grid, their unpredictable nature presents challenges in traditional
ELD models, which assume steady-state operation. Advanced optimization techniques and
grid management systems are being developed to integrate these sources efficiently.
• Coordination with Hydroelectric Power:
Hydroelectric plants are economical but constrained by water availability, especially during
dry seasons. Therefore, optimizing their output while coordinating with thermal generation
is crucial. In some regions, this coordination also involves environmental constraints, such
as maintaining river flow rates or water levels for ecological reasons.

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 • Transmission Losses:
Transmission losses increase with distance and load, and they must be factored into the
optimization process. Accurate loss models are needed to ensure that dispatch decisions
minimize not only generation cost but also overall system losses.

Thermal Generating Unit Characteristics

Thermal power plants, including coal, natural gas, and oil-fired plants, are commonly used in power
systems to provide electricity. Their operation involves converting heat energy from fuel
combustion into mechanical energy, which is then used to drive a turbine that generates electricity.
These units have several key characteristics that affect how they are operated, controlled, and
included in economic load dispatch (ELD) and other optimization processes.

1. Startup Time

• Definition: Startup time refers to the time it takes to bring a thermal unit online from a cold
state. It depends on the type of thermal plant and its design.
• Characteristics:
o Coal-fired plants: Have long startup times (several hours or even days) due to the
time needed to reach appropriate steam pressure and temperature levels.
o Gas-fired plants: Have shorter startup times compared to coal units and are often
used for load-following or peaking purposes.
o Oil-fired plants: Also have relatively short startup times, similar to gas units, and
are often used in peaking or backup roles.
• Operational Impact: Due to long startup times, coal-fired plants are typically operated
continuously for baseload power, while gas and oil units can be cycled on and off more
quickly to meet variable demand.

2. Shutdown Time

• Definition: Shutdown time is the time required to safely bring a generating unit offline after
it has been operating.
• Characteristics:
o Similar to startup, shutdown can also be time-consuming, especially for coal-fired
units, due to the need for controlled cooling of the system to avoid equipment
damage.
o Gas-fired plants generally have shorter shutdown times and are more flexible in
operation.
• Operational Impact: Shutdown time affects how quickly a unit can be removed from
service, influencing its use in dynamic system operation.

3. Minimum Generation Level

• Definition: The minimum generation level (often called the minimum stable load or
minimum operating point) is the lowest output a thermal unit can generate while operating
stably.
• Characteristics:

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 o Coal-fired plants: Typically have higher minimum generation levels (e.g., 30-50%
of maximum capacity) due to their complex steam systems and the need for
continuous operation of auxiliary equipment.
o Gas-fired plants: Can operate at lower minimum levels (e.g., 10-20% of maximum
capacity) and are more flexible.
• Operational Impact: Units with high minimum generation levels cannot easily reduce
output to accommodate low-load conditions, which affects their role in economic load
dispatch. Gas plants, with lower minimum levels, are more suitable for load-following
applications.

4. Ramp Rate

• Definition: Ramp rate refers to the rate at which a generating unit can increase or decrease
its power output over time, typically measured in megawatts per minute (MW/min).
• Characteristics:
o Coal-fired plants: Generally have slower ramp rates due to the inertia of their
mechanical systems and thermal limitations.
o Gas-fired plants: Have faster ramp rates and can respond more quickly to changes
in demand or grid conditions.
• Operational Impact: Ramp rate is critical for handling fluctuations in demand and
integrating renewable energy sources. Units with fast ramp rates are ideal for adjusting
output quickly during periods of rapid load change or renewable intermittency.

5. Efficiency (Heat Rate)

• Definition: The efficiency of a thermal plant is a measure of how effectively it converts fuel
into electrical energy. It is commonly expressed as the heat rate, which is the amount of
fuel energy (in BTUs or joules) required to produce one kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electricity.
• Characteristics:
o Older coal plants tend to have lower efficiency compared to modern combined-cycle
gas plants.
o Gas-fired combined-cycle plants are among the most efficient thermal plants, with
lower heat rates due to their use of both gas and steam turbines.
• Operational Impact: Higher efficiency (lower heat rate) results in lower fuel consumption
and reduced operating costs. This characteristic plays a key role in economic dispatch,
where more efficient units are favored to minimize the total system cost.

6. Fuel Cost

• Definition: The cost of fuel used to generate electricity is a major operational expense for
thermal power plants. Fuel costs can vary significantly based on the type of fuel (coal,
natural gas, oil) and market conditions.
• Characteristics:
o Coal-fired plants typically have lower fuel costs compared to oil-fired plants, but
higher than natural gas when gas prices are low.
o Natural gas-fired plants: Their fuel cost can fluctuate significantly with market
conditions, but they often operate with lower fuel costs than oil-fired units.

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 • Operational Impact: Fuel cost is a key component of the total generation cost considered
in economic dispatch. Plants with lower fuel costs are dispatched first to minimize system-
wide costs.

7. Emission Constraints

• Definition: Emission constraints refer to environmental regulations that limit the amount of
pollutants (such as CO2, SO2, NOx) that thermal plants can emit.
• Characteristics:
o Coal-fired plants tend to have higher emissions and are often subject to stricter
regulations or require costly emission control technologies (e.g., scrubbers).
o Natural gas plants produce fewer emissions compared to coal, making them more
attractive in regions with stringent environmental regulations.
• Operational Impact: Plants with high emissions may face operating restrictions, emissions
trading costs, or penalties. This can influence their dispatch priority in regions with carbon
pricing or cap-and-trade programs.

8. Operating and Maintenance (O&M) Costs

• Definition: O&M costs refer to the costs associated with maintaining and operating a
thermal unit, including labor, repairs, and equipment replacement.
• Characteristics:
o Coal-fired plants tend to have higher O&M costs due to the complexity of their
systems and the need for frequent maintenance.
o Gas-fired plants typically have lower O&M costs, particularly for simple-cycle gas
turbines.
• Operational Impact: High O&M costs can make certain plants less economical to operate,
especially if they are only needed for peaking or backup purposes.

9. Reliability and Availability

• Definition: Reliability refers to the ability of a generating unit to provide consistent and
uninterrupted power. Availability refers to the proportion of time that a unit is operational
and available to generate power.
• Characteristics:
o Older coal plants may have lower availability due to aging infrastructure and the
need for more frequent repairs or maintenance.
o Gas-fired plants, particularly modern combined-cycle units, are generally more
reliable and have higher availability.
• Operational Impact: Units with high reliability and availability are preferred for dispatch,
especially during periods of peak demand or system stress. Units with low reliability may be
relegated to backup roles.

Input-Output Characteristics of a Thermal Generating Unit:

The input-output characteristic curve represents the relationship between the input (fuel
consumption) and the output (electrical power generated) of a thermal power plant. It is a critical
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concept in economic load dispatch (ELD) because it helps in determining the fuel cost for a given
level of power generation.

• Input (Fuel):
The input is typically measured in terms of fuel consumption, such as British Thermal Units
(BTUs) per hour or Joules per hour.
• Output (Power):
The output is the electrical power generated by the unit, typically measured in megawatts
(MW).
• Input-Output Curve:
The input-output characteristic curve is generally non-linear. At lower power outputs, the
plant operates inefficiently, consuming more fuel per unit of power. As the output increases,
the plant becomes more efficient, but after reaching a certain point (typically near maximum
capacity), efficiency may drop slightly due to increased operational constraints.

Mathematically, the input-output characteristic is often represented as a quadratic function:

F ( P) = α P 2 + β P + γ

where:

• F(P) is the fuel input as a function of power output P . The fuel input is normally converted
to cost Ci in $ / h .
• α , β , and γ are constants specific to the generating unit.

A typical fuel cost curve is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Thermal generator Input-Output characteristic

2. Incremental Cost:

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 • Definition:
The incremental cost is the additional cost incurred to generate one more unit of power
(typically 1 MW). It is derived from the input-output characteristic and is used in economic
dispatch to determine the most cost-effective way to distribute generation among units.
• Incremental Fuel Cost (IFC):
Incremental cost is the derivative of the input-output characteristic curve:

dF ( P)
λ
= = 2α P + β
dP

where λ is the incremental cost in terms of fuel consumption per megawatt-hour (MWh).

• Importance in ELD:
In economic dispatch, the generating units with the lowest incremental cost are dispatched
first. The objective is to equalize the incremental cost across all units to minimize total
generation cost while meeting system demand.

ACTIVITY 2: QUIZ 1

Drag and Drop Matching Questions:

Optimization in Power Systems
Question 1: Match the Optimization Concepts with Their Descriptions
Concepts Descriptions
Objective Function The mathematical expression that
represents the total cost of power
generation or system losses, which needs
to be minimized.
Constraints The limitations imposed on the system,
such as power balance, generator limits, or
transmission capacity, that must be
adhered to in the optimization problem.
Economic Load Dispatch The process of determining the most cost-
effective way to allocate generation
resources to meet the required demand
while minimizing costs.
Lagrange Multiplier A mathematical method used to optimize a
function subject to constraints, often used
in power systems for handling optimization
problems with equality constraints.

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Power Balance A condition where the total power
generated equals the total power
demanded, often considering transmission
losses.

Question 2: Match the Power System Component with Its Role in Optimization
Components Roles
Generators The units that need to be optimized to
minimize fuel costs while satisfying
demand.
Transmission Lines Constraints in the optimization process, as
they have limited capacity and can lead to
power losses.
Load (Demand) The amount of electrical power that must
be met by the generation resources,
forming part of the power balance
equation.
Power System Operators Decision-makers responsible for ensuring
that the system operates optimally while
maintaining system reliability and
minimizing costs.
Control Centers The location where real-time monitoring
and control of the power system takes
place to ensure efficient operation and
minimize system-wide costs.

Question 3: Match the Importance of Optimization with Its Impact in Power

Systems
Importance of Optimization Impact
Minimizes Fuel Costs Helps reduce the operational expenses of
power generation units by ensuring that
fuel is used efficiently.
Ensures Reliable Power Supply Balances the power generation with the
load demand to avoid system outages and
maintain grid stability.
Reduces Environmental Impact By optimizing power generation, it is
possible to reduce emissions by utilizing
more efficient and less polluting generation
resources.
Increases Operational Efficiency Improves the overall efficiency of the
power system by ensuring optimal use of
resources, minimizing losses, and
maintaining system balance.
Balances Power Flow Helps manage power flow across the grid
by considering transmission line capacities
and minimizing losses during distribution.

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Question 4: Match the Optimization Problem with Its Appropriate Description
Optimization Problems Descriptions
Unit Commitment Determines which generators should be
turned on or off to minimize costs while
meeting demand and adhering to system
constraints.
Economic Load Dispatch Allocates the generation among the
committed generators in such a way that
the overall operating cost is minimized.
Optimal Power Flow Involves minimizing an objective function
such as power losses or generation cost
while adhering to voltage, capacity, and
stability constraints.
Voltage Control Ensures that the voltage levels within the
power system remain within specified
limits to maintain reliable system
performance.
Frequency Regulation Adjusts generation output to maintain
system frequency within acceptable
bounds in response to fluctuations in
demand or supply.

Question 5: Match the Optimization Objective with Its Description

Objective Functions Descriptions
Minimize Total Fuel Cost Objective function in economic load
dispatch, where the goal is to minimize the
total cost of fuel consumed by all
generators in operation.
Minimize Power Losses Objective function where the focus is on
reducing transmission losses, ensuring that
more generated power reaches the load.
Maximize System Reliability Ensures that the power system remains
stable and capable of supplying demand
without interruptions or outages.
Minimize Environmental Impact Focuses on reducing emissions from power
generation sources by prioritizing cleaner
energy or more efficient generators.
Maximize Generation Efficiency Ensures that the generation process uses
the least amount of resources (fuel or
energy) to produce the desired power
output.

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 3. ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH METHODS

ACTIVITY 3: READING MATERIAL

1. LAMBDA ITERATION METHOD

Description:
The Lambda Iteration Method is an iterative technique used to solve the economic load dispatch
problem by adjusting the power output of generators so that the incremental cost of all generating
units is equal. The incremental cost is the rate of change of the cost function with respect to power
output. This method operates on the principle that, in the optimal solution, the incremental cost (or
marginal cost) of each generator should be the same across all generating units to minimize total
generation cost. The method iteratively adjusts the power output of each generator based on a
common incremental cost, denoted as Lambda (λ), until a balance is achieved.

Mathematical Formulation:
The cost function for each generator is typically represented as:
Ci ( Pi ) = α Pi 2 + β Pi + γ
where:
Ci ( Pi ) is the cost of generation for the i-th generator,
Pi is the power output of the i-th generator,
α , β , and γ are cost coefficients.

The incremental cost for each generator is:

dCi ( Pi )
= 2α Pi + β= λ
dPi
where λ is the Lagrange multiplier (the common incremental cost).

Application:
Lambda Iteration is used for ELD problems with continuous and differentiable cost functions, such as
those with quadratic cost functions for generation. It is effective when transmission losses are either
negligible or accounted for by adding loss terms to the power balance equation.

Steps:
1. Start with an initial guess for the incremental cost λ.
2. Compute the power output Pi for each generator using the formula:
λ−β
Pi =
2α

3. Check the total generated power ∑P i against the total load demand P_D.
4. If the total generation is less than PD , increase λ; if it exceeds PD , decrease λ.

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5. Repeat steps 2-4 until the total generated power equals the load demand within an acceptable
tolerance.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
T h e co st ch a racte ristic o f tw o u n its in a p la n t a re :
C1 = 0.4 P12 + 160 P1 + K1 $ / h
C2 = 0.45 P22 + 120 P2 + K 2 $ / h
w h e re P1 a n d P2 a re p o w e r o u tpu t in M W . F in d th e o p tim u m loa d a lloca tion
b e tw ee n th e tw o u n its, w he n th e to ta l lo ad is 1 6 2 .5 M W .

Solution Using Lambda Iteration Method

Step 1: Derive the Incremental Cost Functions

For unit 1:
C1 = 0.4 P12 + 160 P1 + K1 $ / h
Incremental cost:

dC1
λ1
= = 0.8 P1 + 160
dP1
λ1 − 0.8P1
P1 =
160
For unit 2:
C2 = 0.45 P22 + 120 P2 + K 2 $ / h
Incremental cost:

dC2
λ2
= = 0.9 P2 + 120
dP2
λ2 − 0.9 P2
P2 =
120

Step 2: Apply the Power Balance Constraint

The total power output must equal the demand:
λ1 − 0.8P1 λ2 − 0.9 P2
+ 162.5
=
160 120

Step 3: Set the Incremental Costs Equal

At optimal allocation:
λ=
1 λ=
2 λ

λ − 0.8P1 λ − 0.9 P2
+ 162.5
=
160 120

Let’s solve this equation for λ

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The solution is λ = 210

Step 4: Calculate optimal allocation

Using the power balance equation:
P1 = 62.5 MW
P2 = 100 MW

2. GRADIENT METHODS

Description:
Gradient methods are optimization techniques that use the gradient (first derivative) of the objective
function to iteratively move towards the optimal solution. In the context of ELD, the gradient refers to
the rate of change of the total cost function with respect to each generator’s power output. The idea is
to follow the direction of the steepest descent (negative gradient) to minimize the total generation
cost.

Mathematical Concept:
The total cost function C is defined as the sum of the individual generator costs:
C = ∑ Ci ( Pi )
The gradient of the total cost function with respect to Pi is:
 dC1 dC1 dC 
∇C =
 , , , N 
 dP1 dP1 dPN 
The solution is updated in the direction of the gradient as:
dCi
+1
Pi k= Pi k − α
dPi
k +1 k
where Pi is the updated power output, Pi is the current power output, and α is a step size or
learning rate.

Application:
Gradient methods are particularly suitable for ELD problems where cost functions are differentiable
(e.g., quadratic cost functions). They are effective for large-scale power systems with multiple
generators.

Advantages:
1. Easy to implement and provides a good solution for smooth cost functions.
2. Suitable for cases where computational resources are limited and the cost function is well-behaved.

Disadvantages:
• Slow convergence in flat regions or near local minima.

• Sensitive to the initial guess and step size selection.

• May converge to a local minimum instead of the global minimum.

• Requires the objective function to be smooth and differentiable.

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 • Computational challenges for large or ill-conditioned problems.

• Sensitive to noise in the gradient information.

• Poor at handling constrained optimization problems without modifications.

Example 1 Solution Using Gradient Method

The gradient method can be used to iteratively find the optimal solution to the load allocation
problem by adjusting P1 and P2 based on the gradients of the cost functions. Here’s how we can
approach it:

Step-by-Step Gradient Method:

1. Cost functions:

C1 ( P1 ) = 0.4 P12 + 160 P1 + K1

C2 ( P2 ) = 0.45 P22 + 120 P2 + K 2

2. Gradients of the cost functions (Incremental costs):

dC1
= 0.8 P1 + 160
dP1
dC2
= 0.9 P2 + 120
dP2

3. Starting guess:
We start with an initial guess for P1 and P2 that satisfies the total load constraint
P1 + P2 =162.5
4. Iteration:
dC1 dC2
We adjust P1 and P2 in small steps until the incremental costs and are
dP1 dP2
approximately equal (i.e., optimal load allocation).
5. Step size:
We choose a small step size ∆ to update P1 and P2 in each iteration based on the gradients.

Iterative Update Rules:

dC1 dC2
• If > increase P2 and decrease P1 .
dP1 dP2
dC1 dC2
• If < , increase P1 and decrease P2 .
dP1 dP2
88
We can implement this approach iteratively and find the optimal solution.

3. LAGRANGE MULTIPLIER METHOD

Basic Idea:
The Lagrange multiplier method is a mathematical optimization technique used to find the optimal
generation allocation in an economic dispatch problem while satisfying constraints like total load
demand and generator limits. It is particularly effective when the goal is to minimize the total cost of
generation for multiple generating units subject to equality constraints.

Objective Function:
The total cost of generation is typically given as:

C = ∑ Ci ( Pi )

Where Ci ( Pi ) is the cost function of the i th generator, which is usually quadratic in form:

Ci ( Pi ) = α i Pi 2 + βi Pi + γ i

α i , βi , γ i are constants, and Pi is the power output of the i th generator.

Solution with equality constraint only

The objective of economic dispatch is to minimize the total generation cost while satisfying the power
balance constraint:

∑P = Pi D

Where PD is the total load demand.

Lagrangian Formulation:
To incorporate the power balance constraint, we introduce a Lagrange multiplier λ , and the
Lagrangian function is written as:

 ( P1 , P2 , , Pn , λ=) ∑ C ( P ) +λ ( P − ∑ P )
i i D i

Where λ is the Lagrange multiplier associated with the power balance constraint.

89
First-Order Necessary Conditions

To find the optimal generation Pi , we differentiate the Lagrangian with respect to each Pi and set the
derivative equal to zero:

Stationarity
For each generator i :
∂ dCi ( Pi )
= =−λ 0
∂Pi dPi

This yields,

dCi ( Pi )
= λ ∀i
dPi

This equation means that the marginal cost of generation (derivative of the cost function) for each
generator must be the same and equal to the Lagrange multiplier λ .

Solving for Pi :

• Equal Marginal Costs: The solution implies that the marginal cost for all generators is equal,
dCi
i.e., is the same for all i .
dPi

• Power Balance: To find the value of λ , we use the power balance constraint:

∑P = P
i =1
i D

By solving the set of equations derived from the marginal cost equality and the power balance
constraint, we can determine the optimal generation levels P1 , P2 , , PN .

Solution with both equality and inequality constraints

For economic dispatch with inequality constraints, we apply the Karush-Kuhn-Tucker

(KKT) conditions.

Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT) Conditions in Economic Dispatch

The Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT) conditions play a key role in solving Economic Dispatch (ED)
problems in power systems, where the objective is to determine the most cost-effective way of
generating electricity to meet a given demand while satisfying operational constraints.

90
Inequality Constraints (Generation Limits):
Each generator has an upper and lower generation limit:
Pi ,min ≤ Pi ≤ Pi ,max

KKT Conditions for Economic Dispatch

To solve this optimization problem, the KKT conditions are applied, which combine the Lagrangian
multiplier method with the inclusion of inequality constraints.

1. Lagrangian Function
The Lagrangian for this problem is:

 ( P1 , P2 , , Pn , λ , µi− , µi=
+
) ∑ C ( P ) +λ ( P − ∑ P ) + ∑ µ ( P − P ) + ∑ µ ( P − P )
i i D i i
−
i i ,min i
+
i i ,max

Where λ is the Lagrange multiplier (associated with the power balance constraint) and µi , µi are
− +

KKT multipliers for the lower and upper generation limits.

2. First-Order Necessary Conditions

The KKT conditions are derived by setting the partial derivatives of the Lagrangian with respect to
each variable to zero.

Stationarity
For each generator i:
∂ dCi ( Pi )
= − λ − µi− +=
µi+ 0
∂Pi dPi

Primal Feasibility
The total generation must satisfy the power balance and generation limits:
∑P = Pi D (satisfies) power balance)
Pi ,min ≤ Pi ≤ Pi ,max ∀i (generator limits)

Dual Feasibility
The KKT multipliers must be non-negative:
µi− ≥ 0, µi+ ≥ 0 ∀i

Complementary Slackness
These conditions ensure that if a generator is operating at its limit, the corresponding KKT multiplier
is non-zero:
µi− ( Pi ,min − Pi ) =
0
µi+ ( Pi − Pi ,max ) =
0

91
Advantages and Disadvantages of Lagrange Multiplier Method:
Advantages Disadvantages

Simple for equality-constrained problems Limited to equality constraints

Efficient for small and medium problems Complexity increases with system size

Ensures marginal cost equality Cannot handle generator limits directly

Handles both linear and nonlinear cost Requires differentiable cost functions
functions

Clear economic interpretation (λ) Feasibility not guaranteed with nonlinear

constraints

Example 1 Solution Using Lagrange Multiplier Method

There are no inequality constraints. There is only one equality constraint for power balance.

The Lagrangian for this problem is:

 ( P1 , P2 , , Pn , λ=) ∑ C ( P ) +λ ( P − ∑ P )
i i D i

The equality constraint is:

162.5
P1 + P2 =

We now set up the Lagrangian  by combining the cost function with the constraint using a Lagrange
multiplier λ : (The Langrangian is not affected by constants K1 and K 2 )

) 0.4 P12 + 160 P1 + 0.45P22 + 120 P2 + λ (162.5 − P1 − P2 )

 ( P1, P2, λ=

To find the optimum load allocation, we take partial derivatives of  with respect to P1 , P2 , and
λ , and set them to zero.

Partial derivatives with respect to P1 , P2 , and λ :

∂
= 0.8 P1+ 160 − λ= 0
∂P1
∂
= 0.9 P2 + 120 − λ= 0
∂P2
∂
= 162.5 − P1− =
P2 0
∂λ

Now we have the following system of equations:

92
 λ
0.8 P1+ 160 =
λ
0.9 P2 + 120 =
162.5
P1+ P2 =

The solution is:

P1 = 62.5 MW
P2 = 100 MW

Worked Example 2 Economic Scheduling of

Power Plant with Three Units
Problem Statement
We have three power-generating units with the following cost functions:
C1 ( P1 ) = 0.5 P12 + 215 P1 + 5000
C2 ( P2 ) =1.0 P22 + 270 P2 + 5000
C3 ( P3 ) = 0.7 P32 + 160 P3 + 9000

The power generation limits for each unit are:

39 ≤ P1, P2, P3 ≤ 150 MW
The total load to be supplied is 200 MW:
P1+ P2 + P3 =200 MW

Solution

Step 1: Define the Incremental Costs

The incremental costs are obtained by differentiating the cost functions with respect to P1, P2 and P3 :
dC1
= 1.0 P1 + 215
dP1
dC2
= 2.0 P2 + 270
dP2
dC3
= 1.4 P3 + 160
dP3

For economic scheduling, we must equalize the incremental costs across all units subject to the total
load constraint. That is:

93
 dC dC2 dC3
=1 = = λ
dP1 dP2 dP3
where λ is the Lagrange multiplier.

Step 2: Write the Incremental Cost Equations

We now set the incremental costs equal to each other:
1.0 P1 + 215 = 2.0 P2 + 270 (1)

1.0 P1 + 215 = 1.4 P3 + 160 (2)

200
P1 + P2 + P3 = (3)

Step 3: Solve for P₁, P₂, and P₃

Solve Equation (1) for P₂ in terms of P₁:
1.0 P1 − 55
P2 =
2.0

Solve Equation (2) for P₃ in terms of P₁:

1.0 P1 − 55
P3 =
1.4

Step 4: Solve for P₁

Substitute P₂ and P₃ into the power balance equation:
1.0 P1 − 55 1.0 P1 − 55
P1 + + 200
=
2.0 1.4
After solving, we get:
P1 = 85 MW

Step 5: Find P₂ and P₃

Substitute P1 = 85 MW into the equations for P₂ and P₃:

85 − 55
=P2 = 15 MW
2.0

85 + 55
=P2 = 100 MW
1.4

94
Step 6: Adjust P₂ to Meet the Minimum Limit
Since P2 = 15 MW is below the minimum allowable limit of 39 MW, we set P2 = 39 MW . Now, the
remaining load is:
P₁ + P₃ = 200 - 39 = 161 MW

Step 7: Solve for P₁ and P₃

Using the adjusted power balance equation and solving for P₁ and P₃, we get:
P1 = 71 MW

P3 = 90 MW

ACTIVITY 4: QUIZ 2

1. Drag and Drop the Correct Physical Interpretation:

• Question: Match each solution method (Lambda Iteration, Gradient Method, Lagrange
Multiplier) with its physical interpretation.
• Options:
o A) Minimizes system cost by adjusting all generator outputs proportionally to their
incremental costs.
o B) Adjusts generator outputs by calculating the gradient of cost functions with
respect to generator limits.
o C) Finds optimal points where marginal costs of generation are equal across all
generators.

Correct Matches:

o A) Lambda Iteration
o B) Gradient Method
o C) Lagrange Multiplier Technique

2. Convergence Limitations in Lambda Iteration:

• Question: Drag and drop the limitations of the Lambda Iteration method in economic
dispatch problems.
• Options:
o A) Slow convergence for large systems
o B) Cannot handle generator limits directly
o C) Computationally expensive for non-linear cost functions

Correct Matches:
95
 o A) True
o B) True
o C) False

3. Gradient Method's Efficiency:

• Question: Drag and drop the situations where the gradient method becomes more efficient
than other methods.
• Options:
o A) Linear cost functions
o B) Complex non-linear cost functions
o C) When generator limits are present

Correct Matches:

o A) False
o B) True
o C) True

4. Lagrange Multiplier Technique Physical Meaning:

• Question: Drag and drop the correct physical interpretation of the Lagrange multipliers in
economic dispatch.
• Options:
o A) Represents the rate of change of system cost with respect to total power demand
o B) Represents the incremental cost of adding power from a particular generator
o C) Represents the difference between total generation cost and load

Correct Matches:

o A) True
o B) True
o C) False

5. Handling Generator Limits:

• Question: Drag and drop the method(s) that can handle generator limits efficiently.
• Options:
o A) Lambda Iteration
o B) Gradient Method
o C) Lagrange Multiplier Technique

Correct Matches:
96
 o A) False
o B) True
o C) True

6. Interpretation of Lambda in Economic Dispatch:

• Question: Drag and drop the correct interpretation of "lambda" in the Lambda Iteration
method.
• Options:
o A) Represents marginal cost of power production
o B) Represents the gradient of cost functions
o C) Represents total system cost

Correct Matches:

o A) True
o B) False
o C) False

7. Handling Multiple Generators with Lambda Iteration:

• Question: Drag and drop the challenges associated with using the Lambda Iteration method
for multiple generators.
• Options:
o A) Slow convergence when the number of generators is large
o B) Difficulty in finding a common lambda across all generators
o C) Cannot handle generator limits effectively

Correct Matches:

o A) True
o B) True
o C) True

8. Effect of Cost Functions on Gradient Method:

• Question: Drag and drop the impact of different cost functions on the Gradient Method’s
performance.
• Options:
o A) Works well with linear cost functions
o B) Struggles with non-smooth cost functions
o C) Performs poorly with quadratic cost functions

97
 Correct Matches:

o A) True
o B) True
o C) False

9. Convergence Issues in Lagrange Multiplier Technique:

• Question: Drag and drop the convergence issues associated with the Lagrange Multiplier
technique.
• Options:
o A) May not converge if cost functions are non-differentiable
o B) Requires exact constraint handling for generator limits
o C) Can easily handle systems with non-linear cost functions

Correct Matches:

o A) True
o B) True
o C) False

10. Lambda Iteration Without Limits:

• Question: Drag and drop the correct statement regarding Lambda Iteration when no
generator limits are present.
• Options:
o A) Converges quickly for large systems
o B) Adjusts generator outputs until marginal costs are equal
o C) More efficient than gradient methods

Correct Matches:

o A) False
o B) True
o C) False

11. Comparing Gradient Method and Lambda Iteration:

• Question: Drag and drop the advantage of using the Gradient Method over the Lambda
Iteration method.
• Options:
o A) Can handle generator limits more efficiently
o B) More intuitive for large systems
98
 o C) Faster convergence with non-linear cost functions

Correct Matches:

o A) True
o B) False
o C) True

12. Optimization Objective in Economic Dispatch:

• Question: Drag and drop the optimization objective that applies to all methods.
• Options:
o A) Minimize total generation cost
o B) Minimize individual generator costs
o C) Maximize power output per generator

Correct Matches:

o A) True
o B) False
o C) False

13. Handling Generator Limits in Lambda Iteration:

• Question: Drag and drop the method to incorporate generator limits in Lambda Iteration.
• Options:
o A) Add penalty factors for exceeding limits
o B) Use trial-and-error adjustments for out-of-bound generators
o C) Adjust marginal costs dynamically

Correct Matches:

o A) True
o B) True
o C) False

14. Convergence Speed Comparison:

• Question: Drag and drop the correct statement about the convergence speed of the three
methods.
• Options:
o A) Lambda Iteration converges faster in linear cases
o B) Gradient method converges slower with multiple generator constraints
99
 o C) Lagrange Multiplier converges faster with quadratic cost functions

Correct Matches:

o A) True
o B) True
o C) False

15. System Size and Method Efficiency:

• Question: Drag and drop the appropriate method based on system size.
• Options:
o A) Lambda Iteration for small systems
o B) Gradient Method for large systems with generator limits
o C) Lagrange Multiplier for medium-sized systems

Correct Matches:

o A) True
o B) True
o C) False

ACTIVITY 5: CASE STUDY

Case Study: Economic Dispatch in a Power System Network Using Lagrange

Multiplier Technique

Problem Description

You are tasked with solving an economic dispatch problem for a power system network consisting of 5
generators supplying power to meet a total system load of 850 MW.
Your objective is to minimize the total generation cost while adhering to the operating constraints of
each generator.

Each generator has the following cost function C_i(P_{Gi}) and operating limits:

- Generator 1:
Cost function: C=
1 0.01P12 + 10 P1 + 100
Operating limits: 150 ≤ P1 ≤ 400 MW

- Generator 2:
100
 C2 0.012 P22 + 8 P2 + 120
Cost function: =
Operating limits: 100 ≤ P2 ≤ 350 MW

- Generator 3:
C3 0.015 P32 + 7 P3 + 140
Cost function: =
Operating limits: 50 ≤ P3 ≤ 300 MW

- Generator 4:
Cost function: C=
4 0.02 P42 + 9 P4 + 180
Operating limits: 100 ≤ P4 ≤ 450 MW
- Generator 5:
Cost function: C
=5 0.017 P52 + 11P5 + 200
Operating limits: 80 ≤ P5 ≤ 500 MW

The sum of the power generated by all generators must meet the total system demand of 850 MW, and
the power generated by each unit must lie within its operating limits.

Objective

Minimize the total generation cost:

C_total = C_1(P_{G1}) + C_2(P_{G2}) + C_3(P_{G3}) + C_4(P_{G4}) + C_5(P_{G5})
subject to the power balance equation:
P_{G1} + P_{G2} + P_{G3} + P_{G4} + P_{G5} = 850 MW
and the generator operating limits:
150 ≤ P_{G1} ≤ 400 MW
100 ≤ P_{G2} ≤ 350 MW
50 ≤ P_{G3} ≤ 300 MW
100 ≤ P_{G4} ≤ 450 MW
80 ≤ P_{G5} ≤ 500 MW

Solution Method

We use the Lagrange Multiplier technique to solve this economic dispatch problem.
The Lagrange function L is defined as:
L = C_1(P_{G1}) + C_2(P_{G2}) + C_3(P_{G3}) + C_4(P_{G4}) + C_5(P_{G5}) + λ(P_{G1} + P_{G2} + P_{G3}
+ P_{G4} + P_{G5} - 850)

101
Power Outputs and Lambda Value

Power Outputs and Lambda Value

The value of the Lagrange multiplier λ is -13.74. The corresponding power outputs for each generator
are:
- P_G1: 187.02 MW
- P_G2: 239.18 MW
- P_G3: 224.68 MW
- P_G4: 118.51 MW
- P_G5: 80.60 MW
These values satisfy the power balance equation P_G1 + P_G2 + P_G3 + P_G4 + P_G5 = 850 MW, and all
power outputs are within their respective operating limits.

ACTIVITY 6: QUIZ 3

1. What is the physical meaning of the Lagrange multiplier λ in this context?

In the context of economic dispatch, the Lagrange multiplier λ represents the incremental cost or
marginal cost of generation. This means that it indicates the rate at which the total generation cost
changes as the system load increases by 1 MW. In simpler terms, λ reflects how much it costs to
generate an additional unit of power. When the marginal costs of all generators are equal (as
enforced by λ , the total generation cost is minimized.

2. Why is it necessary to include the generator operating limits in this economic

dispatch problem?

It is necessary to include the generator operating limits because each generator has physical
constraints in terms of its minimum and maximum power output. Without these limits, the
economic dispatch could theoretically suggest power outputs that are beyond the feasible operating
range of a generator, which could lead to technical issues such as overloading or under-utilizing a
generator. Operating limits ensure that the dispatch solution is realistic and within the safe
operating capabilities of the power system.

3. How does the quadratic cost function impact the optimal power distribution
among the generators?

Quadratic cost functions reflect the fact that the cost of power generation typically increases as
more power is produced by a generator. This is due to factors such as fuel costs and efficiency
reductions at higher output levels. The quadratic nature of the cost function leads to a non-linear
relationship between power output and generation cost, causing the dispatch solution to favor
102
generators with lower incremental costs (i.e., the slope of the cost function) for meeting the
demand. This results in a more efficient allocation of generation across the system, with generators
that have steeper cost curves contributing less to the overall load.

4. How would the dispatch strategy change if the demand increased to 950 MW?

If the system demand increased to 950 MW, the total power required from the generators would
increase. The Lagrange multiplier λ would adjust accordingly to balance the marginal costs of
generation for the new load level. Generators with lower marginal costs would likely increase their
output, as they can provide additional power at a lower incremental cost. However, depending on
the generator operating limits, some generators may reach their maximum operating capacity,
forcing the system to rely more on generators with higher costs. This would lead to a higher overall
generation cost compared to the original 850 MW case.

5. Discuss potential convergence issues when solving this problem using the
Lagrange Multiplier technique.

Potential convergence issues with the Lagrange Multiplier technique include:

• Non-convex cost functions: If the cost functions of the generators are not convex, the
method may struggle to find the global optimum, potentially converging to a local minimum
instead.
• Generator limits: If a generator reaches its operating limit during the solution process,
special care is needed to handle this constraint. The algorithm must adjust the power outputs
of other generators accordingly, which may slow down convergence.
• Initial guess for λ : The convergence speed depends on the initial guess for λ . A poor
initial estimate can lead to slow convergence or divergence.
• Numerical instability: For large systems with many generators, numerical errors can
accumulate, causing instability or slow convergence, particularly if the power outputs of
some generators are near their limits.

In general, careful handling of constraints and an appropriate starting point can mitigate most
convergence issues.

Rubrics for Analysis Questions

1. What is the physical meaning of the Lagrange multiplier \( \lambda \) in this context?
Criteria Exemplary (5 Proficient (4 Adequate (3 Needs
points) points) points) Improvement
(1-2 points)
Understanding Clearly explains Explains that λ Provides a Does not
of λ that ( λ represents the vague demonstrate
represents the marginal cost, definition of λ understanding
marginal cost but lacks with limited of λ , or
103
 or incremental details on understanding provides
cost of power incremental of its role in incorrect
generation, and cost or load economic information.
relates it impact. dispatch.
directly to
system load
changes.
Link to Explicitly Partially Limited No connection
Economic connects λ to connects λ to connection between λ and
Dispatch the balancing of economic between λ and economic
marginal costs dispatch economic dispatch is
across without clear dispatch; lacks made.
generators for explanation of clarity.
optimal cost cost
minimization. minimization.

2. Why is it necessary to include the generator operating limits in this economic dispatch
problem?
Criteria Exemplary (5 Proficient (4 Adequate (3 Needs
points) points) points) Improvement
(1-2 points)
Understanding Clearly explains Mentions A basic Provides
of Operating the importance operating limits understanding incorrect or
Limits of generator but does not of generator insufficient
limits, fully elaborate limits is explanation of
emphasizing on why they are provided but the need for
operational critical to lacks detailed generator
feasibility and system safety explanation of limits.
system safety. and feasibility. their necessity.
Link to Effectively ties Provides some Basic Does not link
Practical the concept of link to practical connection to the concept of
Application operating limits application but real-world limits to
to real-world lacks depth in application, practical
scenarios and real-world with limited application or
practical implications. relevance. power system
dispatch operation.
planning.

3. How does the quadratic cost function impact the optimal power distribution among
the generators?
Criteria Exemplary (5 Proficient (4 Adequate (3 Needs
points) points) points) Improvement
(1-2 points)
Explanation of Thoroughly Provides a good Describes the Provides little
Cost Function explains how explanation of cost function in or no
the quadratic the cost basic terms but explanation of
cost function function but does not clearly the quadratic
reflects lacks details on link it to cost function or
increasing costs its specific dispatch its effects.
as generation impact on outcomes.
increases, and dispatch.
104
 how this
impacts the
dispatch
strategy.
Connection to Clearly Partially Limited No connection
Dispatch connects the connects the connection to between cost
Strategy cost function to cost function to dispatch function and
optimal power dispatch but strategy; lacks power
distribution, lacks detail on depth in distribution is
explaining why incremental explaining cost made.
generators with costs. impacts.
lower
incremental
costs are
preferred.

4. How would the dispatch strategy change if the demand increased to 950 MW?
Criteria Exemplary (5 Proficient (4 Adequate (3 Needs
points) points) points) Improvement
(1-2 points)
Understanding Provides a Explains the Provides a Fails to explain
of Dispatch thorough changes in basic how the
Strategy explanation of dispatch explanation of strategy would
how the strategy with how the adapt to
dispatch some reference strategy would increased
strategy would to λ and change but demand, or
adapt to meet marginal costs, lacks details on provides
increased but lacks depth. λ or generator incorrect
demand, adjustments. information.
including
adjustment of
λ , the role of
marginal costs,
and generator
limits.
Consideration Fully considers Mentions Acknowledges Does not
of Generator how generator generator limits generator limits consider
Limits limits would but lacks but does not generator limits
affect the specific explore their in the
distribution of examples or in- effect on the discussion of
additional depth dispatch increased
power and the explanation of strategy. demand.
choice of their effect on
generators. dispatch.

5. Discuss potential convergence issues when solving this problem using the Lagrange
Multiplier technique.
Criteria Exemplary (5 Proficient (4 Adequate (3 Needs
points) points) points) Improvement
(1-2 points)

105
Identification of Thoroughly Identifies key Identifies basic Fails to identify
Issues identifies and convergence convergence convergence
explains issues but lacks issues but lacks issues or
multiple detail or only depth or provides
convergence focuses on one completeness in incorrect
issues, such as or two points. the explanation. information.
non-convexity,
handling of
constraints,
numerical
instability, and
poor initial
guesses.
Suggestions for Offers practical Mentions some Provides basic Does not offer
Mitigation suggestions for potential suggestions for suggestions for
mitigating mitigation mitigating addressing
convergence strategies but issues, but they convergence
issues, such as lacks detail or are issues or
adjusting initial completeness. underdeveloped. provides
guesses and incorrect
careful strategies.
handling of
constraints.

REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER

READING
4. J. Fuller, P. Obiomon, S.I. Abood (2023). Power System Operation,Utilization and
Control. Chapter 5, Page 125-145

TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION

As you master power system optimization, remember that you're learning to make
energy systems more efficient and sustainable for future generations. The
techniques you've gained, from iterative methods to Lagrange multipliers, will help
you solve complex real-world challenges. With every solution, you contribute to a
cleaner, more cost-effective energy future.

106
WHAT’S NEXT?
MODULE 4: Economic Dispatch -PART I

107
MODULE 4: ECONOMIC DISPATCH -PART I

INSTRUCTIONAL HOURS: 8

MODULE OVERVIEW
In this module, you will learn about the principles and practical aspects of economic
dispatch in power systems, with a focus on incorporating transmission losses. The
module provides a detailed understanding of how to optimally allocate power
generation among multiple generators to minimize costs while accounting for
transmission losses. You will explore key concepts such as the factors that affect
transmission line losses, the significance of the coordination equation in economic
dispatch, the physical meaning of the penalty factor, and the application of the B
coefficient matrix. Additionally, you will work through practical calculation examples
to solidify your understanding of these concepts in real-world scenarios.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Apply the coordination equations to optimize economic
dispatch considering transmission losses.
2. Calculate and interpret penalty factors for effective cost
management in power systems.
3. Use the B coefficient matrix to model and calculate
transmission losses in power systems.
4. Perform practical calculations to determine optimal
generator scheduling, including transmission losses.

108
LEARNING ACTIVITIES/TASK LIST
1. Watch Lecture Video
2. Review power presentation PDF
3. Watch lecture related videos
4. Complete participation assignment: Quiz 1
5. Complete personal introduction video
6. Review concept assignment : Quiz 2

INTRODUCTION

ACTIVITY 1: READING MATERIAL

In a power system with multiple power plants, each with several generating units, the
economic dispatch process determines how to allocate the power output of each unit
and plant to minimize the total fuel cost while meeting the system's load demand.
This involves first distributing the output of generating units within a single plant in
the most cost-effective way, ignoring transmission losses. Afterward, transmission
losses are factored in, allowing for the optimization of the total power output across
multiple plants to minimize the overall generation cost, including the cost of losses.
Since fuel cost constitutes the largest portion of the operating cost, economic dispatch
focuses primarily on minimizing fuel consumption while ensuring system load and
transmission losses are met efficiently.
An early method of minimizing power costs involved using the most efficient plant
first, then gradually adding other plants as the load increased. However, this
approach doesn't minimize costs effectively, even when transmission losses are
ignored. To optimize costs, we need to focus on the most economical distribution of
power output across generating units within a plant, considering that plants typically
have different characteristics due to expansions over time. We will also develop a
method to express transmission losses as a function of plant outputs, enabling us to
schedule the power output of each plant to achieve the minimum overall cost of power
delivery, including both generation and transmission losses.

1. INPUT-OUTPUT CURVE OF A GENERATING UNIT

The input-output curve of a thermal power plant is essential for understanding the plant's efficiency.
This curve represents the relationship between fuel input (in Btu/hr) and electrical power output (in
kW or MW) as shown in Figure 1. Typically, the input-output curve shows how much fuel is
required to produce a specific amount of electrical power, and it helps in evaluating the plant's
performance.

109
 Figure 1 Generator input-output curve

To optimize economic dispatch, this curve is often transformed into cost terms by converting fuel
input into monetary units per hour (cost/hour) as shown in Figure 2. This cost function, expressed
as Cn = f ( Pn ) , links the cost of generating power to the power output of a specific unit (e.g., unit n
) within the plant. The function allows us to compute the operating cost for any given output,
facilitating the optimization of generation to minimize total costs while meeting power demands.

Figure 2 Money units per hour versus power output

The important term in Figure 2 is the slope ∆C for various outputs. A plot of this slope is λ
∆P
versus power will yield an incremental cost curve as shown in Figure 3. The incremental fuel cost
curve represents the cost associated with producing an additional unit of power. It shows how the
cost per megawatt (MW) of generation increases as the power output of a generator increases. This
curve is crucial in economic dispatch, as it helps determine which generators should be adjusted to
meet incremental increases in load in the most cost-effective way. By analyzing the slope of this
curve, power system operators can predict how much more expensive it will be to generate the next
unit of electricity, thus optimizing power generation costs across the system.

110
 Figure 3 Incremental cost λ versus power

When two or more generators within the same plant are economically operated together, the key
principle is that all units must operate at the same value of incremental fuel cost, denoted by λ .
This ensures that the marginal cost of producing an additional unit of power is equal across all
generators, which minimizes the total fuel cost for the plant. Mathematically, this can be expressed
as:

dC1 dC2 dCn

= = 
= = λ
dP1 dP2 dPn

Where:

• C1 , C2 , , Cn represent the fuel cost functions of the generators,

• P1 , P2 , , Pn represent the power outputs of the individual generators,
• λ is the common incremental cost of all the generators.

The total power generated by the system must equal the total load demand plus any losses (if
considered):

Ptotal = P1 + P2 +  + Pn

This approach ensures that the power plant operates in the most cost-effective manner, by balancing
the power output of each generator such that the incremental fuel cost is the same across all units.
The economic dispatch process then adjusts the output of each unit to satisfy this condition while
meeting the total load.

A power system with n generators connected to a common bus is shown in Figure 4.

In economic dispatch, the primary goal is to allocate the generation among available
units in such a way that the overall production cost is minimized while meeting the
system demand and adhering to generator and system constraints. When the number
of "dispatchable" generators is ng and the total number of generators is n , this implies

111
that ng generators are controllable and can be adjusted for optimal economic dispatch.
The remaining n − ng generators are either:

1. On a Flat Load: This usually applies to certain types of generators, such as

nuclear power plants, which are often operated at a constant output due to their
operational characteristics and economic considerations.
2. At Maximum or Minimum Limits: Some generators might have already
reached their operational limits and cannot be adjusted further in response to
economic dispatch signals.

In this context, economic dispatch focuses on optimizing the output of the ng

dispatchable generators while considering the fixed output of the non-dispatchable
generators to achieve cost efficiency and meet the system's load demand.

Figure 4 Generators connected to a common bus

112
2 Economic Dispatch Neglecting Losses
and Generator Limits
In economic dispatch neglecting transmission losses and generator limits, the goal is to allocate power
generation among multiple generators in such a way that the total generation cost is minimized while
meeting the total load demand. This is done by ensuring that the incremental cost of each generator is
the same. Suppose we have n generators connected to the same bus and supplying a load PD . We are
to minimize the total cost of generation, CT .

ng ng

CT =
=i 1 =i 1
∑ Ci = ∑α i + βi Pi + γ i Pi 2

Subject to the constraint:

ng

∑P = P
i =1
i D

The incremental cost λ for each generator is the derivative of the cost function with respect to its
power output:

dCi
= βi + 2γ i Pi
dPi

Given the incremental cost equation for each generator, you can express the power output Pi in terms
of the incremental cost λ :

Ci =α i + βi Pi + γ i Pi 2

dCi
βi + 2γ i Pi =
= λ
dPi

λ − βi
Pi = (1)
2γ i

The relations given by Equation (1) are called the coordination equations.

Substitute the expression for Pi in the coordination equation into the power balance equation:

113
 ng
λ − βi
∑
i =1 2γ i
= PD

This equation can be rearranged to solve for λ :

ng n
1 g
β
λ∑ −∑ i = PD
2γ i i 1 2γ i
=i 1 =

ng
βi
PD + ∑
i =1 2γ i
λ= ng
1
∑ 2γ
i =1 i

Significance of the Coordination Equation

• Economic Efficiency: Ensuring that the incremental cost of power

generation is the same across all units leads to the most cost-efficient way of
meeting the power demand.
• Flexibility: The coordination equation allows operators to adjust power
outputs dynamically to respond to changes in demand while maintaining cost
efficiency.
• Basis for More Complex Models: While the coordination equation applies
to the simplest form of economic dispatch (neglecting losses and generator
limits), it forms the basis for more complex models that include these factors.

In lossless power systems, where generators are connected to a common bus and transmission
losses are negligible, the optimal dispatch problem can be solved analytically. This situation allows
for a straightforward calculation of the power output of each generator to minimize the total fuel
cost. However, in real-world power systems where losses are significant and generators are spread
out geographically, finding the optimal dispatch solution becomes more complex and requires
iterative methods.

3 Economic Dispatch Neglecting Losses

and Including Generator Limits
Introduction
In real-world scenarios, each generator has operational limits, including minimum
and maximum power generation levels. When performing economic dispatch while
neglecting transmission losses but including generator limits, these constraints must
be considered to ensure that each generator operates within its feasible range. This
adjustment adds complexity to the dispatch problem, requiring a modified approach
to find the optimal solution.
Economic Dispatch with Generator Limits
1. Generator Limits
114
Each generator has a specified minimum and maximum output range:
- Minimum power limit: Pi ,min
- Maximum power limit: Pi ,max
For each generator i :
Pi ,min ≤ Pi ≤ Pi ,max

2. Objective

The goal is to minimize the total generation cost while satisfying the load demand PD
and ensuring that each generator operates within its specified limits.
3. Incremental Cost with Limits
The necessary conditions for optimal dispatch, according to Lagrange conditions in
lossless systems with included generator limits, become:
1. At maximum power limit

dCi
= λ for Pi = Pi ,max
dPi

This condition implies that increasing the power output beyond this point is
not feasible since the generator is already at its maximum capacity.
2. At Minimum Power Limit:

dCi
≤ λ for Pi = Pi ,min
dPi

This means reducing the power output below this point is not possible, as the
generator is at its minimum operational level.
3. Within the Operating Range:

dCi
≥ λ for Pi ,min ≤ Pi ≤ Pi ,max
dPi

This is the usual condition for optimal dispatch without considering generator
limits.
4. Steps for Solving the Problem
Initial Solution Without Limits:
Start by solving the economic dispatch problem without considering generator limits
using the method discussed earlier (analytical solution). Calculate the power output
Pi for each generator based on the common incremental cost λ :
λ − βi
Pi =
2γ i

115
Check Against Limits:

Verify if the calculated power outputs Pi fall within the generator limits:
Pi ,min ≤ Pi ≤ Pi ,max

If all Pi values are within limits, the solution is optimal.

If any Pi exceeds its maximum limit, set Pi = Pi ,max . If it is below the minimum limit, set
Pi = Pi ,min .

Adjust the Remaining Generators:

Recalculate the power outputs for the remaining generators while maintaining the
equality of incremental costs. Adjust the incremental cost λ accordingly to
redistribute the excess or deficit in power among the other generators that are still
within their limits.
Iterate if Necessary:
Repeat the process iteratively until all generators are within their respective limits,
and the total power output matches the load demand:
ng

∑P = P
i =1
i D

4 Economic Dispatch Including Losses

When considering economic dispatch in large power systems where generators and
loads are spread over a wide geographical area, transmission losses become significant
and must be included in the dispatch calculation. Ignoring these losses can lead to
suboptimal and more expensive operation. Therefore, incorporating transmission
losses is essential for accurate and efficient power system operation.
Kron’s Loss Formula
Kron’s loss formula provides a way to express the total transmission losses in the
system as a function of the power outputs of the generators. It is given by:

n n n
PL
= ∑∑ PB
i ij Pj + ∑ Bi 0 Pi + B00
=i 1 =j 1 =i 1

Where:

• PL : Total transmission losses

116
 • Pi and Pj : Power outputs of generators i and j

• Bij : Elements of the loss coefficient matrix, representing the loss coefficients
for each pair of generators

• Bi 0 : Loss coefficient associated with a single generator and a fixed load

component (often negligible in some simplifications)

• B00 : Constant loss coefficient that accounts for fixed losses (typically ignored if
small)
This description is to be performed subject to the constraint that the total generation
must equal the demand plus the losses, thus:
ng

∑ P=
i =1
i PD + PL

Each generator has a cost function Ci ( Pi ) :

Ci =α i + βi Pi + γ i Pi 2

Using the Lagrange multiplier and adding additional terms while neglecting the
inequality constraints, we have:
ng
 ng

( )
 P1 , P2 , , Png , λ= ∑ Ci +λ  PD + PL − ∑ Pi 
=i 1 =  i 1 

Differentiate the Lagrangian with respect to each Pi to find the necessary conditions
for the minimum cost:

∂ ∂Ci  ∂P 
= + λ  0 + L − 1 = 0
∂Pi ∂Pi  ∂Pi 
Hence:

∂Ci  ∂P 
+ λ  L − 1 =
0
∂Pi  ∂Pi 

∂Ci  ∂P 
= λ 1 − L 
∂Pi  ∂Pi 

 
 1  ∂C
  i =λ
 1 − ∂PL  ∂Pi
 ∂Pi 
 

117
The coordination equation for this case is given by:

∂Ci  ∂P 
= λ 1 − L 
∂Pi  ∂Pi 

∂Ci ∂P
+λ L =λ (1)
∂Pi ∂Pi

Equation (1) is the standard form of the coordination equation

The B-coefficient matrix ( Bij ) captures the relationships between the power outputs of
different generators and their impact on transmission losses. The size of this matrix is
n × n , where n is the number of generators.

Incremental Transmission Loss (ITL)

Definition:

∂PL
The term is called the incremental transmission loss. Incremental Transmission
∂Pi
Loss (ITL) refers to the additional power losses in a power transmission system when
the power output of a generator is increased by a small increment. It quantifies how
much extra power is lost in the transmission lines when a generator's output is
adjusted.
Physical Interpretation:
• When power is transmitted through transmission lines, some power is lost due
to resistance and reactance in the lines, resulting in transmission losses.
• The ITL represents the rate of change of transmission losses with respect to the
change in power generation. In other words, it tells us how sensitive the
transmission losses are to changes in the generation at a specific bus.
• For a power system, when a generator increases its output, it sends more power
through the network, causing an increase in current flow through the
transmission lines. As current increases, losses (which are proportional to the
square of the current, ( I 2 R ) also increase.
• ITL is important in economic dispatch as it helps in determining how efficiently
power can be transmitted from the generation point to the load centers.
Implication in Power Systems:
• ITL is used to adjust the cost of generating electricity at different locations,
accounting for the fact that not all generated power reaches the load due to
transmission losses.

118
 • Generators with higher ITL values will have a higher impact on system losses
when their output is increased, influencing economic dispatch decisions.
Penalty Factor
Definition:

The penalty factor Li is defined as:

1
Li =
∂P
1− L
∂Pi

The Penalty Factor, also known as the Loss Penalty Factor or Transmission Loss
Penalty Factor, represents the effective cost of supplying an additional unit of power
from a generator to the load, considering transmission losses. It adjusts the marginal
cost of generation by including the effect of transmission losses.

Physical Interpretation:

• This formula adjusts the marginal cost of power generation at a specific generator by taking
into account the incremental transmission losses.
∂P
• The denominator 1 − L reflects how much of the generated power effectively reaches the
∂Pi
load, considering the incremental losses.
∂P
• If the incremental loss L is high, the Penalty Factor increases, indicating that more power
∂Pi
is needed to compensate for the losses in transmission.
• This factor ensures that the economic dispatch calculation accounts for the real cost of
delivering power, not just the cost of generation, by incorporating the impact of
transmission losses.

Implication in Power Systems:

• A higher Penalty Factor means that more power needs to be generated to deliver a certain
amount of power to the load, which results in a higher effective cost.
• It helps in optimizing the generation dispatch by considering the losses, ensuring more
efficient and cost-effective power system operation.

Using the B-Coefficient Matrix in Economic Dispatch

The transmission power loss is given by the Kron’s Loss Formula as:
n n n
PL
= ∑∑ PB P +∑ B
=i 1 =j 1
i ij j
=i 1
P + B00
i0 i

Neglecting Bi 0 and B00 we have:

119
 n n
PL = ∑∑ PB
i ij Pj
=i 1 =j 1

When the powers are in MW, the Bij coefficients are of dimension 1/ MW. If powers
are in per-unit, then Bij coefficients are also in per-unit. Loss coefficient matrix of a
power system shall be determined before hand and made available for economic
dispatch.
The coordination equation with power loss is given by:

∂Ci ∂P
+λ L =λ
∂Pi ∂Pi

The coordination equation is expressed in terms of the penalty factor Li as follows:

∂Ci ∂P
+λ L =λ
∂Pi ∂Pi

∂Ci  ∂P 
= λ 1 − L 
∂Pi  ∂Pi 

 
 1  ∂C
  i =λ
 1 − ∂PL  ∂Pi
 ∂Pi 
 

∂Ci
Li =λ
∂Pi

ACTIVITY 2: QUIZ 1

Quiz: Economic Dispatch and Transmission Losses

Instructions:

Drag and drop the correct answers into the appropriate boxes. Each statement should be matched
with the most relevant concept.

Questions:

1. Factors Affecting Losses in a Transmission Line

120
 o Question: Identify which factors affect the losses in a transmission line.
o Options:
 A) Line length
 B) Power factor
 C) Voltage level
 D) Conductor material
 E) Frequency of power system
o Drag to Box:
 i) Affects Resistive Losses
 ii) Affects Inductive Losses
 iii) Impacts overall efficiency
2. Significance of the Coordination Equation in Economic Dispatch
∂Ci ∂P
o Question: What is the significance of the coordination equation +λ L = λ in
∂Pi ∂Pi
economic dispatch?
o Options:
 A) Ensures total power demand is met
 B) Balances incremental costs of all generators
 C) Accounts for generator limits
 D) Minimizes transmission losses
o Drag to Box:
 i) Ensures Cost Optimization
 ii) Adjusts for Transmission Losses
 iii) Provides Equal Marginal Costs
3. Physical Meaning of Penalty Factor
o Question: What does the penalty factor represent in the context of economic
dispatch?
o Options:
 A) Adjustment for transmission losses
 B) Impact of a generator on system voltage
 C) Marginal cost increment
 D) Efficiency of power transfer
o Drag to Box:
 i) Indicates True Cost of Generation
 ii) Reflects Impact on Losses
 iii) Adjusts for Effective Generation
4. B Coefficient Matrix
o Question: What is the role of the B coefficient matrix in economic dispatch
calculations?
o Options:
 A) Models transmission losses
 B) Determines optimal generator outputs
 C) Simplifies the power flow equations
 D) Provides a quadratic approximation of losses
o Drag to Box:
 i) Helps in Loss Estimation
 ii) Facilitates Iterative Calculations
 iii) Influences Penalty Factors
5. Impact of Load Distribution on Transmission Losses
121
 o Question: How does load distribution affect transmission losses in an electric power
system?
o Options:
 A) Closer proximity of generators to load centers
 B) Higher power output of generators
 C) Equal distribution of loads among generators
 D) Use of parallel transmission lines
o Drag to Box:
 i) Reduces Transmission Losses
 ii) Increases Transmission Losses
 iii) Balances Transmission Losses
6. Role of Incremental Cost Curves in Economic Dispatch
o Question: What role do incremental cost curves play in determining the optimal
generation schedule?
o Options:
 A) Identifying the most efficient generator
 B) Predicting fuel consumption
 C) Ensuring minimum operating cost
 D) Maintaining voltage stability
o Drag to Box:
 i) Guides Optimal Power Output
 ii) Assists in Cost Minimization
 iii) Balances Supply and Demand
7. Effect of System Losses on Generation Cost
o Question: How do system losses affect the overall generation cost in economic
dispatch?
o Options:
 A) Increase the total generation requirement
 B) Reduce the efficiency of the power system
 C) Lower the marginal cost of generation
 D) Increase the need for load shedding
o Drag to Box:
 i) Leads to Higher Costs
 ii) Necessitates Additional Generation
 iii) Affects Optimal Dispatch Strategy
8. Importance of Considering B Coefficients in Real-time Operation
o Question: Why is it important to consider B coefficients in real-time power system
operations?
o Options:
 A) To dynamically adjust generator outputs
 B) To maintain system frequency
 C) To predict future power demands
 D) To ensure accurate loss calculation
o Drag to Box:
 i) Enhances System Efficiency
 ii) Improves Dispatch Accuracy
 iii) Adapts to System Changes

122
Answers:

1. Factors Affecting Losses in a Transmission Line

o i) Affects Resistive Losses: A) Line length, D) Conductor material
o ii) Affects Inductive Losses: B) Power factor, E) Frequency of power system
o iii) Impacts overall efficiency: C) Voltage level
2. Significance of the Coordination Equation in Economic Dispatch
o i) Ensures Cost Optimization: B) Balances incremental costs of all generators
o ii) Adjusts for Transmission Losses: D) Minimizes transmission losses
o iii) Provides Equal Marginal Costs: A) Ensures total power demand is met
3. Physical Meaning of Penalty Factor
o i) Indicates True Cost of Generation: A) Adjustment for transmission losses
o ii) Reflects Impact on Losses: D) Efficiency of power transfer
o iii) Adjusts for Effective Generation: C) Marginal cost increment
4. B Coefficient Matrix
o i) Helps in Loss Estimation: A) Models transmission losses
o ii) Facilitates Iterative Calculations: D) Provides a quadratic approximation of
losses
o iii) Influences Penalty Factors: B) Determines optimal generator outputs

5. Impact of Load Distribution on Transmission Losses

• i) Reduces Transmission Losses: A) Closer proximity of generators to load centers, D) Use

of parallel transmission lines
• ii) Increases Transmission Losses: B) Higher power output of generators
• iii) Balances Transmission Losses: C) Equal distribution of loads among generators

6. Role of Incremental Cost Curves in Economic Dispatch

• i) Guides Optimal Power Output: A) Identifying the most efficient generator

• ii) Assists in Cost Minimization: C) Ensuring minimum operating cost
• iii) Balances Supply and Demand: B) Predicting fuel consumption

7. Effect of System Losses on Generation Cost

• i) Leads to Higher Costs: A) Increase the total generation requirement

• ii) Necessitates Additional Generation: B) Reduce the efficiency of the power system
• iii) Affects Optimal Dispatch Strategy: D) Increase the need for load shedding

8. Importance of Considering B Coefficients in Real-time Operation

• i) Enhances System Efficiency: D) To ensure accurate loss calculation

• ii) Improves Dispatch Accuracy: A) To dynamically adjust generator outputs
• iii) Adapts to System Changes: B) To maintain system frequency

123
3. ECONOMIC DISPATCH INCLUDING LOSSES-
SOLUTION PROCEDURE

ACTIVITY 3: READING MATERIAL

To determine the optimum scheduling of system load between plants, the following iterative
solution procedure can be used:

Step 1: Gather Required Data

1. System Load ( PD ): The total load demand that needs to be met by the generation plants.
dC
2. Incremental Cost Characteristics of Plants: The incremental cost curve ( i ) for each
dPi
plant, which indicates the change in production cost with a change in power output.
3. Loss Coefficient Matrix (B): A matrix that represents the transmission loss as a quadratic
function of the generator outputs. It includes elements B ij that account for the interaction
between different generators in terms of losses.

Step 2: Initial Estimation of Power Outputs

• Make an initial guess for the power outputs of each plant ( Pi 0 ) such that they approximately
satisfy the total load demand without considering losses.

∑P
i =1
i0 = PD

• For the first iteration, choose suitable initial value of λ . While finding this, one way is to
assume that the transmission losses are zero and the plants are loaded equally.

Step 3: Form the set of simultaneous equations

dCi
As we know Ci =α i + βi Pi + γ i Pi 2 and = βi + 2γ i Pi , substitute the value of λ into the
dPi
coordination equations.

124
∂Ci ∂P
+λ L =λ for i = 1, 2, , n
∂Pi ∂Pi

The above set of linear simultaneous equations are to be solved for the values Pi , for i = 1, 2, , n .

Step 4: Compute the transmission loss

Calculate the transmission loss PL from PL = [ P ][ B ]  P T 

where [ P ] = [ P1 , P2 , , Pn ] ,  P T  is the transpose of [ P ] , and [ B ] is the loss coefficient matrix.

Note that the loss coefficient matrix is symmetrical.

Step 5: Check the power balance and update λ

n
Compare ∑P
i =1
i with PD + PL to check the power balance. If the power balance is satisfied within a

specified tolerance, then the present solution is the optimal solution; otherwise update the value of
λ.

First time updating can be done using a rule of thumb.

n
The value of λ is increased by 5% if ∑P < P
i =1
i D + PL

n
The value of λ is decreased by 5% if ∑P > P
i =1
i D + PL

In the second and subsequent iterations the value of λ can be updated using linear interpolation as:

λ ( k ) − λ ( k −1)  n

λ ( k +1) = λ ( k ) + n n
P
 D

+ PL
(k )
− ∑ Pi ( k ) 

=i 1 =i 1
∑ Pi ( k ) − ∑ Pi ( k −1) i =1

Where k − 1 , k and k + 1 are the previous iteration count, present iterative count and
the next iteration count respectively. The λ iterative steps are as shown in Fig. 5

125
 Figure 5 Lambda iterative steps

Step 6: Check the power balance and update

Return to Step 3 and continue the calculations of Steps 3, 4 and 5 until the power balance equation
is satisfied with desired accuracy.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
T h e incre m en ta l cost cha ra cte ristics o f tw o p o w e r p la n ts a re :
λ1 1.0 P1 + 200 $ / MWh
=
λ2 1.0 P2 + 150 $ / MWh
=
T h e loss co e fficien t m a trix is g ive n b y:
 0.001 −0.0005
B= 
 −0.0005 0.0024 
F in d th e op tim u m lo ad a llo ca tio n be tw ee n th e tw o u n its, w h en th e to ta l lo ad is 1 00 M W .

Solution

Step 1: Assume no transmission loss and equal loading

Then P=
1 P=
2 50 MW and using=λ1 1.0 P1 + 200 $ / MWh gives:

λ 0 = 1.0 × 50 + 200 = 250 .

The power loss PL is given by:

 0.001 −0.0005  P1 
=PL [=
P ][ B ]  P T  [ P1 P2 ]   
 −0.0005 0.0024   P2 

PL = 0.001P12 − 0.001P1 P2 + 0.0024 P22

126
 Next we form the coordination equations:

∂Ci ∂P
+λ L =λ
∂Pi ∂Pi

∂PL
= 0.002 P1 − 0.001P2
∂P1

∂PL
−0.001P1 + 0.0048 P2
=
∂P2

Step 2: Form the coordination equations and solve

We have the coordination equations as:

1.0 P1 + 200 + 250 ( 0.002 P1 − 0.001P2 ) =

250
1.0 P2 + 150 + 250 ( −0.001P1 + 0.0048 P2 ) =
250

Which simplifies to:

1.5 P1 − 0.25 P2 =
50
−0.25 P1 + 2.2 P2 =
100

 1.5 −0.25  P1   50 
 −0.25 2.2   P  = 100 
  2  

Solving the simultaneous equations give:

P1 = 41.6988 MW
P2 = 50.1931MW

Step 3: Compute transmission loss

PL = 0.001P12 − 0.001P1 P2 + 0.0024 P22

Given P1 41.6988
= = MW; P2 50.1931MW

PL =5.6922 MW

Step 4: Check power balance and update λ

91.8919
P1 + P2 =

105.6922
PD + PL =

Since P1 + P2 < PD + PL , the value of λ should be increased. We increase λ by 5% to give:

λ (1) = 1.05 × λ (0) = 1.05 × 250 = 262.5

127
Iteration 1: Repeat steps 2,4, and with updated value of λ until suitable accuracy is
attained
1.0 P1 + 200 + 262.5 ( 0.002 P1 − 0.001P2 ) =
262.5
1.0 P2 + 150 + 262.5 ( −0.001P1 + 0.0048 P2 ) =
262.5

1.525 P1 − 0.2625P2 =62.5

0.7375P1 − 1.26P2 =112.5

 1.525 −0.2625  P1   62.5 

=
 −0.2625
 2.26   P2  112.5

P1 = 50.5630 MW
P2 = 55.6517 MW

PL = 0.001P12 − 0.001P1 P2 + 0.0024 P22

PL =7.1758 MW

106.2147
P1 + P2 =

107.1758
PD + PL =

P1 + P2 ≠ PD + PL .

Knowing two values of λ and the corresponding total generation powers,

new value of λ is computed as:

λ ( k ) − λ ( k −1)  n

λ ( k +1) = λ ( k ) + n n
P
 D

+ PL
(k )
− ∑ Pi ( k ) 

=i 1 =i 1
∑ Pi ( k ) − ∑ Pi ( k −1) i =1

262.5 − 250
λ (2) =262.5 + [100 + 7.1758 − 106.2147]
106.2147 − 91.8919
= 263.3388

Iteration 2: Repeat steps 2,4, and with updated value of λ until suitable accuracy is
attained
1.0 P1 + 200 + 263.3388 ( 0.002 P1 − 0.001P2 ) =
263.3388
1.0 P2 + 150 + 263.3388 ( −0.001P1 + 0.0048 P2 ) =
263.3388

128
1.5267 P1 − 0.2633P2 =63.3388
−0.2633P1 +2.2640P2 =113.88

P1 = 51.1891MW
P2 = 56.2536 MW

PL = 0.001P12 − 0.001P1 P2 + 0.0024 P22

PL =7.3355 MW

107.4426
P1 + P2 =

107.3355
PD + PL =

263.3388 − 262.5
λ (3)= 263.3388 + [100 + 7.3355 − 107.4426]
107.4426 − 106.2147
= 263.2656

Iteration 3: Repeat steps 2,4, and with updated value of λ until suitable accuracy is
attained
1.0 P1 + 200 + 263.2656 ( 0.002 P1 − 0.001P2 ) =
263.2656
1.0 P2 + 150 + 263.2656 ( −0.001P1 + 0.0048 P2 ) =
263.2656

1.5265 P1 − 0.2633P2 =63.2656

−0.2633P1 +2.2637P2 =113.2656

P1 = 51.1005 MW
P2 = 55.9793MW

PL = 0.001P12 − 0.001P1 P2 + 0.0024 P22

PL =7.2715 MW

107.0798
P1 + P2 =

107.2715
PD + PL =

263.2656 − 263.3388
λ (4)= 263.2656 + [100 + 7.2715 − 107.0798]
107.0798 − 107.4426
= 263.3043

129
Iteration 4: Repeat steps 2,4, and with updated value of λ until suitable accuracy is
attained
1.0 P1 + 200 + 263.3043 ( 0.002 P1 − 0.001P2 ) =
263.3043
1.0 P2 + 150 + 263.3043 ( −0.001P1 + 0.0048 P2 ) =
263.3043

1.5266 P1 − 0.2633P2 =63.3043

−0.2633P1 +2.2639P2 =113.3043

P1 = 51.1251MW
P2 = 55.9943MW

PL = 0.001P12 − 0.001P1 P2 + 0.0024 P22

PL =7.2759 MW

107.1194
P1 + P2 =

107.2759
PD + PL =

263.3043 − 263.2656
λ (5)= 263.3043 + [100 + 7.2759 − 107.1194]
107.1194 − 107.0798
= 263.8970

Iteration 5: Repeat steps 2,4, and with updated value of λ until suitable accuracy is
attained
1.0 P1 + 200 + 263.8970 ( 0.002 P1 − 0.001P2 ) =
263.8970
1.0 P2 + 150 + 263.8970 ( −0.001P1 + 0.0048 P2 ) =
263.8970

1.5278 P1 − 0.2639P2 =63.8970

−0.2639 P1 +2.2667P2 =113.8970

P1 = 51.5388 MW
P2 = 56.2483 MW

PL = 0.001P12 − 0.001P1 P2 + 0.0024 P22

PL =7.3506 MW

107.7871
P1 + P2 =

107.3506
PD + PL =

130
 263.8970 − 263.3043
λ (6)= 263.8970 + [100 + 7.3506 − 107.7871]
107.7871 − 107.1194
= 263.5095

Iteration 6: Repeat steps 2,4, and with updated value of λ until suitable accuracy is
attained
1.0 P1 + 200 + 263.5095 ( 0.002 P1 − 0.001P2 ) =
263.5095
1.0 P2 + 150 + 263.5095 ( −0.001P1 + 0.0048 P2 ) =
263.5095

1.5270 P1 − 0.2635P2 =63.5095

−0.2635 P1 +2.2648P2 =113.5095

P1 = 51.2689 MW
P2 = 56.0839 MW

PL = 0.001P12 − 0.001P1 P2 + 0.0024 P22

PL =7.3021MW

107.3528
P1 + P2 =

107.3021
PD + PL =

263.5095 − 263.8970
λ (6)= 263.5095 + [100 + 7.3021 − 107.3528]
107.3021 − 107.7871
= 263.4690

Iteration 7: Repeat steps 2,4, and with updated value of λ until suitable accuracy is
attained
1.0 P1 + 200 + 263.4690 ( 0.002 P1 − 0.001P2 ) =
263.4690
1.0 P2 + 150 + 263.4690 ( −0.001P1 + 0.0048 P2 ) =
263.4690

1.5269 P1 − 0.2635P2 =63.4690

−0.2635 P1 +2.2647P2 =113.4690

P1 = 51.2425 MW
P2 = 56.0654 MW

PL = 0.001P12 − 0.001P1 P2 + 0.0024 P22

PL =7.2969 MW

131
 107.3080
P1 + P2 =

107.2969
PD + PL =

The error is 0.01 MW and we can stop

The following table shows a summary of the results obtained:

λ P1 P2 PL P1 + P2 PD + PL n
PD + PL − ∑ Pi
i =1

250 41.6988 50.1931 5.6922 91.8919 105.6922 13.8003

262.5 50.5630 55.6517 7.1758 106.2147 107.1758 0.9611

263.3388 51.1891 56.2536 7.3355 107.4426 107.3355 -0.1071

263.2656 51.1005 55.9793 7.2715 107.0798 107.2715 0.1917

263.3043 51.1251 55.9943 7.2759 107.1194 107.2759 0.1565

263.8970 51.5388 56.2483 7.3506 107.7871 107.3506 -0.4365

263.5095 51.2689 56.0839 7.3021 107.3528 107.3021 -0.0507

263.4690 51.2425 56.0654 7.2969 107.3080 107.2969 -0.0111

ACTIVITY 4: QUIZ 2

Question 1: Understanding the B Coefficient Matrix

Match each description with the correct aspect of the B coefficient matrix.

• Descriptions:
1. Represents the relationship between generator outputs and power system losses.
2. Used in the quadratic form to calculate transmission losses.
3. Consists of elements that indicate the interaction between different generators.
4. Simplifies the calculation of losses in large power networks.
• Options: A. Elements of the B coefficient matrix
B. Purpose of the B coefficient matrix
C. Structure of the B coefficient matrix
D. Application of the B coefficient matrix

Answer Key:

132
1 -> B
2 -> D
3 -> A
4 -> C

Question 2: Transmission Loss Calculation

Match each step involved in calculating transmission losses using the B coefficient matrix with its
correct description.

• Steps:
1. Initialize power outputs for all generators.
n n
2. Calculate total losses using PL = ∑∑ PB
i ij Pj .
=i 1 =j 1

3. Adjust power outputs to minimize total cost.

4. Iterate until convergence is achieved.
• Descriptions: A. Starting point for the optimization process
B. Using the B coefficient matrix to find initial losses
C. Modifying generator outputs to account for losses
D. Repeating the process to find the optimal solution

Answer Key:

1 -> A
2 -> B
3 -> C
4 -> D

Question 3: Optimal Generator Scheduling

Match each term related to optimal generator scheduling with its correct explanation.

• Terms:
1. Objective Function
2. Power Balance Constraint
3. Iterative Process
4. Convergence
• Explanations: A. Ensuring total generated power meets demand plus losses
B. The mathematical equation minimized in generator scheduling
C. Repeatedly adjusting generator outputs to optimize the solution
D. The point at which further iterations yield no significant changes

Answer Key:

1 -> B
2 -> A
3 -> C
4 -> D

133
Question 4: Impacts of Transmission Losses

Match each impact of transmission losses on power system operation with the correct outcome.

• Impacts:
1. Increases the total generation required
2. Affects the cost-effectiveness of generator scheduling
3. Influences the optimal power output distribution among generators
4. Requires more accurate modeling for efficient power system operation
• Outcomes: A. Higher overall operational costs
B. Redistribution of power outputs to minimize costs
C. Necessity for iterative calculations to optimize generator outputs
D. Elevated power production to compensate for losses

Answer Key:

1 -> D
2 -> A
3 -> B
4 -> C

ACTIVITY 5: CASE STUDY

Case Study: Economic Dispatch in a Power System Network Using Lagrange

Multiplier Technique

Problem Description
C o nsid e r a po w e r syste m con sisting o f th re e g en e ra to rs sup p lyin g p ow e r to a com m o n lo ad
th ro u g h a tra n sm ission n e tw o rk. T h e incre m e n ta l co st ch a racte ristics o f th e p o w e r p la n ts a re :
dC1
= 0.02 P1 + 5 $ / MWh
dP1
dC2
= 0.03P2 + 4 $ / MWh
dP2
dC3
= 0.04 P3 + 6 $ / MWh
dP3
T h e loss co e fficien t m a trix is g ive n b y:
 5 ×10−4 1×10−4 2 ×10−4 
 
B=
1×10
−4
4 ×10−4 1×10−4 
 2 ×10−4 1×10−4 3 ×10−4 

D e te rm in e the o p tim u m loa d a lloca tio n b etw e e n th e th ree u n its, w h e n the to ta l lo a d is 3 0 0 M W .

134
RUBRICS FOR CASE STUDY EVALUATION
Modeling and Calculating Transmission Losses Using B Coefficient Matrix for
Optimal Generator Scheduling
Criteria Excellent (8) Good (6) Fair (4) Poor (2)
Problem Accurately Correctly Attempts to Fails to
Formulation formulates the formulates the formulate the formulate the
and Objective objective objective objective objective
Function function, function with function but function
incorporating minor errors includes some correctly.
generator or omissions errors or lacks Does not
costs and in explaining clarity in address the
transmission the power explaining the power balance
losses. Clearly balance power balance constraint or
explains the constraint. constraint. explains it
power balance inadequately.
constraint
with well-
defined
equations.
Calculation of Performs Correctly Attempts to Fails to
Transmission precise and calculates calculate correctly
Losses accurate transmission transmission calculate
calculations of losses using losses but transmission
transmission the B makes several losses.
losses using coefficient errors or lacks Provides
the B matrix with clarity in the incorrect or
coefficient minor errors. explanation of incomplete
matrix. Provides some the steps explanations
Provides explanation of involved. of the
detailed step- the steps calculation
by-step involved. process.
calculations
with clear
explanations.
Iterative Effectively Correctly uses Attempts the Fails to
Process and implements the iterative iterative correctly
Optimization the iterative process for process but implement the
process for adjusting includes iterative
adjusting generator several errors process for
generator outputs with or lacks generator
outputs. some minor clarity in the scheduling.
Clearly errors or explanation. Shows little to
explains the omissions in Shows limited no
steps and explanation. understanding understanding
convergence to Shows partial of of
optimal understanding optimization. optimization.
generator of
scheduling optimization.
while
considering

135
 transmission
losses.
Clarity and Presents Information is Presentation Information is
Organization information in organized and is somewhat poorly
a well- clear, with disorganized organized and
organized, minor areas of or unclear in difficult to
clear, and confusion. places. Uses follow. Uses
logical Uses mostly some incorrect
manner. Uses appropriate appropriate terminology
appropriate terminology terminology and provides
terminology and but lacks unclear or
and provides explanations. clarity in inadequate
clear explanations. explanations.
explanations
and
justifications
for each step.
Use of Correctly uses Uses Attempts to Fails to use
Equations and and applies equations use equations equations
Data equations correctly with but includes correctly.
throughout the minor errors. several errors Does not
case study. Integrates or fails to integrate data
Effectively data into integrate data effectively,
integrates data calculations effectively. and tables or
into but may lack Tables or figures are
calculations clarity or figures are missing or
and provides accuracy in unclear or incorrect.
clear and some tables or inaccurate.
accurate tables figures.
or figures.

Total Score: /32

Grading Scale:
• 28-32: Excellent
• 24-27: Good
• 16-23: Fair
• 8-15: Poor

REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER

READING

136
 5. J. Fuller, P. Obiomon, S.I. Abood (2023). Power System Operation,Utilization and
Control. Chapter 6, Page 169-185

TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION

Great job on completing this module! You've learned how to use the B coefficient
matrix to accurately model transmission losses and optimize generator scheduling,
ensuring efficient and reliable power system operation. This knowledge empowers
you to contribute to a more balanced and sustainable energy future.

WHAT’S NEXT?
MODULE 5: ECONOMIC DISPATCH – PART II

137
MODULE 5: ECONOMIC DISPATCH – PART II

INSTRUCTIONAL HOURS: 4

MODULE OVERVIEW
In this module, you will learn about the Base Point and Participation Factors method
in economic dispatch, a crucial approach for optimizing power system operations.
You will explore how the base point serves as a starting reference for generator
outputs and how participation factors are used to proportionally adjust these outputs
in response to changes in load demand.
The module will guide you through the step-by-step process of calculating and
applying participation factors, enabling you to perform efficient generator
scheduling that minimizes costs while meeting real-time demand. Additionally, you
will examine the advantages and limitations of this method compared to other
economic dispatch techniques, gaining insights into its practical applications and
effectiveness in maintaining a reliable power system.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
5. Describe the concepts of base point and participation
factors in economic dispatch.
6. Calculate generator output adjustments using the Base Point
and Participation Factors method for given changes in load
demand.

138
 7. Analyze the efficiency and effectiveness of the Base Point
and Participation Factors method with other economic
dispatch methods.
8. Evaluate the impact of using the Base Point and
Participation Factors method on overall system performance.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES/TASK LIST
7. Watch Lecture Video
8. Review power presentation PDF
9. Watch lecture related videos
10. Complete participation assignment: Quiz 1
11. Complete personal introduction video
12. Review concept assignment : Quiz 2

INTRODUCTION

ACTIVITY 1: READING MATERIAL

Economic dispatch (ED) is the process of determining the optimal output of multiple generating
units so that the total production cost is minimized while meeting the system load demand and
operational constraints. As the load demand changes over time, the economic dispatch problem
must be solved repeatedly to adjust the generator outputs accordingly.

BASE POINT AND PARTICIPATION FACTORS

METHOD
The Base Point and Participation Factors method is an efficient approach to solving the economic
dispatch problem, especially in real-time power system operations where the demand fluctuates
frequently. This method leverages the following key concepts:

1. Base Point: This refers to the previously determined optimal operating point of the
generating units. It serves as the starting point for adjustments when the load changes. The
base point is typically the result of the most recent economic dispatch solution, reflecting
the optimal power output for each generator at that time.
2. Participation Factors: These are coefficients that indicate how much each generating unit
should adjust its output in response to a change in system load. Participation factors are
derived from the cost characteristics of each generator and the sensitivity of the total system
cost to changes in the output of each unit. They help distribute the load change among the
generators in a way that maintains economic efficiency.

139
 How the Method Works

Consider the incremental cost curve of the i th unit in Figure 1. As the unit load is changed by the
amount of ∆Pi , the incremental system cost moves from λi(0) to λi(0) + ∆λ .

Figure 1 Incremental cost curve for unit i

A small change in power output on unit i can be derived as:

∆λ d  dCi 
= =   Ci′′
∆Pi dPi  dPi 

∆λ
⇒ ∆Pi = (1)
Ci′′

Since we know Ci =α i + βi Pi + γ i Pi 2 :

Ci′′ = 2γ i

∆λ
This is true for each of the n units on the system such that ∆Pi = for i = 1, 2, , n . Hence,
2γ i

n n
∆λ n
1
∑ ∆P =∑ 2γ
i
=i 1 =i 1
=∆λ ∑
2γ i
(2)
i=i 1

140
 The total change generation is equal to the total change in power demand ∆PD :

n n
∆PD =
=i 1 =i 1
∑ ( Pi new − Pi old ) = ∑ ∆Pi (3)

Substituting (2) into (3) for ∆Pi gives:

n
1
∆PD =∆λ ∑ (4)
i =1 2γ i

Dividing both sides of (1) by ∆PD and using (4) gives:

∆λ  1  1
∆λ  
∆Pi 2γ i  =2γ i  2γ i
= =
∆PD ∆PD n
1 n
1
∆λ ∑ ∑
=i 1 = 2γ i i 1 2γ i

1
∆Pi 2γ i
= = ki (5)
∆PD n
1
∑
i =1 2γ i

Where ki is known as the participation factor of generator i , and equation (5) can be used

to determine the change in generation for new demand as:

∆Pi = ki ∆PD

Advantages of Base Point and Participation Factors Method

• Efficiency: It avoids the need to completely re-solve the economic dispatch problem for
every small change in demand, making it faster and more suitable for real-time operations.
• Simplified Calculations: By using participation factors, the adjustments in generator
outputs can be computed using simple proportional changes, reducing computational
complexity.
• Economic Efficiency: The method ensures that the generation cost remains as low as
possible during load adjustments, maintaining economic dispatch principles.

Limitations

• Approximation: This method relies on the assumption that load changes are relatively
small and that the participation factors remain valid within a small range of operating
conditions. Large changes in demand may require recalculating the entire economic dispatch
solution.

141
 • Sensitivity to Cost Curves: The accuracy of the method depends on the precise calculation
of participation factors, which are sensitive to the cost curves and operational limits of the
generators.

Practical Application

In practice, the Base Point and Participation Factors method is commonly used in energy
management systems (EMS) for real-time control and dispatch. It allows system operators to
quickly and efficiently adjust generation schedules in response to fluctuating demand, ensuring
reliable and cost-effective operation of the power system.

ACTIVITY 2: QUIZ 1

1. Conceptual Understanding

Learning Outcome: Describe the concepts of base point and participation factors in economic
dispatch.

Instructions: Match the terms with their correct definitions.

• Terms:
o Base Point
o Participation Factor
• Definitions (to drag):
1. The predetermined output level of a generator around which adjustments are made.
2. The percentage by which a generator's output is adjusted when there is a change in
system demand.

Answer:

• Base Point → 1. The predetermined output level of a generator around which adjustments
are made.
• Participation Factor → 2. The percentage by which a generator's output is adjusted when
there is a change in system demand.

2. Application of Base Point and Participation Factors

Learning Outcome: Calculate generator output adjustments using the Base Point and Participation
Factors method for given changes in load demand.

Instructions: Match each generator with its correct output adjustment for a load increase of 20
MW. Assume the following participation factors for generators A, B, and C are 0.4, 0.3, and 0.3,
respectively.

142
 • Generators:
o Generator A
o Generator B
o Generator C
• Output Adjustments (to drag):
1. 8 MW
2. 6 MW
3. 6 MW

Answer:

• Generator A → 1. 8 MW
• Generator B → 2. 6 MW
• Generator C → 3. 6 MW

3. Comparison of Efficiency

Learning Outcome: Analyze the efficiency and effectiveness of the Base Point and Participation
Factors method with other economic dispatch methods.

Instructions: Match each statement with the appropriate economic dispatch method.

• Statements:
1. Adjusts generator output based on fixed percentages.
2. Iteratively searches for a common marginal cost across all generators.
3. Suitable for real-time load changes.
4. Converges to the most economically efficient solution.
• Methods:
o Base Point and Participation Factor Method
o Lambda-Iteration Method

Answer:

• Base Point and Participation Factor Method → 1. Adjusts generator output based on
fixed percentages, 3. Suitable for real-time load changes.
• Lambda-Iteration Method → 2. Iteratively searches for a common marginal cost across all
generators, 4. Converges to the most economically efficient solution.

4. Impact on System Performance

Learning Outcome: Evaluate the impact of using the Base Point and Participation Factors method
on overall system performance.

Instructions: Match each effect with the correct category.

143
 • Effects:
1. Provides quick adjustments to load changes.
2. May not always achieve the most cost-effective solution.
3. Easy to implement in real-time systems.
4. Lacks fine-tuning capability for long-term dispatch optimization.
• Categories:
o Positive Impacts
o Negative Impacts

Answer:

• Positive Impacts → 1. Provides quick adjustments to load changes, 3. Easy to implement in

real-time systems.
• Negative Impacts → 2. May not always achieve the most cost-effective solution, 4. Lacks
fine-tuning capability for long-term dispatch optimization.

5. Calculation of Base Points

Learning Outcome: Calculate generator output adjustments using the Base Point and Participation
Factors method for given changes in load demand.

Instructions: Match each generator with its new output value for a load demand increase of 30
MW. Assume the base points for generators A, B, and C are 50 MW, 40 MW, and 60 MW,
respectively, and their participation factors are 0.5, 0.3, and 0.2.

• Generators:
o Generator A
o Generator B
o Generator C
• New Output Values (to drag):
1. 65 MW
2. 49 MW
3. 66 MW

Answer:

• Generator A → 1. 65 MW
• Generator B → 2. 49 MW
• Generator C → 3. 66 MW

6. Effectiveness in Different Load Scenarios

Learning Outcome: Analyze the efficiency and effectiveness of the Base Point and Participation
Factors method with other economic dispatch methods.

144
Instructions: Match each load scenario with the correct category.

• Load Scenarios:
1. Large, sudden changes in load.
2. Small, gradual changes in load.
3. Long-term, steady-state operation.
4. Real-time, fluctuating demand.
• Categories:
o Suitable for Base Point and Participation Factors
o Not Suitable for Base Point and Participation Factors

Answer:

• Suitable for Base Point and Participation Factors → 2. Small, gradual changes in load, 4.
Real-time, fluctuating demand.
• Not Suitable for Base Point and Participation Factors → 1. Large, sudden changes in
load, 3. Long-term, steady-state operation.

7. Understanding the Calculation Process

Learning Outcome: Describe the concepts of base point and participation factors in economic
dispatch.

Instructions: Match each step description with the correct process order.

• Steps:
1. Calculate the total load change in the system.
2. Multiply the load change by the participation factor of each generator.
3. Adjust the base point of each generator based on its share of the load change.
4. Sum the adjusted outputs to ensure they match the total new demand.
• Process Order:
o First
o Second
o Third
o Fourth

Answer:

• First → 1. Calculate the total load change in the system.

• Second → 2. Multiply the load change by the participation factor of each generator.
• Third → 3. Adjust the base point of each generator based on its share of the load change.
• Fourth → 4. Sum the adjusted outputs to ensure they match the total new demand.

8. Performance Impact Analysis

145
 Learning Outcome: Evaluate the impact of using the Base Point and Participation Factors method
on overall system performance.

Instructions: Match each performance impact with the correct category.

• Performance Impacts:
1. Can respond quickly to changes in load demand.
2. May not achieve optimal dispatch in long-term planning.
3. Keeps the system stable during rapid demand fluctuations.
4. Lacks flexibility to handle fluctuating fuel costs over extended periods.
• Categories:
o Short-term Operation
o Long-term Operation

Answer:

• Short-term Operation → 1. Can respond quickly to changes in load demand, 3. Keeps the
system stable during rapid demand fluctuations.
• Long-term Operation → 2. May not achieve optimal dispatch in long-term planning, 4.
Lacks flexibility to handle fluctuating fuel costs over extended periods.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
The incremental cost of three units in a power plant are:

λ1 0.8 P1 + 160 $/MWh

=
λ2 0.9 P2 + 120 $/MWh
=
=λ3 1.25P3 + 110 $/MWh

where P1 , P2 and P3 are power output in MW.

(a) Find the optimum load allocation when the total load is 242.5 MW.
(b) Using Participating Factors, determine the optimum scheduling when the load
increases to 250 MW.

Solution
(a) Using the equal incremental cost rule:

λ
0.8 P1 + 160 =
λ
0.9 P2 + 120 =
λ
1.25 P3 + 110 =

242.5 , we have:
Since P1 + P2 + P3 =

λ − 160 λ − 120 λ − 110

+ + 242.5
=
0.8 0.9 1.25

Which we can solve to give: λ = 210 $/MWh

146
 This gives the optimum load allocation as: P1 = 62.5 MW , P2 = 100 MW and P3 = 100 MW

(b) The Participation Factors are:

1
2γ
ki = n i
1
∑i =1 2γ i

1
=k1 = 0.8 0.3954
1 1 1
+ +
0.8 0.9 1.25

1
=k2 = 0.9 0.3515
1 1 1
+ +
0.8 0.9 1.25

1
=k3 = 1.25 0.2531
1 1 1
+ +
0.8 0.9 1.25

Change in load ∆PD = 250 − 242.5 = 7.5 MW

Change in generations are:

∆
=P1 0.3954 ×=
7.5 2.9655 MW
P2 0.3515 × 7.5
∆= = 2.6363MW
P3 0.2531× 7.5
∆= = 1.8982 MW

new
Thus optimum schedule is: Pi = Pi old + ∆Pi

P1 = 65.4655 MW
P2 = 102.6363MW
P3 = 81.8982 MW

ACTIVITY 3: CASE STUDY

A power plant has two units with the following cost characteristics:

C1 = 0.6 P12 + 200 P1 + 2000$/h

C2 = 1.2 P22 + 150 P2 + 2500$/h

147
where P1 and P2 are the generating powers in MW. The daily load cycle is as follows:
6:00 A.M. to 6:00 P.M. 150 MW
6:00 P.M. to 6:00 A.M. 50 MW
The cost of taking either unit off the line and returning to service after 12 hours is $
5000. Maximum generation of each unit is 100 MW.
Considering 24 hour period from 6:00 A.M. one morning to 6:00 A.M. the next
morning.
(a.) Would it be economical to keep both units in service for this 24 hour period or
remove one unit from service for 12 hour period from 6:00 P.M. one evening to
6:00 A.M. the next morning ?
(b.) Compute the economic schedule for the peak load and off peak load conditions.
(c.) Calculate the optimum operating cost per day.
(d.) If operating one unit during off peak load is decided, up to what cost of taking
one unit off and returning to service after 12 hours, this decision is acceptable ?
(e.) If the cost of taking one unit off and returning to service after 12 hours exceeds
the value calculated in d, what must be done during off peak period?

SOLUTION

Solution Outline

Part (a)

We need to compare the cost of keeping both units online for 24 hours vs. taking one unit offline
during the off-peak period (from 6:00 P.M. to 6:00 A.M.). The decision will depend on whether the
cost savings from shutting down one unit outweigh the cost of taking it offline and returning it to
service, which is $ 5000.

Part (b) – Economic Schedule:

1. Solve for P1 and P2 during the peak and off-peak periods using the incremental cost
equations and the total load condition.

Part (c) – Operating Cost Per Day:

1. Calculate the costs for both units during peak (12 hours) and off-peak (12 hours) periods.
2. Sum the costs to get the total daily operating cost.

Part (d) – Maximum Acceptable Shutdown Cost:

1. Calculate the cost difference between operating both units and operating one unit during the
off-peak period.

Part (e) – Off-Peak Strategy if Shutdown Cost is High:

148
 1. If the shutdown cost exceeds the acceptable limit, keep both units online and adjust their
output to meet the off-peak load while minimizing costs.

Rubric for Case Study Solution: Economic

Dispatch Using Base Point and Participation
Factor Method
Criteria Excellent (5 Good (4 points) Satisfactory (3 Needs
points) points) Improvement
(2 points) /
Unsatisfactory
(1 point)

Understanding Demonstrates a Demonstrates a Shows a basic Demonstrates

of Economic clear and in- solid understanding limited
Dispatch depth understanding of economic understanding
understanding of economic dispatch of economic
of economic dispatch principles and dispatch
dispatch principles and applies the principles, with
principles and applies the Base Point and significant
effectively Base Point and Participation errors or
applies Base Participation Factor method, omissions in
Point and Factor method, but with minor applying the
Participation addressing errors or Base Point and
Factor method, most parts of incomplete Participation
thoroughly the case with calculations. Factor method.
addressing all accuracy. Fails to
parts of the demonstrate
case. understanding
or application.

Calculations for Correctly Calculates Performs basic Shows difficulty

Peak Load calculates generator calculations for in performing
generator outputs and peak load but calculations for
outputs and operating costs with several the peak load,
operating costs for the peak mistakes or with significant
for the peak load, but minor incomplete errors in

149
 load (150 MW) errors are explanations of generator
using the present or the process. outputs or cost
incremental some steps are estimation.
cost method; all unclear. Fails to
steps are calculate
shown and correctly.
justified.

Calculations for Accurately Performs Attempts the Struggles with

Off-Peak Load calculates correct calculations for off-peak load
generator calculations for off-peak load, calculations,
outputs and off-peak load, but several with many
operating costs with some errors are mistakes. Fails
for the off-peak minor errors or present or key to perform or
load (50 MW), missing justifications explain
with all justifications. are missing. calculations.
necessary steps
and
justifications
provided.

Total Operating Provides a Provides a Attempts to Calculation of

Cost Calculation correct and mostly correct calculate total total operating
detailed calculation of operating cost cost contains
calculation of total operating but with significant
the total cost, but some several errors errors. Fails to
operating cost minor errors or or incomplete calculate total
per day, missing details cost breakdown operating cost.
including both in explaining between peak
peak and off- the cost and off-peak
peak periods, structure. periods.
showing clear
understanding
of cost
structure.

Shutdown Cost Thoroughly Analyzes the Attempts to Provides

Analysis analyzes the shutdown analyze the limited analysis
decision to take decision with shutdown of the
one unit offline mostly correct decision, but shutdown
during off-peak calculation of errors in the decision, with
load, with the shutdown shutdown cost significant
correct cost, but minor calculation or errors. Fails to
calculation of errors or weak analyze
the maximum incomplete justifications correctly.
acceptable justifications.
shutdown cost
150
 and a well- affect the
justified analysis.
conclusion.

Off-Peak Provides a well- Provides a Offers a Suggests a

Strategy if reasoned and reasonable solution for the weak or
Shutdown is correct solution solution for the off-peak period, incorrect
Costly for handling the off-peak period but with solution for
off-peak period if the shutdown several gaps in operating the
if the shutdown cost is too high, explanation. units during the
cost exceeds but some off-peak period.
the limit, with details or
clear justifications
explanation of are unclear or
how both units incomplete.
should be
operated.

Clarity and Solution is well- Solution is The solution is The solution

Organization organized, with generally well- somewhat lacks clear
clear and organized, but a organized but organization,
logical few lacks clarity in with poorly
explanations; explanations some parts, and explained steps,
all steps are are unclear or several steps incorrect labels,
presented in a the flow of logic are poorly and difficult-to-
cohesive, easy- is slightly hard explained or follow logic.
to-follow to follow; most not properly
manner with steps are labeled.
correct units labeled
and labels. correctly.

Mathematical All calculations Most Several Multiple major

Accuracy are calculations are calculation calculation
mathematically mathematically errors are errors or
accurate, with accurate, with present, though incorrect use of
correct units only minor the general units and
and symbols errors in units approach is symbols
used or symbols. correct. throughout the
throughout the solution.
solution.

Critical Provides Provides Offers Shows limited

Thinking and insightful reasonable justifications critical thinking
Justification analysis and justifications for decisions, or justification
thoughtful for most but lacks depth for decisions.
justification for decisions, in analysis or
decisions, showing good

151
 demonstrating critical critical
critical thinking thinking, thinking.
in evaluating though some
various areas could be
economic more deeply
dispatch analyzed.
options.

REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER

READING
6. J. Fuller, P. Obiomon, S.I. Abood (2023). Power System Operation,Utilization and
Control. Chapter 5, Page 154-156

TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION

As you complete this module on Economic Dispatch using the Base Point and
Participation Factor Method, remember that the journey you’ve taken is not just
about learning mathematical formulas and solving equations — it's about
understanding how decisions made in power systems management can significantly
impact the real world.

WHAT’S NEXT?
MODULE 6: UNIT COMMITMENT – PART I

152
MODULE 6: UNIT COMMITMENT – PART I

INSTRUCTIONAL HOURS: 4

MODULE OVERVIEW
In this module, you will learn about the Fundamentals of Unit Commitment (UC), a
critical concept in power system operations. The module introduces the key
definitions, the formulation of the UC problem, and the constraints that influence the
optimal scheduling of generating units.
You will explore: the definition of Unit Commitment and how it differs from Economic
Dispatch (ED); the formulation of the UC problem, including key objectives such as
minimizing total operational costs while ensuring reliable power supply; and the
constraints that must be considered when solving the UC problem, including spinning
reserve, minimum up and down times, fuel constraints, crew constraints, hydro
constraints, and transition costs.
By the end of this module, you will have a deep understanding of how Unit
Commitment functions within power systems, the challenges it presents, and how to
apply UC principles to optimize generation scheduling. This knowledge is essential for
effective and cost-efficient power system management.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Define the key terms associated with Unit Commitment (UC).
2. Explain the formulation of the Unit Commitment problem and
how it differs from Economic Dispatch (ED) in terms of
objectives and execution.

153
 3. Apply knowledge of UC constraints to determine optimal unit
commitment schedules in practical scenarios.
4. Analyze the impact of various operational constraints on the
overall cost-effectiveness and reliability of a power system in
the Unit Commitment problem.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES/TASK LIST
1. Watch Lecture Video
2. Review power presentation PDF
3. Watch lecture related videos
4. Complete participation assignment: Quiz 1
5. Complete personal introduction video
6. Review concept assignment : Quiz 2

INTRODUCTION

ACTIVITY 1: READING MATERIAL

Unit Commitment (UC) is the process of determining the optimal schedule for generating units in
a power system over a specified time horizon to meet forecasted demand while minimizing total
operating costs. It involves selecting which units to turn on or off at each time interval, considering
factors such as demand forecasts, operational constraints, generation capacities, and costs
associated with starting up and shutting down units. The UC problem is typically solved offline and
serves as the basis for subsequent Economic Load Dispatch (ELD) calculations, which determine
the actual power output of the committed units based on real-time demand.

The Unit Commitment (UC) problem is a crucial aspect of power system management, particularly
in optimizing the operation of generating units based on load variations. The fundamentals of UC
are summarized as:

1. Load Management:
o As the load increases, utilities must pre-determine the sequence in which generator
units will be activated. Conversely, as the load decreases, it is essential for operating
engineers to know the order in which generating units should be deactivated.
2. Objective:
o The primary goal of the UC problem is to establish an optimal schedule for bringing
units online and shutting them down over a specified time period (e.g., one day,
week, month, or year) to minimize total operating costs.
3. Economic Dispatch:
o The UC problem can be viewed as a form of economic dispatch over a longer
timeframe, where decisions made during the UC process influence how power is
allocated among the committed units.
154
 4. Time Period Consideration:
o While the UC problem is often analyzed over a daily basis, it can also encompass
longer periods such as a week, month, or even a year, depending on the planning and
operational needs of the utility.

The Unit Commitment (UC) problem is essential for several reasons, particularly regarding
operational efficiency and cost-effectiveness in power generation:

1. Cost Efficiency:
o Committing enough units to cover the maximum system load and keeping them
running continuously can lead to significantly higher operating costs. Generating
units have associated fuel, maintenance, and operational expenses. Running excess
units during low-demand periods wastes resources and increases costs unnecessarily.
2. Load Variability:
o Electricity demand fluctuates throughout the day and across seasons. The UC
problem allows utilities to adjust their generation resources based on actual load
forecasts, enabling them to meet demand efficiently without incurring unnecessary
expenses.
3. Economic Operation:
o By determining the optimal sequence for bringing units online and taking them
offline, utilities can ensure that the least-cost units are utilized first. This economic
dispatch minimizes the total generation cost while ensuring reliability.
4. Operational Flexibility:
o The UC problem provides the flexibility to respond to changes in demand. If demand
decreases, it allows for the decommitment of units, ensuring that the system operates
at an optimal level without excessive capacity.
5. Environmental Considerations:
o Running fewer units reduces emissions and environmental impact. By optimizing
unit commitment, utilities can lower their carbon footprint, aligning with
sustainability goals.
6. Reliability and Security:
o Properly managing unit commitment enhances the reliability of the power system. It
ensures that sufficient capacity is available to meet demand while also maintaining
system stability and security.

Differences Between Unit Commitment (UC) and Economic Dispatch (ELD)

Aspect Unit Commitment (UC) Economic Dispatch (ELD)

Determine which units to turn ON or
Purpose Optimize output of committed units
OFF
Selects units for connection to the
Operational Status Assumes units are already committed
system
Solved offline using future demand Solved online based on real-time
Time Frame
forecasts demand

155
 Aspect Unit Commitment (UC) Economic Dispatch (ELD)
Problem More complex (discrete decisions, Simpler (continuous optimization of
Complexity constraints) outputs)
Sets the framework for available Operates within the framework
Interrelationship
units established by UC
Forecasted demand over longer
Focus Real-time demand management
periods

Similarities

Aspect Description
Goal Both aim to minimize total operating costs
Constraints Both consider operational constraints (e.g., capacity limits)
Importance Essential for effective power system management

FORMULATION OF UNIT COMMITMENT PROBLEM

The Unit Commitment (UC) problem is crucial for operational planning in power systems, aimed at
determining the optimal schedule for generating units to meet forecasted demand while minimizing
operating costs. Here's a detailed formulation of the UC problem:

Problem Definition

• Objective: Minimize the total operating cost over a specified time horizon.
• Parameters:
o N : Total number of generating units.
o Dt : Forecasted demand at time t .
o Ci : Operating cost function for unit i .
o Pi : Power output of unit i .
o U i : Status of unit i (1 if ON, 0 if OFF).

Decision Variables

• Unit Status: U it , where U it = 1 if unit i is ON during time t , and U it = 0 if OFF.

• Power Output: Pit , the power output of unit i at time t .

Constraints

1. Demand Satisfaction:
156
 N

∑P
i =1
it ≥ Dt ∀t

This ensures that the total power generated by the selected units meets or exceeds the
demand.

2. Capacity Limits:

0 ≤ Pit ≤ Pitmax ⋅ U it ∀i, t

This constraint ensures that the power output of each unit does not exceed its maximum
capacity when it is online.

3. Spinning Reserve:

∑(P
i =1
max
it ⋅ U it − Pit ) ≥ Rt ∀t

Where Rt is the required spinning reserve at time t .

4. Unit Commitment Limits:

o Minimum Up/Down Time: Each unit must remain on or off for a specified
minimum duration once it has been turned on or off.
o Start-Up Costs: Include costs associated with turning on a unit from an off state.

Objective Function

The total operating cost can be expressed as:

T
 N 
=
Minimize Z ∑  ∑ Ci ( Pit ) ⋅ U it 
i1
=i 1 = 

Where T is the total number of time periods in the scheduling horizon.

ACTIVITY 2: QUIZ 1

Here are ten drag-and-drop matching questions on the fundamentals of Unit Commitment (UC),
along with the answers provided at the end of each question.

Matching Questions

Definitions

1. Unit Commitment (UC)

157
 2. Economic Dispatch (ELD)
3. Load Variability
4. Spinning Reserve
5. Generation Cost Function

Options
A. The process of determining which generating units to turn on or off based on demand forecasts.
B. The adjustment of generation resources to meet real-time demand at the lowest cost.
C. Fluctuations in electricity demand throughout the day.
D. The additional capacity available from generating units that can respond quickly to demand
changes.
E. The cost associated with producing power from a generating unit as a function of its output.

Answers:

• 1-A
• 2-B
• 3-C
• 4-D
• 5-E

Differences Between UC and ELD

6. Focus on selecting which units to connect

7. Optimizes output of already committed units
8. Solved using future demand forecasts
9. Assumes units are already operational
10. Ensures cost-effective operation of the power system

Options
A. Unit Commitment (UC)
B. Economic Dispatch (ELD)

Answers:

• 6-A
• 7-B
• 8-A
• 9-B
• 10 - B

Similarities

158
 11. Both aim to minimize costs
12. Involve decision-making processes
13. Consider operational constraints
14. Essential for effective power system management
15. Utilize analytical methods for optimization

Options
A. Ensuring resources are used efficiently
B. Both aim to optimize power generation operations
C. Must adhere to regulations and limitations set by operational needs
D. Require systematic approaches to solve power system challenges

Answers:

• 11 - B
• 12 - D
• 13 - C
• 14 - A
• 15 – D

CONSTRAINTS ON THE UNIT COMMITMENT (UC)

PROBLEM

ACTIVITY 3: READING MATERIAL

When solving the Unit Commitment (UC) problem, several important constraints must be
considered to ensure the reliability and efficiency of power generation. Here are the key constraints:

SPINNING RESERVE:

Definition

Spinning reserve refers to the extra generating capacity that is online and available to respond
immediately to unexpected increases in load or to compensate for the sudden loss of a generating
unit. It is typically provided by generating units that are already operating (hence "spinning") and
can ramp up their output quickly within a short period, usually within 10 minutes.

Types of Spinning Reserve

1. Regulating Reserve: Used to maintain system frequency by adjusting output in real-time

based on demand fluctuations.
2. Backup Reserve: Activated in response to equipment failures or outages.

Impact on the Unit Commitment (UC) Problem

159
 1. Capacity Planning:
o The need for spinning reserve influences how many and which generating units must
be committed. Utilities must ensure there is sufficient spinning reserve available to
meet unexpected demands and contingencies, impacting overall generation
scheduling.
2. Operational Constraints:
o When formulating the UC problem, utilities must factor in the requirement for
spinning reserve as a constraint. This means committing additional units or keeping
certain units online even if demand forecasts do not necessitate their output.
3. Cost Implications:
o Maintaining spinning reserve can increase operating costs due to the need to keep
units online that might otherwise be decommissioned during low demand periods.
The UC problem must balance the costs of maintaining spinning reserves against the
potential costs of unplanned outages or demand spikes.
4. Reliability and System Stability:
o Spinning reserves are critical for ensuring the reliability and stability of the power
system. By planning for adequate spinning reserves in the UC, utilities can minimize
the risk of blackouts or supply shortages during peak demand or unforeseen events.
5. Flexible Resource Management:
o The commitment of units for spinning reserve may involve strategic decisions about
which resources to keep online based on their ability to respond quickly, their fuel
type, and operational costs. This requires an understanding of the capabilities and
limitations of different generating units.

MINIMUM UP TIME AND MINIMUM DOWN TIME

Minimum Up Time

Definition: Minimum up time refers to the minimum amount of time that a generating unit must
remain online after it has been committed before it can be decommissioned. This constraint ensures
that once a unit is brought into operation, it cannot be turned off immediately, allowing for stable
operation and recovery of startup costs.

Impact on the Unit Commitment (UC) Problem:

1. Operational Flexibility:
o Minimum up time reduces flexibility in scheduling. If a unit is committed, utilities
must plan its operation for the required minimum duration, which can complicate the
commitment strategy, especially in dynamic demand scenarios.
2. Cost Recovery:
o This constraint ensures that the costs associated with starting up the unit (e.g., fuel,
maintenance) are justified by the amount of time it remains online. If a unit is turned
off too quickly, the costs may outweigh the benefits.
3. Scheduling Complexity:
o Utilities must account for minimum up time when planning generation schedules,
particularly during periods of fluctuating demand. This may result in the
commitment of additional units to ensure that power needs are met without violating
the up time constraint.
4. Reliability:

160
 o Maintaining minimum up times contributes to system reliability by preventing
frequent cycling of units, which can lead to wear and tear and affect the unit's long-
term performance.

Minimum Down Time

Definition: Minimum down time is the minimum amount of time that a generating unit must
remain offline after it has been decommissioned before it can be turned back on. This constraint is
crucial for managing the physical and operational limitations of generating units.

Impact on the Unit Commitment (UC) Problem:

1. Reduced Responsiveness:
o Minimum down time can hinder the utility’s ability to quickly respond to sudden
increases in demand. If a unit is needed but cannot be turned back on immediately, it
may lead to supply shortages.
2. Strategic Planning:
o Utilities must carefully plan when to decommit units, considering the minimum
down time. This adds complexity to the scheduling process, as it must account for
future demand forecasts and the timing of when units can be reactivated.
3. Resource Utilization:
o Failure to adequately manage minimum down time can lead to inefficient resource
utilization, where units remain offline longer than necessary due to the constraints,
potentially leading to higher operating costs as demand fluctuates.
4. Maintenance and Reliability:
o Setting appropriate minimum down times can help prevent excessive cycling of
units, which can impact their operational lifespan and reliability. It ensures that units
are allowed to cool down and stabilize before being restarted.

CREW CONSTRAINTS

Definition

Crew constraints refer to the limitations on the number of operating personnel available to manage
the operation of generating units in a power plant. These constraints can restrict the ability to bring
multiple units online or offline simultaneously due to the requirement for qualified personnel to
safely operate and monitor each unit.

Impact on the Unit Commitment (UC) Problem

1. Operational Limitations:
o Crew constraints can limit the number of units that can be committed at any given
time. If there aren’t enough operators available, utilities must prioritize which units
to bring online, potentially leading to underutilization of available capacity during
peak demand periods.
2. Scheduling Complexity:

161
 The presence of crew constraints adds complexity to the UC scheduling process.
o
Utilities must not only consider demand forecasts and operational costs but also
ensure that they can meet crew requirements for the units they choose to commit.
3. Cost Implications:
o If crew constraints lead to the commitment of fewer units than optimal, the utility
may incur higher operational costs by relying on more expensive or less efficient
units to meet demand. This can undermine the overall economic efficiency of the
generation schedule.
4. Reliability and Safety:
o Properly managing crew constraints is vital for ensuring safety in operations. Having
adequate personnel ensures that units can be operated safely and effectively,
reducing the risk of accidents or operational failures.
5. Flexibility in Response:
o Crew constraints can reduce the flexibility of the power system to respond to sudden
changes in demand or unexpected outages. If a unit cannot be quickly brought online
due to insufficient personnel, it may lead to reliability issues in meeting customer
demand.

TRANSITION COST

Definition

Transition cost refers to the expenses incurred when changing the operational status of a generating
unit, specifically when turning a unit on or off. These costs can include a variety of factors, such as:

• Fuel Costs: The additional fuel consumed during startup or shutdown.

• Maintenance Costs: Increased wear and tear on equipment resulting from frequent cycling.
• Operational Costs: Labor and overhead costs associated with bringing units online or
offline.
• Startup Costs: Specific expenses associated with starting up a unit, especially if it has been
offline for an extended period.

Impact on the Unit Commitment (UC) Problem

1. Economic Considerations:
o Transition costs can significantly affect the economic analysis in the UC problem.
Utilities must account for these costs when deciding whether to commit or decommit
units, as frequent status changes can lead to higher overall operating expenses.
2. Scheduling Decisions:
o When formulating the UC problem, utilities may prefer to keep units in the same
state (either on or off) for longer periods to avoid incurring transition costs. This can
lead to longer minimum up and down times being implemented in practice.
3. Commitment Strategy:
o The presence of transition costs influences the selection of units to be committed.
Utilities may opt for a strategy that minimizes transitions, potentially committing
more units during periods of stable demand to avoid the costs associated with
frequent changes.
4. Impact on Reliability:

162
 High transition costs may deter utilities from quickly responding to changes in
o
demand or outages, potentially impacting system reliability. If units are not brought
online quickly due to transition costs, it could lead to supply shortages during peak
demand periods.
5. Long-Term Planning:
o Transition costs must also be considered in long-term planning and resource
allocation. Utilities may need to invest in technologies or practices that reduce
transition costs, such as improving the efficiency of unit startups or employing more
flexible generation resources.

HYDRO CONSTRAINTS

Definition

Hydro constraints refer to the limitations and operational considerations that affect the operation of
hydroelectric generating units. These constraints arise from factors such as water availability,
reservoir levels, environmental regulations, and competing uses of water (e.g., irrigation,
recreation). The operation of hydro units is often influenced by both short-term and long-term water
management strategies.

Impact on the Unit Commitment (UC) Problem

1. Water Availability:
o The availability of water is a critical factor for hydroelectric plants. Insufficient
water flow can limit the generation capacity of hydro units, requiring utilities to
adjust their commitment strategies to ensure sufficient generation from other sources
to meet demand.
2. Operational Flexibility:
o Hydro units typically provide flexible generation capacity. However, the need to
manage water resources for future use can restrict how much energy can be
generated at any given time. This affects scheduling decisions in the UC problem, as
utilities must balance immediate demand with long-term water management
strategies.
3. Environmental Regulations:
o Many hydroelectric facilities are subject to environmental regulations that dictate
how water is released from reservoirs. These regulations may require maintaining
certain flow rates in rivers for ecological reasons, which can further constrain
operational flexibility and impact generation schedules.
4. Competing Uses:
o Water from hydroelectric projects may serve multiple purposes, such as irrigation,
flood control, and recreational use. These competing demands can complicate the
operation of hydro plants and require careful planning and coordination in the UC
problem to optimize water usage while meeting electricity demand.
5. Forecasting and Uncertainty:
o Hydrological forecasts can introduce uncertainty into the UC problem. Changes in
weather patterns, seasonal variations, and long-term climate changes can affect water
availability and, consequently, the operational capabilities of hydro units. This
uncertainty must be accounted for in planning and scheduling.

163
MUST-RUN UNITS

Definition:

o Must-run units are generating units that must be operational at all times due to
reliability requirements, regulatory obligations, or specific operational needs. These
units cannot be decommitted regardless of demand conditions.

Reasons for Must-Run Status:

o Reliability: Certain units, such as baseload plants or those providing essential grid
support (e.g., synchronous condensers), need to be online to ensure system stability.
o Regulatory Requirements: Some plants are required to operate to meet
environmental regulations, renewable energy mandates, or contractual obligations.
o Ancillary Services: Units may be designated to provide ancillary services, such as
frequency regulation or voltage support, which necessitate their continuous
operation.

Impact on UC Problem:

o The presence of must-run units reduces the flexibility in scheduling other units, as
these must be accounted for in the overall commitment strategy. They may also
affect the overall cost-effectiveness of generation by potentially increasing operating
costs if they are not optimally utilized.

FUEL CONSTRAINTS

Definition:

o Fuel constraints refer to the limitations on the availability, type, and cost of fuel used
by generating units. These constraints impact how and when units can operate.

Types of Fuel Constraints:

o Availability: Some units may only operate when specific fuels are available. For
example, natural gas plants require gas supply, while coal plants depend on coal
deliveries.
o Cost: Fluctuating fuel prices can affect the operational cost of different units. The
UC problem must account for the cost of fuel to ensure economic dispatch.
o Environmental Regulations: Certain fuels may be restricted or discouraged due to
environmental regulations (e.g., emissions limits), impacting the operational
decisions for fossil-fuel-based units.
o Fuel Efficiency: Different units have varying efficiencies based on the fuel type
used. For example, gas turbines generally have different operational characteristics
compared to coal plants, which must be considered in the commitment strategy.

Impact on UC Problem:

164
 o Fuel constraints can significantly influence the scheduling of units in the UC
problem. The commitment strategy must consider not only the demand forecast but
also the fuel supply situation, cost implications, and regulatory requirements to
optimize the overall operation.

ACTIVITY 4: QUIZ 2

Drag and Drop Matching Quiz

A. Match the Following Constraints with Their Definitions

1. Spinning Reserve

2. Minimum Up Time

3. Minimum Down Time

4. Transition Cost

5. Crew Constraints

6. Hydro Constraints

7. Must-Run Units

8. Fuel Constraints

Options

A. Extra capacity that is online and available to respond to sudden demand increases or unit
outages.

B. The minimum time a generating unit must remain online after being turned on.

C. The minimum time a generating unit must remain offline after being turned off.

D. Costs associated with changing the operational status of a generating unit.

E. Limitations on the number of personnel available to operate generating units.

F. Constraints related to water availability and regulations affecting hydroelectric plants.

G. Units that must remain operational due to reliability or regulatory requirements.

165
Options

H. Limitations regarding fuel availability, type, and costs affecting unit operation.

B. Match the Following Constraints with Their Impacts on the UC Problem

Options

1. Can limit flexibility in scheduling and increase operating costs.

2. Affects scheduling complexity and reliability of power supply.

3. Hinders rapid response to demand changes or outages.

4. Influences commitment decisions, particularly regarding unit cycling.

5. May restrict the number of units that can be online simultaneously.

6. Impacts operational efficiency and may necessitate the use of less efficient units.

7. Affects generation scheduling and requires careful resource management.

8. Ensures reliability but may reduce economic efficiency in the commitment strategy.

Answers

Definitions

1-A
2-B
3-C
4-D
5-E
6-F
7-G
8-H
166
Impacts on the UC Problem

1-1
2-2
3-3
4-4
5-5
6-6
7-7
8-8

REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER

READING
7. J. Fuller, P. Obiomon, S.I. Abood (2023). Power System Operation,Utilization and
Control. Chapter 7, Page 213-220

TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION

Keep nurturing your curiosity and passion for learning. Every step you take in this
field can spark innovation and drive positive change. Your efforts today will shape
the energy systems of tomorrow. Stay inspired, stay engaged, and remember: you
have the power to make a difference!

WHAT’S NEXT?
MODULE 7: UNIT COMMITMENT SOLUTION METHODS

167
MODULE 7: UNIT COMMITMENT SOLUTION
METHODS

INSTRUCTIONAL HOURS: 4

MODULE OVERVIEW
In this module, you will learn about two important methods used to solve Unit
Commitment (UC) problems in power systems: the Priority List method and Dynamic
Programming. These techniques are essential for determining the optimal scheduling
of generating units to meet load demand while minimizing operational costs and
adhering to system constraints such as spinning reserve and minimum up/down times.
By the end of this module, you will be able to apply both methods to solve UC
problems, evaluate their effectiveness, and understand when to use each method
depending on system complexity and computational requirements.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Explain Priority List method and Dynamic Programming for
solving UC problems.
2. Apply the Priority List method to solve simple UC problems
3. Analyze the performance of Dynamic Programming in
solving more complex UC problems.
4. Evaluate the advantages and limitations of both the Priority
List and Dynamic Programming methods when handling
large-scale UC problems in power systems.

168
LEARNING ACTIVITIES/TASK LIST
1. Watch Lecture Video
2. Review power presentation PDF
3. Watch lecture related videos
4. Complete participation assignment: Quiz 1
5. Complete personal introduction video
6. Review concept assignment : Quiz 2

INTRODUCTION

ACTIVITY 1: READING MATERIAL

The Unit Commitment (UC) problem is a key challenge in power system operations. It involves
determining which generating units should be turned on or off over a certain time period to meet the
expected load demand while minimizing total operational costs. This decision-making process must
consider various constraints, such as spinning reserve, minimum up/down times, fuel availability,
and crew constraints.

Several methods have been developed to solve the UC problem. These methods range from simple
heuristics to more sophisticated optimization techniques. The choice of solution method depends on
the complexity of the power system, the accuracy required, and the available computational
resources.

Categories of UC Solution Methods

1. Heuristic Methods:
o These methods are based on rules of thumb or simplified approaches to find feasible,
though not necessarily optimal, solutions.
o Examples: Priority List Method, Simple Shut-Down Rule.
o Advantages: Fast and easy to implement; suitable for real-time decision-making.
o Disadvantages: They often provide suboptimal solutions and may not handle
complex constraints effectively.
2. Optimization Methods:
o These methods aim to find the optimal solution to the UC problem by formulating it
as a mathematical optimization problem. They are more computationally intensive
but yield more accurate results.
o Examples: Dynamic Programming (DP), Mixed Integer Linear Programming
(MILP), Lagrangian Relaxation (LR).
o Advantages: Can handle complex constraints and provide optimal or near-optimal
solutions.
o Disadvantages: Computationally expensive and may require significant time to
solve, especially for large systems.

169
 3. Metaheuristic Methods:
o Metaheuristics are higher-level strategies designed to find approximate solutions to
complex optimization problems, including UC. These methods use techniques
inspired by natural processes to explore the solution space.
o Examples: Genetic Algorithms (GA), Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO),
Simulated Annealing (SA).
o Advantages: Capable of escaping local optima and finding good solutions for large-
scale and complex problems.
o Disadvantages: These methods do not guarantee an optimal solution and may
require tuning of parameters.

PRIORITY LIST METHOD

Definition: The priority list method is a heuristic approach for solving the Unit Commitment
problem, where generating units are ranked based on their operational costs, and units are committed
in order of their priority (from most to least cost-effective).

How it Works:

• A priority list is created by ranking generating units based on their marginal costs (typically
fuel costs or startup costs). The most efficient units are placed at the top of the list.
• Units are committed from the top of the list downwards until the forecasted load plus the
spinning reserve requirement is met.
• If the demand decreases, units are decommitted in reverse order, with the least efficient
(lowest-priority) units being shut down first.

In this method the full load average production cost of each unit is calculated first. Using this,
priority list is prepared.

Full Average  Production cost corresponding to full load

 =
Production Cost (FLAC)  Full load

EXAMPLE 1

The following are data pertaining to three units in a plant.

Unit 1: Max. = 600 MW

C1 =5610 + 79.2 P1 + 0.01562 P12 $ / h

Unit 2: Max. = 400 MW

C2 =3100 + 78.5 P2 + 0.0194 P22 $ / h

Unit 3: Max. = 200 MW

170
 936 + 95.64 P3 + 0.05784 P32 $ / h
C3 =

Obtain the priority list

SOLUTION

5610 + 79.2 × 600 + 0.01562 × 6002

FLAPC1 = 97.922 $/MWh
600

3100 + 78.5 × 400 + 0.0194 × 4002

FLAPC2 = 94.01 $/MWh
400

936 + 95.64 × 200 + 0.05784 × 2002

FLAPC3 = 111.888 $/MWh
200

A strict priority order for these units, based on the average production cost is formed as follows:

Unit $/MWh Max MW

2 94.01 400
1 97.922 600
3 111.888 200

The shutdown scheme would simply use the following combinations (the minimum up / down time,
start – up costs etc. are ignored):

Combination Load PD (MW)

2+1+3 1000 ≤ PD < 1200
2+1 400 ≤ PD < 1000
2 PD < 400

PRIORITY LIST SCHEME WITH SIMPLE SHUT-DOWN ALGORITHM

In a typical priority list scheme, the decision to commit or decommit a generating unit is based on
both its position on the priority list (usually ranked by cost-effectiveness) and the load demand
forecast. The priority list is paired with a simple shut-down algorithm to determine which units to
shut down during periods of decreasing load. The steps below outline how this algorithm operates:

1. Check for Load and Spinning Reserve:

o At each hour when the load is decreasing, assess whether shutting down the next unit
on the priority list will leave enough generation capacity to meet the load plus the
system’s spinning reserve requirements.
o Decision: If shutting down the unit will lead to insufficient generation, the current
configuration remains unchanged. If sufficient reserve will be available, proceed to
the next step.
2. Evaluate Time Before the Unit Is Needed Again (H):

171
 o Estimate the number of hours HHH before the unit would need to be brought back
online as the load is expected to increase again after a period of decrease.
o Assumption: The load is expected to drop but will eventually rise again at some
point, requiring the unit to be recommitted.
3. Check Against Minimum Shut-Down Time:
o If HHH (the number of hours before the unit is needed again) is less than the unit’s
minimum shut-down time, keep the unit committed. This avoids cycling the unit
off and on again too quickly, which could incur unnecessary costs and wear.
o If HHH is greater than the minimum shut-down time, move to the next step.
4. Cost Comparison:
o Calculate two costs:
1. Cost of keeping the unit running: Calculate the total generation cost for
keeping the unit committed for the next HHH hours.
2. Cost of shutting down: Calculate the cost of decommitting the unit for HHH
hours and add the start-up cost for recommitting the unit later (either cooling
or banking it, depending on which is cheaper).
o Decision: If shutting down the unit results in a significant cost savings, decommit
the unit. If not, keep it running.
5. Repeat the Procedure:
o Repeat the entire process for the next unit on the priority list. If the next unit can also
be dropped while maintaining system balance, apply the same logic to it and proceed
through the rest of the list.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Priority List Scheme

Advantages

1. Simplicity:
o The priority list method is easy to implement and understand. It provides a
straightforward approach to deciding which units to commit or decommit based on
their rank (often by operational cost).
2. Fast Decision-Making:
o Since the algorithm ranks units in a fixed order and makes decisions based on
predefined costs, it requires less computational effort compared to more complex
optimization methods, making it suitable for real-time operations.
3. Reduces Operating Costs:
o By prioritizing the most cost-effective units first, the scheme helps in minimizing
operational costs, ensuring that cheaper units are utilized before more expensive
ones.
4. Practical for Small Systems:
o For systems with fewer units or systems where demand variation is predictable, the
priority list scheme can provide a good approximation of optimal scheduling without
needing advanced computation.
5. Improves Efficiency in Short Timeframes:
o The method is effective for systems with rapidly changing demand, allowing for
quick decisions on unit decommitment to avoid unnecessary costs.

Disadvantages

172
 1. Suboptimal Solutions:
o The priority list scheme does not guarantee the optimal solution because it does not
consider all the system constraints (e.g., minimum up/down times, transition costs)
in a fully integrated manner. It operates based on a simple ranking, which may
overlook better long-term cost-saving opportunities.
2. Ignores Dynamic Constraints:
o It does not always take into account important operational constraints such as
minimum up time, minimum down time, or transition costs comprehensively, which
can result in inefficient unit cycling.
3. Limited Flexibility:
o The method assumes a fixed order of unit priority. This limits flexibility when
conditions change (e.g., fuel cost fluctuations or varying system demands), which
could lead to less efficient scheduling.
4. Ineffective for Large, Complex Systems:
o In large systems with many units, this approach can lead to suboptimal performance
since the priority list is static and does not dynamically adapt to the system's real-
time needs and conditions.
5. Can Lead to Higher Start-Up/Shut-Down Costs:
o If the shut-down criteria are not carefully considered (e.g., minimum down time,
start-up costs), the system may incur higher costs from frequent cycling of units,
which is not always captured by the simple priority list ranking.
6. Overlooks Future Demand Changes:
o The scheme typically focuses on short-term operational decisions and may not
account for anticipated future changes in demand or long-term fuel price variations,
potentially leading to higher overall system costs.

ACTIVITY 2: QUIZ 1

1. What should be done if decommitting the next unit on the priority list will leave
insufficient spinning reserve?

Options
A. Keep the unit running.
B. Decommit the unit and reduce spinning reserve.
C. Commit a lower-cost unit immediately.
D. Increase load to balance the system.
E. Shut down other units to reduce spinning reserve.

Answer: A. Keep the unit running.

173
 2. If shutting down a unit based on the priority list results in higher start-up costs when
bringing it back online, what should be considered before decommitting the unit?

Options
A. Leave the unit online to avoid frequent cycling.
B. Shut down the unit regardless of future costs.
C. Calculate the load forecast and future start-up needs before shutting down the unit.
D. Increase reserve capacity to manage future load changes.
E. Use renewable sources to avoid shutting down the unit.

Answer: C. Calculate the load forecast and future start-up needs before shutting down the unit.

3. What is the primary goal of using the priority list scheme in Unit Commitment?

Options
A. To reduce long-term costs by planning months ahead.
B. To minimize short-term operational costs by using cheaper units first.
C. To maximize the use of renewable energy sources.
D. To achieve high system redundancy.
E. To balance spinning reserve and fuel consumption.

Answer: B. To minimize short-term operational costs by using cheaper units first.

4. Why might the priority list scheme lead to suboptimal solutions in large, complex
power systems?

Options
A. Because it does not account for real-time changes in demand and fuel prices.
B. Because it requires complex algorithms that are time-consuming.
C. Because it prioritizes renewable energy over cost-effectiveness.
D. Because it only works for small-scale systems with predictable loads.
E. Because it relies on a static ranking system without dynamic adjustments.

Answer: A. Because it does not account for real-time changes in demand and fuel prices.

5. How does the priority list scheme determine which unit to decommit during a period of
dropping load?

174
 Options
A. Based on the operational efficiency of the unit, prioritizing the most efficient.
B. Based on the fuel type used by the unit.
C. Based on the ranking of units by their operational costs, starting with the least cost-effective
unit.
D. By comparing historical performance data.
E. By shutting down the units with the highest maintenance costs.

Answer: C. Based on the ranking of units by their operational costs, starting with the least cost-
effective unit.

6. Which constraint is often overlooked by the priority list scheme, potentially leading to
higher long-term costs?

Options
A. Transition costs (e.g., start-up and shut-down costs).
B. The cost of fuel supplies.
C. Maintenance costs spread over months.
D. Environmental impact of different units.
E. Availability of renewable energy sources.

Answer: A. Transition costs (e.g., start-up and shut-down costs).

7. What should an operator do if the cost of decommitting a unit and restarting it later is
higher than keeping the unit running, even though the load is dropping?

Options
A. Decommit the unit regardless of the cost.
B. Keep the unit running to avoid higher future start-up costs.
C. Commit additional units to balance the load.
D. Shut down all low-priority units.
E. Increase the spinning reserve to manage future load.

Answer: B. Keep the unit running to avoid higher future start-up costs.

8. What is a major adaptation needed when using the priority list scheme in systems with
frequent load fluctuations?

175
 Options
A. Regular updates to the priority list based on real-time fuel costs.
B. Inclusion of renewable energy in the list, regardless of costs.
C. Increasing the number of committed units to ensure reliability.
D. Implementing additional storage solutions to smooth out demand.
E. Prioritizing hydroelectric units to avoid system instability.

Answer: A. Regular updates to the priority list based on real-time fuel costs.

9. Why is the priority list scheme not ideal for managing power systems with
unpredictable load patterns or sudden surges in demand?

Options
A. It assumes that load patterns remain constant over time.
B. It is only designed for renewable energy systems.
C. It does not dynamically adjust to changes in load and system conditions.
D. It requires constant maintenance and updates.
E. It decommits units based on outdated fuel prices.

Answer: C. It does not dynamically adjust to changes in load and system conditions.

10. In what scenario would the priority list scheme be most effective?

Options
A. In small systems with predictable load patterns and a clear ranking of unit costs.
B. In large-scale grids with frequent load fluctuations.
C. In systems with high penetration of renewable energy sources.
D. In systems where fuel costs are not a major concern.
E. In grids with unstable or unreliable generation sources.

Answer: A. In small systems with predictable load patterns and a clear ranking of unit costs.

176
DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING
ACTIVITY 3: VIDEO 1
Please watch the video below on dynamic programming and how it works. Take
notes as you watch the video.

VIDEO 1 (Dynamic Programming)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v4vIGRhIlvw

ACTIVITY 4: READING MATERIAL

What is Dynamic Programming?

Dynamic Programming (DP) is an optimization technique used to solve complex problems by

breaking them down into simpler overlapping subproblems. It is particularly useful for solving
problems with a recursive structure where the same subproblems are solved multiple times. Instead
of solving the same subproblems repeatedly, DP stores the results of solved subproblems in a
memory table (called memoization) or builds up the solution step-by-step using a bottom-up
approach (called tabulation).

Dynamic Programming is widely used in various fields such as computer science, engineering,
economics, and power systems. In power systems, it is especially useful for solving the Unit
Commitment (UC) problem, where generating units need to be scheduled optimally over time to
minimize costs while meeting demand and adhering to system constraints.

Key Concepts in Dynamic Programming

1. Optimal Substructure:
o The problem can be broken down into smaller subproblems, and the solution to the
original problem can be constructed from the solutions to these subproblems.
2. Overlapping Subproblems:
o The same subproblems are solved multiple times during the solution process. Instead
of recalculating them repeatedly, dynamic programming saves the results of solved
subproblems and reuses them.
3. Memoization (Top-Down Approach):

177
 o In the top-down approach, the problem is solved recursively, but the results of
subproblems are stored (memoized) so they can be reused without recalculating
them.
4. Tabulation (Bottom-Up Approach):
o In the bottom-up approach, smaller subproblems are solved first, and their solutions
are used to construct the solution to larger subproblems until the original problem is
solved.

How to Use Dynamic Programming

Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to use Dynamic Programming for solving a typical optimization
problem:

1. Define the Problem

• Identify the problem you are trying to solve and verify if it has optimal substructure and
overlapping subproblems. If it does, dynamic programming can be applied.

2. Identify the Subproblems

• Break the problem down into smaller subproblems. Ensure that the solution to the larger
problem can be constructed from the solutions to these subproblems.

3. Choose a State Representation

• Define a state that captures the information needed to solve a subproblem. The state is a
representation of where you are in the problem and what decisions have been made so far.

4. Define the State Transition

• Define how to transition from one state to another. These transitions represent the decisions
you make to move towards solving the problem.

5. Formulate a Recurrence Relation

• Write a mathematical expression (recurrence relation) that defines the solution to a

subproblem in terms of the solutions to smaller subproblems.

6. Memoization or Tabulation

• Use either the memoization (top-down) or tabulation (bottom-up) approach to solve the
subproblems.
o Memoization: Start with the original problem, recursively solve subproblems, and
store results in a memory table.
o Tabulation: Start with the simplest subproblems, solve them, and use their solutions
to solve larger subproblems until the original problem is solved.

178
7. Reconstruct the Solution

• Once the subproblems have been solved, use the results to construct the optimal solution to
the original problem.
o

ACTIVITY 5: QUIZ 2

Matching Questions

Understanding the Basics of Dynamic Programming in UC

1. What is the primary objective of using Dynamic Programming in the Unit

Commitment (UC) problem?

Options
A. Minimize the operational costs while ensuring demand is met.
B. Maximize the load on the power grid.
C. Ensure that all generating units are online at all times.
D. Only maximize the spinning reserve.
E. Reduce the number of generators used, regardless of cost.

Answer: A. Minimize the operational costs while ensuring demand is met.

2. How does Dynamic Programming simplify the UC problem in power systems?

Options
A. It divides the UC problem into overlapping subproblems, solving each only once.
B. It ignores system constraints like spinning reserve and minimum up/down time.
C. It prioritizes renewable energy sources over conventional units.
D. It uses heuristic methods for decision-making.
E. It makes unit commitment decisions without considering load forecasts.

Answer: A. It divides the UC problem into overlapping subproblems, solving each only once.

Analyzing the Methodology of DP in UC

179
 3. What is a key feature of the state representation in Dynamic Programming for UC
problems?

Options
A. A state represents the cost of all units in the system.
B. A state represents the combination of committed units at a specific time.
C. A state only represents the amount of fuel consumed by the generators.
D. A state tracks only renewable units in operation.
E. A state represents total demand at every time interval without constraints.

Answer: B. A state represents the combination of committed units at a specific time.

4. What is the role of the recurrence relation in Dynamic Programming for the UC
problem?

Options
A. It provides a direct solution without the need for subproblems.
B. It establishes how the optimal cost of a current state depends on previous states.
C. It only calculates the cost of fuel without considering other constraints.
D. It ignores the status of units in previous hours.
E. It randomly selects units for commitment, based on a heuristic model.

Answer: B. It establishes how the optimal cost of a current state depends on previous states.

Constraints and Cost Calculations in DP for UC

5. How does Dynamic Programming handle minimum up/down time constraints in the
UC problem?

Options
A. By ensuring that units are kept on or off for the required number of hours in the state
transitions.
B. By ignoring these constraints to reduce computational complexity.
C. By shutting down all units as soon as demand drops.
D. By restarting units frequently without considering costs.
E. By using only renewable units to meet the constraints.

Answer: A. By ensuring that units are kept on or off for the required number of hours in the state
transitions.

180
 6. Which type of cost is considered in the transition cost calculation in Dynamic
Programming for UC?

Options
A. Only fuel costs.
B. Startup and shutdown costs for units switching between on/off states.
C. Cost of renewable energy integration.
D. Long-term maintenance costs that don't affect unit commitment.
E. Costs for increasing load demand without spinning reserve consideration.

Answer: B. Startup and shutdown costs for units switching between on/off states.

Challenges and Limitations

7. What is a key limitation of using Dynamic Programming to solve large-scale UC

problems in power systems?

Options
A. It always gives suboptimal solutions.
B. It requires high computational resources and memory for large-scale systems.
C. It ignores fuel costs entirely.
D. It only works for systems with renewable energy sources.
E. It is faster than all heuristic methods for large systems.

Answer: B. It requires high computational resources and memory for large-scale systems.

8. How can Dynamic Programming be adapted for large-scale power systems to solve UC
problems more efficiently?

Options
A. By increasing the number of subproblems to improve accuracy.
B. By reducing the number of states through state-space reduction techniques.
C. By solving every possible state, regardless of constraints.
D. By ignoring spinning reserve constraints to save time.
E. By adding more computational layers for increased complexity.

Answer: B. By reducing the number of states through state-space reduction techniques.

Analyzing Results and Optimal Solutions

181
 9. What information is found in the final dp[n][W] table when solving the UC problem
with Dynamic Programming?

Options
A. The total cost for the system over all time intervals with all possible unit combinations.
B. The cost of each generating unit's maintenance over a 10-year period.
C. The best fuel mix for renewable units.
D. The number of spinning reserves that were committed.
E. The total load demand that was not met.

Answer: A. The total cost for the system over all time intervals with all possible unit combinations.

10. How can Dynamic Programming guarantee an optimal solution to the UC problem in
power systems?

Options
A. By solving subproblems once and storing their results for reuse in future decisions.
B. By using random states to approximate solutions.
C. By ignoring the previous states and solving each state independently.
D. By using a heuristic to estimate which units to commit.
E. By reducing the number of constraints to make calculations easier.

Answer: A. By solving subproblems once and storing their results for reuse in future decisions.

UNIT COMMITMENT SOLUTION USING DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING

ACTIVITY 6: VIDEO 2
Please watch the video below on unit commitment solution using dynamic
programming and how it works. Take notes as you watch the video.

VIDEO 2 ( Unit Commitment Solution Using Dynamic Programming)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oXfJ5KbVSUo

Example: Dynamic Programming for Unit Commitment (UC) in Power Systems

The Unit Commitment (UC) problem in power systems is a classic example where dynamic
programming is applied. The objective is to schedule the operation of generating units over a given
182
time period to minimize the total cost while meeting the load demand and system constraints (such
as minimum up/down times, spinning reserve, and start-up costs).

Here’s how dynamic programming is used to solve the UC problem:

1. Define the Problem:

o Given a set of power generation units and a load demand over time, determine which
units to turn on or off to minimize operational costs while meeting system
constraints.
2. Identify the Subproblems:
o Each subproblem can be defined for a specific time period (e.g., hour) and a specific
combination of committed units.
3. State Representation:
o The state can be represented by the set of units that are committed at each hour. For
example, the state at time ttt can be represented by the units that are currently online.
4. State Transition:
o Transition from one state (set of online units) to the next by either turning a unit on,
off, or keeping it unchanged.
5. Recurrence Relation:
o The total cost for a particular state at time ttt is the sum of the generation costs for
the committed units and the cost to transition from the state at time t−1t-1t−1 to the
state at time ttt.
6. Memoization or Tabulation:
o Use either memoization or tabulation to store the results of subproblems
(combinations of committed units at each time) and avoid recalculating them.
7. Reconstruct the Solution:
o Once the dynamic programming algorithm has been run, the optimal schedule for
each unit over the given time period can be reconstructed from the stored results.

Pros and Cons of Dynamic Programming

Pros:

• Efficiency: By storing the results of subproblems, dynamic programming avoids redundant

calculations, making it much more efficient than brute-force methods.
• Optimal Solutions: Dynamic programming guarantees optimal solutions when applicable,
provided that the problem has the required properties (optimal substructure and overlapping
subproblems).

Cons:

• Space Complexity: Dynamic programming can require a significant amount of memory to

store the results of subproblems, especially for large problems.
• Difficult to Apply: It can be challenging to define the right states, transitions, and
recurrence relations for complex problems.

183
ACTIVITY 7: CASE STUDY
Case Study: Unit Commitment Problem Using Dynamic Programming with 3
Generating Units

Problem Description:

A small power utility is tasked with scheduling the commitment of three generating units over a 6-
hour period to meet varying demand while minimizing total operating costs. The utility must decide
which units to turn on or off in each hour, considering fuel costs, start-up costs, and minimum
up/down time constraints. The demand forecast for the 6-hour period is provided, and the utility must
ensure that total generation meets the demand for each hour while maintaining a spinning reserve of
10% of the demand.

System Data:

• Generating Units: Three units with different characteristics.

o Unit 1 (Base-load, coal): High start-up cost, low operational cost, high efficiency.
o Unit 2 (Mid-range, gas): Moderate start-up cost, moderate operational cost, medium
efficiency.
o Unit 3 (Peaking, gas): Low start-up cost, high operational cost, fast start-up.

Max Power Fuel Cost Start-Up Cost Min Up Time Min Down Time
Unit
(MW) ($/MWh) ($) (hours) (hours)
Unit
50 20 500 2 2
1
Unit
30 40 300 1 1
2
Unit
20 60 100 1 1
3

Demand Forecast:

Hour Demand (MW)

1 45
2 50
3 40
4 55
5 35
6 45

Objective:
184
Minimize the total cost over the 6-hour period, including fuel costs and start-up costs, while meeting
demand and system constraints (including spinning reserve). Use dynamic programming.

Constraints:

1. Load Demand: Ensure that total generation at each hour meets or exceeds the demand plus
10% spinning reserve.
2. Minimum Up/Down Times: Units that are turned on must stay on for a minimum duration,
and units that are turned off must stay off for a minimum period.
3. Start-Up Costs: Start-up costs are incurred whenever a unit is turned on after being off.

Solution Using Dynamic Programming:

The solution involves breaking the problem down into smaller subproblems for each hour and for
each possible combination of unit states (on/off). The Dynamic Programming (DP) algorithm
evaluates the cost of every possible state transition between hours and stores the results to avoid
recalculating costs for the same subproblems.

Step 1: Define the States

Each state represents a combination of units that are on or off at a given time. For three units, we
have 8 possible states (since each unit can be either on or off). The states can be represented by
binary vectors, where each element corresponds to the status of a unit (1 = on, 0 = off).

Possible states:

• S1=[0,0,0] (All units off)

• S2=[1,0,0] (Unit 1 on, others off)
• S3=[0,1,0] (Unit 2 on, others off)
• S4=[0,0,1] (Unit 3 on, others off)
• S5=[1,1,0] (Units 1 and 2 on)
• S6=[1,0,1] (Units 1 and 3 on)
• S7=[0,1,1] (Units 2 and 3 on)
• S8=[1,1,1] (All units on)

Step 2: Calculate the Demand + Spinning Reserve Requirement

For each hour, the required generation must meet the demand plus 10% spinning reserve:

Hour Demand (MW) Spinning Reserve (MW) Total Required Generation (MW)
1 45 4.5 49.5
2 50 5.0 55.0
3 40 4.0 44.0

185
Hour Demand (MW) Spinning Reserve (MW) Total Required Generation (MW)
4 55 5.5 60.5
5 35 3.5 38.5
6 45 4.5 49.5

Step 3: Recurrence Relation and Cost Calculation

At each hour, the cost of a state SSS is calculated as the sum of:

1. Fuel cost for the units that are online.

2. Start-up cost if a unit was turned on.
3. The cost from the previous hour's state, plus any transition cost for changing the on/off
status of units.

For example, if Unit 1 and Unit 2 are on in a given state, the fuel cost would be:

Fuel cost=(Unit 1 Power Output)×Fuel Cost of Unit 1+(Unit 2 Power Output)×Fuel Cost of Unit 2

The start-up cost is only incurred if the unit is turned on after being off in the previous hour.

Step 4: Dynamic Programming Table

We create a DP table where each entry corresponds to a state at a given hour. The algorithm fills the
table by calculating the cost for each state at each hour and considering the transition costs between
states.

The goal is to find the path through the table that minimizes the total cost while satisfying all
constraints (generation, spinning reserve, up/down times).

Step 5: Backtracking to Find the Optimal Solution

Once the DP table is filled, we backtrack through the table to find the optimal schedule for each
unit. The backtracking starts from the final hour (Hour 6) and traces the states that led to the
minimum total cost.

Results:

Optimal Unit Commitment Schedule:

186
Hour Unit 1 (Coal) Unit 2 (Gas) Unit 3 (Gas) Total Generation (MW) Cost ($)
1 On On Off 50 1100
2 On On Off 50 1100
3 On Off On 50 1400
4 On On On 50 1900
5 On Off On 50 1400
6 On On Off 50 1100

Total Cost: $8,000 over 6 hours

• Fuel Cost: $7,000

• Start-Up Cost: $1,000

RUBRICS FOR CASE STUDY

Needs
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and minor ng of the UC understand
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Problem objectives. omissions in problem but the core
such as
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spinning
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reserve or
demand, constraints. constraints the UC
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up/down
and details are objectives.
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with explained.
detailed
explanation.

Clearly Defines States are Fails to

Some states
defines all most states defined but correctly
State are
possible correctly may miss define states
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states for but may key aspects or
defined, or
each hour overlook or lack misrepresents
many key
with an minor clarity in critical

187
 Needs
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Criterion y (3
(5 Points) Points) nt (2 ry (1 Point)
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status for combination
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up, and Calculates Some errors Significant
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perform
costs for all accurately, calculation, calculation,
proper cost
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inaccurate
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results for
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most states.
understandi costs. some hours. costs.
ng of the
recurrence
relation.

Constructs a
clear and
accurate DP Constructs a
Constructs a
table, DP table but DP table is Fails to
mostly
correctly with several incomplete or construct a
Dynamic correct DP
filling in errors in contains meaningful
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costs and state many errors DP table, with
g Table minor
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transitions
understandi memoizatio calculations. throughout.
or costs.
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Constraints Handles all Handles Meets the Fails to Ignores or

Handling constraints most basic adequately misinterprets
(load constraints constraints address critical
188
 Needs
Satisfactor
Excellent Good (4 Improveme Unsatisfacto
Criterion y (3
(5 Points) Points) nt (2 ry (1 Point)
Points)
Points)

demand, correctly but fails to constraints, constraints,

spinning but may fully leading to a leading to an
reserve, overlook integrate solution that invalid
minimum minor one or two violates solution.
up/down details, such key spinning
time) as spinning constraints, reserve or
perfectly, reserve for a such as load
ensuring the specific minimum requirements
solution hour. up time. .
respects
these
conditions.

Correctly
identifies
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the optimal Fails to
near- solution, Solution is
solution by provide a
optimal but it is not far from
backtrackin valid solution
Optimal solution optimal due optimal, with
g through or backtrack
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the DP correctly,
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table, leading to a
n from the g or failure or incorrect
providing a non-optimal
best to fully state
clear and or infeasible
possible minimize transitions.
cost- schedule.
schedule. costs.
effective
schedule.

Provides a Provides Minimal

Provides
thorough good analysis or Fails to
basic
and analysis, but justification analyze or
analysis but
insightful with some provided, justify the
lacks depth
analysis of gaps in the with little solution,
in
Analysis and the results, justification explanation showing little
explaining
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key
justifying state were of the
decisions
the choice of transitions minimized or decision-
and how the
states, cost or constraints making
costs were
minimizatio scheduling were process.
minimized.
n, and choices. handled.

189
 Needs
Satisfactor
Excellent Good (4 Improveme Unsatisfacto
Criterion y (3
(5 Points) Points) nt (2 ry (1 Point)
Points)
Points)

scheduling
decisions.

The case
study is
exceptionall
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study is The case
organized, study is is incoherent
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organized disorganized,
presenting organized with little to
but lacks with poor
each step in but may no
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the DP lack visuals organization
and Clarity key areas, of the DP
process with or clear or clarity in
such as process and
strong explanation the
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calculations.
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explanation
s.

GRADING SCALE:

Score Performance

36-40 Excellent

30-35 Good

21-29 Satisfactory

11-20 Needs Improvement

0-10 Unsatisfactory

190
ADDITIONAL NOTES:

• Bonus Points: Up to 5 bonus points for creative and insightful approaches

(e.g., using graphical representations for transitions, proposing alternative
methods to improve computational efficiency).
• Penalty: Up to 5 penalty points for failing to handle basic constraints such as
demand or spinning reserve, or for incorrect interpretation of the problem.

REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER

READING
8. J. Fuller, P. Obiomon, S.I. Abood (2023). Power System Operation, Utilization and
Control. Chapter 7, Page 220-226

TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION

As you complete this module on Unit Commitment Solution Methods, remember
that mastering these techniques equips you with powerful tools to optimize power
system operations. The Priority List method gives you quick and efficient solutions
for simpler systems, while Dynamic Programming provides a deeper, more
comprehensive approach for complex, large-scale challenges.

WHAT’S NEXT?
MODULE 8: VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER CONTROL

191
MODULE 8: VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER
CONTROL

INSTRUCTIONAL HOURS: 4

MODULE OVERVIEW
In this module, you will learn about the essential concepts and practices involved in
voltage control and reactive power management within electrical grids. You will
begin by exploring the definitions and significance of voltage control, voltage
stability, and reactive power in maintaining reliable and efficient power system
operations. Next, you will delve into the various methods of voltage control and
reactive power compensation, examining the devices and strategies used to ensure
stable voltage levels during different load conditions. You will also analyze the impact
of insufficient reactive power on voltage stability, understanding how imbalances
can lead to voltage dips, system losses, and potential failures.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Explain the concepts of voltage control, voltage stability,
and reactive power, including their importance in power
system operations.
2. Describe the methods of voltage control and reactive power
compensation in electrical grids.

192
 3. Analyze the effects of insufficient reactive power on voltage
stability.
4. Assess the effectiveness of reactive power compensation
methods in stabilizing voltage under load variations.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES/TASK LIST

1. Watch Lecture Video
2. Review power presentation PDF
3. Watch lecture related videos
4. Complete participation assignment: Quiz 1
5. Complete personal introduction video
6. Review concept assignment : Quiz 2

VOLTAGE CONTROL
ACTIVITY 1:VIDEO 1
Please watch the video below on understanding voltage stability in power systems.
Take notes as you watch the video.

VIDEO 1 (voltage stability in power systems)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nZAQsw_cJ0Y

ACTIVITY 2: READING MATERIAL

Definition

• Voltage Control:
o Voltage control refers to the process of actively regulating voltage levels within the
power system to ensure that all parts of the network operate within acceptable
voltage limits. This is typically done in real-time using control devices such as tap-
changing transformers, capacitor banks, synchronous condensers, and FACTS
devices like SVCs and STATCOMs.

193
 o The goal is to maintain voltages within a specific range (e.g., ±5% of nominal
voltage) under normal operating conditions and during load variations.
• Voltage Stability:
o Voltage stability refers to the ability of the power system to maintain steady
voltages at all buses under normal conditions and following a disturbance (e.g., a
fault or a sudden increase in load). Voltage instability can lead to a voltage collapse,
where the system is unable to maintain voltage levels, potentially causing
widespread blackouts.
o Voltage stability focuses on the long-term ability of the system to prevent voltage
dips or collapse, especially under high load conditions or after disturbances.

2. Purpose

• Voltage Control:
o Ensures that voltage levels remain within prescribed limits during normal
operation.
o Focuses on maintaining power quality and ensuring that electrical equipment
operates efficiently.
o Provides a continuous adjustment of voltage levels through reactive power
compensation, managing real-time voltage fluctuations.
• Voltage Stability:
o Ensures that the system remains capable of maintaining voltages following large
disturbances or extreme load conditions.
o Prevents voltage collapse by ensuring that sufficient reactive power is available to
meet demand, even after contingencies.
o Deals with system stability over short-term (seconds to minutes) or long-term
(minutes to hours) periods after disturbances.

3. Time Frame

• Voltage Control:
o Operates on a real-time basis, continuously adjusting voltage levels as load and
generation fluctuate. Devices like tap changers, capacitors, and AVRs act
instantaneously or within seconds to minutes.
o For example, automatic voltage regulators (AVRs) in generators provide
immediate reactive power support to maintain voltage levels during load changes.
• Voltage Stability:
o Primarily concerns system behavior in response to disturbances over both short-
term and long-term periods.
o Short-term voltage stability refers to the system’s response within a few seconds to
minutes after a disturbance.
o Long-term voltage stability involves slower phenomena (e.g., tap-changing
transformer actions, generator field winding responses), which can take minutes to
hours to fully unfold.

194
4. Causes of Concern

• Voltage Control:
o Voltage control issues typically arise from normal variations in load throughout
the day or from minor disturbances that can cause voltage levels to rise or fall.
o Common causes of voltage control issues include reactive power mismatches,
changes in load demand, or faults in voltage control devices like tap changers.
• Voltage Stability:
o Voltage stability concerns arise from large disturbances, such as a loss of
generation, major transmission line outages, or system faults.
o It is a more critical issue during heavy loading conditions or when the power
system is operating near its reactive power limits.

5. Devices and Methods

• Voltage Control:
o Uses devices such as:
 On-Load Tap Changers (OLTCs) to adjust transformer voltage ratios.
 Shunt Capacitors and Reactors to provide or absorb reactive power.
 FACTS Devices like SVCs and STATCOMs for fast reactive power
adjustment.
 Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVRs) in generators to adjust reactive
power output dynamically.
• Voltage Stability:
o Involves strategies such as:
 Reactive Power Compensation through synchronous condensers or
FACTS devices to ensure sufficient reactive power is available to prevent
voltage collapse.
 Load Shedding as a last resort to relieve system stress and prevent a voltage
collapse during severe instability.
 Voltage Stability Assessments and monitoring using tools like real-time
measurements from Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) and voltage
sensitivity analyses.

6. Operational Focus

• Voltage Control:
o Primarily concerned with keeping the system within normal operating limits and
providing power at the correct voltage level to customers.
o It deals with localized adjustments in voltage at different points in the system,
ensuring consistent delivery of electricity.
• Voltage Stability:

195
 o Focuses on the system-wide ability to maintain acceptable voltage levels during
severe disturbances or over extended periods of time.
o Ensures that the system remains operational after faults and disturbances, avoiding
system-wide voltage collapse.

7. Consequences of Failure

• Voltage Control:
o Poor voltage control can lead to power quality issues, such as flickering lights,
voltage dips, and potential damage to sensitive electrical equipment.
o Customers may experience degraded performance of electrical devices due to
overvoltage or undervoltage conditions.
• Voltage Stability:
o Loss of voltage stability can lead to a voltage collapse, where large sections of the
power system experience a significant drop in voltage, possibly resulting in
system-wide blackouts.
o Voltage instability is more catastrophic than voltage control issues, as it affects the
entire system rather than localized areas.

Comparison Table

Aspect Voltage Control Voltage Stability

Regulation of voltage to maintain System’s ability to maintain voltage
Definition
consistent levels. post-disturbance.
Maintain voltage during normal Ensure voltage stability after large
Purpose
operations. disturbances.
Real-time, continuous adjustments Response to disturbances (seconds to
Time Frame
(seconds to minutes). hours).
Load fluctuations, reactive power Generator outages, transmission faults,
Causes of Concern
mismatches. heavy loading.
OLTCs, AVRs, capacitors, FACTS Reactive power compensation, load
Devices/Methods
devices. shedding, monitoring.
Localized adjustments at specific System-wide ability to maintain
Focus
points in the system. voltage.
Failure Power quality issues, equipment
Voltage collapse, blackouts.
Consequence damage.

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 ACTIVITY 3: QUIZ 1

1. What is the primary goal of voltage control in power systems?

Options
A. To maintain voltages within acceptable limits during normal operation.
B. To prevent voltage collapse during major disturbances.
C. To maximize the power generation of renewable sources.
D. To reduce reactive power consumption during peak load conditions.
E. To ensure a steady frequency across the grid.

Answer: A. To maintain voltages within acceptable limits during normal operation.

2. Which device is primarily used for real-time adjustments to voltage levels in

transmission systems?

Options
A. On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC).
B. Shunt Capacitor.
C. Synchronous Condenser.
D. Static VAR Compensator (SVC).
E. Circuit Breaker.

Answer: A. On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC).

3. What is the key difference between voltage control and voltage stability?

Options
A. Voltage control focuses on maintaining steady voltage during normal operation, while voltage
stability ensures the system can maintain voltage after disturbances.
B. Voltage control operates over long-term periods, while voltage stability works over short-term
events.
C. Voltage control manages frequency, while voltage stability manages reactive power.
D. Voltage stability addresses real-time fluctuations, while voltage control ensures load balancing.
E. Voltage control prevents blackouts, while voltage stability prevents equipment damage.

Answer: A. Voltage control focuses on maintaining steady voltage during normal operation, while
voltage stability ensures the system can maintain voltage after disturbances.

197
 4. Which issue arises when voltage stability is not maintained in the system?

Options
A. Power factor decreases.
B. Voltage collapse, leading to blackouts.
C. Increased reactive power generation.
D. Generator efficiency improves.
E. Frequency instability across the grid.

Answer: B. Voltage collapse, leading to blackouts.

5. Which device can dynamically provide reactive power compensation to help maintain
voltage stability?

Options
A. Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM).
B. Circuit Breaker.
C. Transmission Line Relays.
D. Off-Load Tap Changer.
E. Protective Relays.

Answer: A. Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM).

6. Which voltage control device absorbs reactive power to reduce voltage levels during
low demand periods?

Options
A. Shunt Reactor.
B. Synchronous Generator.
C. Capacitor Bank.
D. Circuit Breaker.
E. Step-Up Transformer.

Answer: A. Shunt Reactor.

7. What action should be taken if system voltage rises above acceptable limits during low
load conditions?
198
 Options
A. Switch on shunt reactors to absorb excess reactive power.
B. Disconnect all renewable energy sources.
C. Increase the load to reduce the voltage.
D. Increase the generator output.
E. Shut down transmission lines to balance the system.

Answer: A. Switch on shunt reactors to absorb excess reactive power.

8. How can voltage stability be improved after a sudden loss of generation in the power
system?

Options
A. Activate load shedding to reduce demand.
B. Switch off all capacitor banks.
C. Increase the system's reactive power capacity.
D. Reduce the frequency to stabilize the voltage.
E. Disconnect renewable energy sources to reduce instability.

Answer: C. Increase the system's reactive power capacity.

9. What is a key method for ensuring voltage stability in systems with high penetration of
renewable energy?

Options
A. Use smart inverters in distributed generation systems.
B. Limit renewable energy output to prevent voltage collapse.
C. Use manual tap changers to stabilize voltage.
D. Increase reliance on coal and gas generators.
E. Decrease transmission line impedance.

Answer: A. Use smart inverters in distributed generation systems.

10. Which strategy can be used to prevent voltage collapse during a system disturbance?

Options
A. Automatic Load Shedding.
B. Lowering transmission line voltages.

199
 Options
C. Switching off OLTCs to prevent over-compensation.
D. Reducing generator excitation.
E. Increasing generator frequency.

Answer: A. Automatic Load Shedding.

REACTIVE POWER CONTROL

ACTIVITY 4: VIDEO 2
Please watch the video below on understanding reactive power in power systems.
Take notes as you watch the video.

VIDEO 2 (Reactive power in power systems )

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nZAQsw_cJ0Y

Why Reactive Power is Necessary?

Reactive power is an essential concept in power systems, even though it does not perform any real
work like lighting a bulb or powering a motor. Many students and professionals in electrical
engineering struggle to understand why reactive power is needed since it doesn't directly contribute
to useful energy output. However, reactive power plays a critical role in the transmission and
distribution of electrical power. Below is a simplified explanation of reactive power and why it's
crucial to power system operation.

What is Reactive Power?

Reactive power is the power that oscillates between the source (such as a generator) and the load
(such as a motor or transformer). It is created by inductive or capacitive loads in the system, which
store energy temporarily in magnetic or electric fields and then release it back into the system.
Unlike real power, which is measured in watts and does useful work, reactive power is measured in
volt-amperes reactive (VARs) and is associated with maintaining voltage levels.

Why Reactive Power is Necessary?

1. Voltage Support and Stability:

200
 o Reactive power is necessary to maintain voltage levels throughout the power grid.
Without sufficient reactive power, voltage levels would drop, making it difficult to
transfer real power from the generation source to the load. Voltage must be kept
within certain limits to ensure that electrical devices operate correctly, and reactive
power helps achieve that.
o Voltage drops can cause voltage instability and, in extreme cases, lead to voltage
collapse and power outages. Therefore, reactive power plays a critical role in
keeping the system stable.
2. Efficient Power Transmission:
o In transmission lines, reactive power is needed to compensate for the inductive
nature of transmission cables and transformers, which consume reactive power. If
this reactive power isn't supplied, voltage levels will drop along the line, leading to
higher transmission losses and inefficient power delivery.
o Reactive power ensures the proper flow of real power by maintaining the voltage
required to push real power through transmission lines over long distances.
3. Reducing Transmission Losses:
o While reactive power can cause additional current flow, which leads to losses in the
system, these losses are necessary for maintaining voltage levels. Without reactive
power compensation, voltage drops and reactive power losses would be more
significant, making the system unstable.
o Reactive power compensation devices, such as capacitors and synchronous
condensers, help supply or absorb reactive power as needed, reducing unnecessary
current flow and minimizing losses.

Is Reactive Power Useless?

No, reactive power is not useless. Although it does not perform real work (i.e., it doesn’t generate
heat, light, or mechanical energy), it is essential for maintaining the voltage needed to deliver real
power efficiently. Without reactive power, real power could not flow efficiently across the power
system, and the grid would be unstable.

Reactive Power Compensation

To ensure efficient operation of power systems, utilities use reactive power compensation
methods to balance the supply and demand of reactive power:

1. Capacitor Banks: Used to supply reactive power to inductive loads, reducing the voltage
drop in the system.
2. Synchronous Condensers: Rotating machines that generate or absorb reactive power,
helping to maintain voltage stability.
3. FACTS Devices: Technologies like SVCs (Static VAR Compensators) and STATCOMs
provide dynamic reactive power support, ensuring voltage levels remain stable under
varying load conditions.

201
 ACTIVITY 5: QUIZ 2

Matching Questions

1. What is the primary role of reactive power in power systems?

Options
A. Maintain voltage levels across the system.
B. Generate real power for loads.
C. Increase the power factor of the system.
D. Reduce frequency fluctuations.
E. Control current flow in transmission lines.

Answer: A. Maintain voltage levels across the system.

2. Why is reactive power considered "useless" in terms of real work?

Options
A. It oscillates between the source and the load without contributing to actual energy consumption.
B. It does not cause any current to flow in the system.
C. It reduces the efficiency of the transmission system.
D. It generates real power but at a very slow rate.
E. It causes excessive heating in power system components.

Answer: A. It oscillates between the source and the load without contributing to actual energy
consumption.

3. Which device is commonly used to compensate for reactive power and improve voltage
stability in power systems?

Options
A. Capacitor Bank.
B. Circuit Breaker.
C. On-Load Tap Changer.
D. Step-Up Transformer.
E. Surge Arrester.

Answer: A. Capacitor Bank.

202
 4. What role does a synchronous condenser play in reactive power management?

Options
A. It generates or absorbs reactive power to maintain voltage levels.
B. It transforms voltage between different levels in the power system.
C. It opens and closes circuits during faults.
D. It stores real power for later use.
E. It generates reactive power through capacitance.

Answer: A. It generates or absorbs reactive power to maintain voltage levels.

5. What happens to voltage levels when there is insufficient reactive power in a power
system?

Options
A. Voltage levels drop, leading to possible voltage instability.
B. Voltage levels increase, improving system efficiency.
C. Frequency increases across the system.
D. Voltage remains constant despite fluctuations in load.
E. Real power automatically adjusts to balance the system.

Answer: A. Voltage levels drop, leading to possible voltage instability.

6. Why is reactive power compensation necessary in long transmission lines?

Options
A. To reduce voltage drops caused by the inductive nature of the transmission line.
B. To increase the transmission line's real power capacity.
C. To minimize losses in real power transmission.
D. To ensure the frequency of the system remains stable.
E. To eliminate the need for real power generation.

Answer: A. To reduce voltage drops caused by the inductive nature of the transmission line.

7. How does reactive power affect power quality in the grid?

203
 Options
A. It maintains proper voltage levels, which improves power quality.
B. It reduces the efficiency of real power transmission.
C. It eliminates harmonics in the power system.
D. It increases the overall system frequency.
E. It causes excessive wear on transformers and generators.

Answer: A. It maintains proper voltage levels, which improves power quality.

8. Which of the following is a consequence of excessive reactive power in a power system?

Options
A. Voltage levels can rise, potentially damaging equipment.
B. The system's power factor becomes negative.
C. The efficiency of real power transmission increases.
D. Voltage levels remain stable without external intervention.
E. The system experiences excessive real power losses.

Answer: A. Voltage levels can rise, potentially damaging equipment.

9. What is the main difference between reactive power and real power?

Options
A. Real power does useful work, while reactive power supports voltage but does no real work.
B. Real power is measured in VARs, while reactive power is measured in watts.
C. Real power increases current flow, while reactive power reduces it.
D. Real power is required for grid stability, while reactive power is not.
E. Real power can be stored, but reactive power cannot.

Answer: A. Real power does useful work, while reactive power supports voltage but does no real
work.

10. Why is reactive power compensation often required near load centers?

Options
A. To reduce the need for long-distance reactive power transmission and prevent voltage drops.
B. To increase the real power consumption of loads.
C. To reduce system frequency and stabilize grid operations.
204
 Options
D. To increase the total current flow through the transmission lines.
E. To prevent overload of transformers in the distribution system.

Answer: A. To reduce the need for long-distance reactive power transmission and prevent voltage
drops.

ACTIVITY 6: CASE STUDY

Case Study: Assessing the Effectiveness of Reactive Power Compensation in
Stabilizing Voltage Under Load Variations

Background:

A regional power grid supplies electricity to an industrial zone with highly variable loads, including
factories, processing plants, and commercial facilities. The area experiences frequent voltage drops
and fluctuations, especially during peak demand hours, which leads to equipment malfunctions and
increased system losses.

The grid operator implements reactive power compensation techniques to stabilize the voltage and
improve power quality. They utilize shunt capacitors, Static VAR Compensators (SVC), and
synchronous condensers at strategic points in the network to inject or absorb reactive power as
needed.

Objective:

Assess the effectiveness of these reactive power compensation methods in stabilizing voltage
during load variations.

Methodology:

1. System Monitoring and Data Collection:

o Voltage and load profiles are monitored at key points in the grid during normal and
peak operating hours over a 3-month period.
o Key parameters to observe include:
 Voltage magnitudes at various busbars.
 Real and reactive power flows.
 System losses during peak and off-peak times.
 Power factor at critical load centers.
2. Reactive Power Compensation Implementation:
o Shunt capacitors are placed at substations to provide local reactive power support.
o Static VAR Compensators (SVCs) are installed near large industrial loads to
dynamically adjust reactive power levels.
o Synchronous condensers are connected to further stabilize voltage during high
demand periods.

205
 The compensation equipment operates automatically to respond to real-time voltage changes
as the load fluctuates.

3. Analysis of Load Variation Impact:

o Without Compensation:
 Before compensation devices were installed, significant voltage dips were
observed during peak load hours, with voltage levels dropping below 0.95 pu
(per unit). Power factor deteriorated, and system losses increased due to
reactive power flow over long distances.
o With Compensation:
 After implementing compensation, voltage profiles improved significantly,
with the voltage staying within the acceptable range of 0.98 to 1.02 pu during
both peak and off-peak conditions.
 Reactive power flows were locally compensated, reducing the overall burden
on transmission lines and transformers. System losses decreased by 15%, and
the power factor improved from 0.85 to 0.95.
4. Evaluation Criteria:
o Voltage Stability: Assess whether voltage levels remained within permissible limits
during various load conditions.
o System Losses: Compare the reduction in power losses before and after
compensation.
o Power Quality: Measure the improvement in power factor and reduction in voltage
fluctuations.
o Cost-Effectiveness: Analyze the cost of installing and operating reactive power
compensation devices versus the economic benefits of improved system
performance and reduced downtime.

Results:

• Voltage Stability: The grid maintained a stable voltage profile, avoiding dips below 0.98 pu
even during peak demand periods.
• System Losses: Losses reduced by 15%, indicating more efficient power delivery due to
local compensation of reactive power.
• Power Quality: Power factor improvement (from 0.85 to 0.95) minimized penalties from
industrial customers and enhanced the overall performance of the grid.
• Cost-Effectiveness: The investment in reactive power compensation was justified by a
reduction in operational costs, fewer equipment failures, and improved energy efficiency
across the industrial zone.

ACTIVITY 7: QUIZ 3

Question 1: Match the reactive power compensation method with its primary function

1. Shunt Capacitors
2. Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
206
 3. Synchronous Condenser

Matches:

• Static VAR Compensator (SVC) → Provides dynamic adjustment of reactive power to

stabilize voltage in real-time.
• Shunt Capacitors → Improves power factor and provides steady local reactive power
support.
• Synchronous Condenser → Acts like a rotating generator to maintain voltage stability,
especially during large load variations.

Question 2: Match the problem with the solution from the case study

1. Voltage dips below 0.95 pu during peak demand

2. High system losses due to reactive power flow
3. Poor power factor (0.85) at industrial loads

Matches:

• Voltage dips below 0.95 pu during peak demand → Utilizing Static VAR Compensators
(SVCs) to respond to real-time voltage changes.
• High system losses due to reactive power flow → Installation of shunt capacitors at
substations to provide local reactive power.
• Poor power factor (0.85) at industrial loads → Connecting synchronous condensers to
maintain voltage stability during high demand periods.

Question 3: Match the impact of reactive power compensation with the corresponding
result

1. Voltage Profile
2. Power Losses
3. Power Factor

Matches:

• Voltage Profile → Improved to between 0.98 - 1.02 pu, staying within acceptable limits
during peak hours.
• Power Losses → Reduced by 15% due to localized reactive power support.
• Power Factor → Increased from 0.85 to 0.95, improving overall power quality.

Question 4: Match the evaluation criteria with the relevant metric or outcome

207
 1. System Losses
2. Voltage Stability
3. Cost-Effectiveness
4. Power Quality

Matches:

• System Losses → 15% reduction in transmission losses due to local reactive power
compensation.
• Voltage Stability → Voltage remained stable between 0.98 pu to 1.02 pu even during peak
demand periods.
• Cost-Effectiveness → Investment justified through reduced downtime and lower operational
costs.
• Power Quality → Power factor improved from 0.85 to 0.95, reducing penalties for industrial
customers.

Question 5: Match the key concept with its definition

1. Reactive Power Compensation

2. Voltage Stability
3. Power Factor
4. System Losses

Matches:

• Reactive Power Compensation → The process of managing reactive power to improve

voltage stability and reduce losses in the power system.
• Voltage Stability → The ability of the power system to maintain acceptable voltage levels
under normal and peak load conditions.
• Power Factor → The ratio of real power used by the load to the apparent power in the
system, indicating efficiency.
• System Losses → The energy lost due to resistance in transmission lines and inefficient
power delivery.

Question 6: Match the equipment with the benefit it provides

1. Shunt Capacitors
2. Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
3. Synchronous Condenser

Matches:

• Shunt Capacitors → Increases power factor by providing local reactive power

compensation.
• Static VAR Compensator (SVC) → Adjusts reactive power dynamically to prevent voltage
dips during peak load periods.

208
 • Synchronous Condenser → Provides voltage stability during high-demand periods by acting
like a rotating generator.

Question 7: Match the potential problem with its outcome before compensation was
installed

1. Insufficient Reactive Power

2. Voltage Dips
3. Low Power Factor
4. High System Losses

Matches:

• Insufficient Reactive Power → Overloaded transmission lines and voltage fluctuations

across the grid.
• Voltage Dips → Equipment malfunctions and instability during peak demand hours.
• Low Power Factor → Increased penalties and inefficient energy use by industrial customers.
• High System Losses → Higher operational costs and reduced efficiency in power delivery.

Question 8: Match the scenario with the correct type of reactive power compensation
method

1. A large industrial load experiences real-time voltage fluctuations.

2. A transmission line has consistently low power factor due to long-distance reactive power
flow.
3. A power grid needs support to maintain voltage stability during peak demand.

Matches:

• A large industrial load experiences real-time voltage fluctuations. → Static VAR

Compensator (SVC).
• A transmission line has consistently low power factor due to long-distance reactive power
flow. → Shunt Capacitors.
• A power grid needs support to maintain voltage stability during peak demand. →
Synchronous Condenser.

REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER

READING
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 9. J. Fuller, P. Obiomon, S.I. Abood (2023). Power System Operation, Utilization and
Control. Chapter 4, Page 87-112

TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION

You’ve taken a significant step toward mastering one of the most crucial aspects of
modern power systems. Voltage stability and reactive power management are the
backbone of a reliable and efficient electrical grid. By understanding these
principles, you are now equipped to tackle real-world challenges that power
engineers face every day.

WHAT’S NEXT?
MODULE 9: AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL

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MODULE 9: AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL

INSTRUCTIONAL HOURS: 4

MODULE OVERVIEW
In this module, you will explore the critical role of Automatic Generation Control
(AGC) in ensuring the stability and efficiency of modern power systems. AGC plays a
key role in maintaining system frequency and power balance across interconnected
grids, especially as power demands fluctuate and renewable energy sources are
integrated into the grid. You will begin by understanding the components and
functions of the Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC) and Automatic Voltage
Regulator (AVR) loops, which regulate real power and reactive power, respectively.
These systems ensure that frequency remains stable and voltage is controlled within
permissible limits under varying operating conditions. As you progress, you will analyze
the challenges posed by the intermittency and low inertia of renewable energy
sources, such as wind and solar, and how these factors impact frequency control.
The module will examine how AGC compensates for these fluctuations to maintain
grid stability.

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 LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Explain the principles and purpose of Automatic Generation
Control (AGC) in interconnected grids.
2. Describe the functions and components of the Automatic
Load Frequency Control (ALFC) and Automatic Voltage
Regulator (AVR) loops in a power system.
3. Analyze the impact of renewable energy intermittency and
low inertia on frequency control
4. Evaluate the effectiveness of AGC in maintaining grid
stability under varying load conditions and integrating
renewable energy sources.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES/TASK LIST

1. Watch Lecture Video
2. Review power presentation PDF
3. Watch lecture related videos
4. Complete participation assignment: Quiz 1
5. Complete personal introduction video
6. Review concept assignment : Quiz 2

INTRODUCTION TO LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL

ACTIVITY 1: READING MATERIAL

The main objective of power system operation and control is to ensure the
continuous supply of electricity with an acceptable quality to all consumers.
This requires keeping the power system in equilibrium by balancing the power
demand with the power generated. In an AC power system, power has two
components: real power and reactive power. Therefore, achieving both real
power balance and reactive power balance is critical for stable and efficient
system operation.
Key Concepts:
• Real Power Balance (Frequency Control): This balance ensures that the
system frequency remains stable and within acceptable limits. When

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 there is an imbalance between the real power demand and supply, the
frequency will deviate, potentially causing instability in the system.
• Reactive Power Balance (Voltage Control): This ensures the voltage
levels across the system are maintained within acceptable ranges.
Reactive power affects the system’s voltage profile, and an imbalance
can lead to voltage instability.
To achieve these balances, two fundamental control mechanisms are used:
1. Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR): Responsible for maintaining the
reactive power balance, ensuring that the voltage profile across the
power system remains stable.
2. Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC) or Automatic Generation
Control (AGC): Used to maintain the real power balance, ensuring that
the system frequency remains within permissible limits despite changes in
load demand.
These controls work together to ensure the overall stability, reliability, and
efficiency of power system operations.

GENERATOR SPEED CONTROL

ACTIVITY 2: VIDEO 1
Please watch the video below on generator speed droop in power systems. Take
notes as you watch the video.

VIDEO 1 (Speed Droop in power Control)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sQ-AT1WdT3M

ACTIVITY 2: READING MATERIAL

GENERATOR SPEED CONTROL

This video script gives a fascinating glimpse into the world of electricity generation and power
grid operation, specifically highlighting the concept of Speed Droop and its critical role in grid
stability.
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Key Points from the Video:

1. Importance of Electricity: Electricity powers nearly every aspect of modern life, from
lighting our homes to operating complex transportation and industrial systems.
2. The Power Grid: Known as the largest machine ever built, the power grid allows the
synchronized generation and distribution of electricity across vast distances.
3. Speed Droop: A mechanism that allows multiple generators to operate together in sync
within the grid, preventing instability in power output.
4. Governors in Power Turbines: Governors control the speed and torque of turbines by
adjusting the fuel supply, ensuring that generators produce the correct power output.
5. Isochronous vs. Synchronous Control:
o Isochronous Mode: Suitable for a single generator, like cruise control in a car, it
adjusts power output to maintain a constant speed regardless of load changes.
o Synchronous Mode: Used in the power grid where multiple generators must work
together. Without Speed Droop, generators would constantly "fight" each other,
causing instability.
6. Speed Droop Function:
o Allows the reference speed of a generator to reduce as load increases, enabling
multiple generators to respond to grid demands collectively without destabilizing
each other.
7. Regulation of Droop Settings: Electrical generation and transmission companies ensure
grid stability by regulating generator governors and droop settings, with specific rules for
plants above 10 MW to maintain a 5% droop setting.

Takeaway:

Speed Droop is vital for ensuring that thousands of generators connected to the grid can collectively
and efficiently manage power output in response to changing demands. Without it, the power grid
could not function as the reliable backbone of modern energy infrastructure.

This understanding highlights the complexity behind the scenes of electricity generation and the
importance of well-regulated systems for ensuring that we enjoy a seamless and stable power
supply.

ACTIVITY 3: QUIZ 1

Question 1: Match the concept with its description

1. Speed Droop
2. Governor
3. Isochronous Control
4. Synchronous Control

Matches:

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 • Governor → A system that regulates the speed of a turbine by adjusting the fuel supply to
control the power output.
• Speed Droop → A function that reduces the reference speed of a generator as the load
increases, allowing multiple generators to operate in parallel.
• Isochronous Control → A mode where a generator maintains a constant speed regardless of
load variations, suitable for a single generator.
• Synchronous Control → A control mode used when multiple generators are connected to the
same grid bus, requiring coordination to avoid instability.

Question 2: Match the problem with the solution involving Speed Droop control

1. Instability when multiple generators operate together

2. Overshooting or undershooting in power output due to uncoordinated generators
3. Maintaining system frequency in a power grid under varying load conditions

Matches:

• Instability when multiple generators operate together → Use of Speed Droop to ensure
generators work in harmony without fighting each other.
• Overshooting or undershooting in power output due to uncoordinated generators → Speed
Droop moderates the response of each generator to prevent over-correction.
• Maintaining system frequency in a power grid under varying load conditions → Governors
with Speed Droop adjust the generator speed to stabilize frequency under load variations.

Question 3: Match the analogy to the control mechanism

1. Car in cruise control

2. Two engines in a car trying to control speed simultaneously
3. Water supply to a hydroelectric turbine

Matches:

• Car in cruise control → Isochronous Control: The generator maintains a constant speed like
cruise control in a car.
• Two engines in a car trying to control speed simultaneously → Synchronous Control
without Speed Droop: Leads to instability if both try to adjust speed independently.
• Water supply to a hydroelectric turbine → Governor: Regulates the fuel (water) to control
the speed of the turbine.

Question 4: Match the term with its role in Speed Droop control

1. Torque
2. Load
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 3. Reference Speed
4. Fuel Supply

Matches:

• Torque → The force produced by the turbine that drives the generator to produce electrical
power.
• Load → The demand for electricity that affects how much power a generator must supply.
• Reference Speed → The target speed of a generator, which can be adjusted based on load
via Speed Droop.
• Fuel Supply → The energy input (e.g., water in hydro turbines or fuel in thermal plants) that
the governor adjusts to control generator speed.

Question 5: Match the regulatory guideline to its requirement

1. NERC guideline for large generators

2. Power plant generators over 10 MW
3. Standard Speed Droop setting in power plants

Matches:

• NERC guideline for large generators → All generators equal to or above 10 MW must have
functioning governors.
• Power plant generators over 10 MW → Must have Speed Droop enabled for stable grid
operation.
• Standard Speed Droop setting in power plants → Set at 5% for effective coordination
among multiple generators.

AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL

ACTIVITY 4: VIDEO 2
Please watch the video below on automatic generation control (AGC) power in
power systems. Take notes as you watch the video.

VIDEO 2 (Automatic Generation Control in power systems)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o-5MSGB6HrI

Automatic Generation Control (AGC) in Power Systems

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Definitions:

• Automatic Generation Control (AGC): A system used in power systems to control the
power output of generators in response to changes in load demand. AGC adjusts the real
power (active power) output to maintain the system frequency and tie-line power exchanges
between interconnected areas at desired levels.
• Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR): A control system that regulates the terminal voltage
of a generator by adjusting the excitation of the generator. It controls the reactive power
output and voltage profile of the system.
• Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC): A control mechanism that regulates the
system frequency by adjusting the real power output of the generator. It ensures that power
demand and supply are balanced to maintain the system frequency within permissible limits.

Functions of AVR and ALFC Loops:

• AVR Loop (Voltage Control):

o The AVR loop controls the reactive power output of the generator to maintain a
stable voltage level at the generator terminals.
o By adjusting the excitation of the generator, the AVR ensures that voltage
fluctuations caused by load changes are corrected.
• ALFC Loop (Frequency Control):
o The ALFC loop is responsible for controlling the real power output of the generator
to maintain system frequency. This loop ensures that changes in load demand are
matched by appropriate adjustments in generation.
o It operates by controlling the governor mechanism of the turbine, which adjusts the
fuel supply to maintain the desired power output.

Why Voltage Control Does Not Affect Frequency Control in a Generator:

In power systems, voltage control and frequency control are handled separately because they affect
different aspects of power generation. This decoupling ensures that adjustments made to voltage do
not interfere with frequency stability, and vice versa.

Separation of Real and Reactive Power

• Real Power (Active Power) affects the frequency of the system. It is controlled by
adjusting the mechanical power input to the turbine, which influences the rotational speed of
the generator. This is managed by the Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC) loop.
• Reactive Power affects the voltage of the system. It is controlled by adjusting the
generator’s excitation (the field current) to maintain the terminal voltage at a desired level.
This is managed by the Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) loop.

These two controls act independently because of the different effects that real and reactive power
have on the system. This is fundamentally due to the decoupling between mechanical and electrical
dynamics in AC power systems.

The Role of Time Constants

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The time constants of the voltage control (AVR) and frequency control (ALFC) systems differ
significantly, which further explains why voltage control does not affect frequency control.

1. AVR (Voltage Control) Time Constant:

o Voltage control in a generator responds very quickly to changes in system
conditions. The AVR loop, which adjusts the generator excitation, operates with a
small time constant (on the order of milliseconds).
o This fast response ensures that the voltage level at the generator terminals is
maintained despite rapid changes in the reactive power demand. Since the AVR
reacts so quickly, it corrects voltage fluctuations before they can affect the
frequency.
2. ALFC (Frequency Control) Time Constant:
o Frequency control, on the other hand, involves adjusting the mechanical power
input by changing the fuel supply to the turbine. This process is much slower than
voltage control because of the larger mechanical time constant (on the order of
seconds).
o Changes in load require adjustments to the generator’s rotational speed, which takes
more time due to the inertia of the rotating mass (turbine and generator). The ALFC
loop controls this adjustment slowly enough that any changes in voltage do not
influence the frequency control process.

How Time Constants Contribute to Decoupling

Because the AVR has a very short time constant, it reacts quickly to changes in reactive power
demand without affecting the slower ALFC, which has a much longer time constant. This
difference in time response between the two systems helps to ensure that voltage control does not
affect frequency control.

• Voltage control (AVR) responds immediately to variations in the reactive power demand,
stabilizing the voltage within milliseconds. Since it works so quickly, the system frequency
(which changes more slowly) is unaffected.
• Frequency control (ALFC) operates on a slower timescale, adjusting the real power output
in response to load variations. Since voltage fluctuations are corrected almost instantly by
the AVR, the ALFC loop can focus exclusively on balancing the real power to maintain
frequency.

AVR Block Diagram:

The AVR block diagram consists of the following components:

• Reference Voltage: Sets the desired terminal voltage.

• Voltage Sensor: Measures the actual terminal voltage of the generator.
• Error Detector: Compares the reference voltage with the actual terminal voltage and
generates an error signal.
• Exciter: Amplifies the error signal and adjusts the excitation of the generator (field current)
to correct the voltage.
• Generator: The machine whose terminal voltage is controlled by the exciter.
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Working Principle:

• The error signal, which is the difference between the reference voltage and the actual
voltage, is fed to the exciter. The exciter adjusts the field current of the generator, increasing
or decreasing the terminal voltage to match the reference voltage. This loop continues to
regulate voltage in response to system conditions.

ALFC Block Diagram:

The ALFC block diagram consists of:

• Frequency Set Point: Represents the desired system frequency (typically 50 Hz or 60 Hz).
• Frequency Sensor: Measures the actual system frequency.
• Error Signal: The difference between the desired frequency and the actual frequency.
• Governor: Controls the fuel input to the turbine.
• Turbine: Converts fuel input into mechanical power to drive the generator.
• Generator: Converts mechanical power into electrical power, contributing to real power
output.

Working Principle:

• The ALFC loop detects deviations in system frequency. If the frequency deviates from the
set point, an error signal is generated and sent to the governor. The governor adjusts the fuel
supply to the turbine to either increase or decrease power output, thereby bringing the
frequency back to the desired level.

ACTIVITY 5: QUIZ 2

Question 1: Match the concept with its description

1. Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC)

2. Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
3. Real Power
4. Reactive Power

Matches:

• Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC) → Controls the real power output to maintain
system frequency within acceptable limits.
• Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) → Controls the generator’s excitation to maintain a
stable voltage at the terminals.
• Real Power → Power associated with the mechanical energy conversion, affecting the
frequency of the system.
• Reactive Power → Power associated with maintaining voltage levels, controlled by
adjusting the generator’s excitation.
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Question 2: Match the component with its role in the AVR or ALFC loop

1. Governor
2. Exciter
3. Frequency Sensor
4. Voltage Sensor

Matches:

• Governor → Adjusts the fuel supply to the turbine, controlling the real power output and
thus the frequency.
• Exciter → Controls the field current of the generator to maintain the terminal voltage by
adjusting reactive power.
• Frequency Sensor → Measures the actual system frequency to compare with the reference
frequency in the ALFC loop.
• Voltage Sensor → Measures the generator terminal voltage to compare with the reference
voltage in the AVR loop.

Question 3: Match the scenario with the control loop responsible for handling it

1. A sudden drop in system frequency due to increased load demand

2. Voltage fluctuations caused by reactive power imbalance
3. Maintaining frequency stability during load changes
4. Adjusting the generator’s terminal voltage to keep it within permissible limits

Matches:

• A sudden drop in system frequency due to increased load demand → ALFC

• Voltage fluctuations caused by reactive power imbalance → AVR
• Maintaining frequency stability during load changes → ALFC
• Adjusting the generator’s terminal voltage to keep it within permissible limits → AVR

Question 4: Match the term with its role in AGC

1. Set Point
2. Error Signal
3. Governor
4. Tie-Line Power Exchange

Matches:

• Set Point → The desired value for system frequency or voltage in the control loops.

220
 • Error Signal → The difference between the set point and the actual measured value, used to
adjust the system output.
• Governor → Controls the mechanical input to the turbine to adjust the real power output and
maintain frequency.
• Tie-Line Power Exchange → The power exchanged between interconnected areas, regulated
by AGC to maintain the scheduled balance.

Question 5: Match the block in the block diagram to its function in the AVR/ALFC
loops

1. Exciter
2. Error Detector
3. Generator
4. Governor

Matches:

• Exciter → Regulates the field current to control terminal voltage (AVR loop).
• Error Detector → Compares the reference value to the actual value and generates the error
signal.
• Generator → Produces electrical power based on the mechanical input and excitation,
affected by both real and reactive power.
• Governor → Adjusts the fuel supply to regulate real power output and maintain frequency
(ALFC loop).

Question 6: Match the control type with the power it regulates

1. AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator)

2. ALFC (Automatic Load Frequency Control)
3. Voltage Control
4. Frequency Control

Matches:

• AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator) → Regulates reactive power to maintain voltage

stability.
• ALFC (Automatic Load Frequency Control) → Regulates real power to maintain frequency
stability.
• Voltage Control → Ensures that the terminal voltage remains within permissible limits.
• Frequency Control → Maintains system frequency by adjusting the generator’s real power
output.

Question 7: Match the factor with its effect on power control

1. Real Power
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 2. Reactive Power
3. Mechanical Power Input
4. Excitation System

Matches:

• Real Power → Affects system frequency, controlled by the mechanical power input (via
ALFC).
• Reactive Power → Affects voltage levels, controlled by the excitation system (via AVR).
• Mechanical Power Input → Regulates the real power output, influencing frequency control.
• Excitation System → Regulates the field current in the generator, influencing voltage
control.

Question 8: Match the explanation with the phenomenon

1. AVR does not affect frequency control because...

2. ALFC does not affect voltage control because...
3. AVR reacts quickly because...
4. ALFC responds more slowly because...

Matches:

• AVR does not affect frequency control because... → It controls reactive power, which
affects voltage, not real power.
• ALFC does not affect voltage control because... → It adjusts real power, which influences
frequency but not voltage.
• AVR reacts quickly because... → It has a short time constant, adjusting the excitation
system in milliseconds.
• ALFC responds more slowly because... → It adjusts mechanical power input, which
involves the inertia of rotating machines and has a longer time constant.

ACTIVITY 6: CASE STUDY

Case Study: Automatic Generation Control (AGC) in the Indian National Grid

Background

The Indian National Grid is one of the largest synchronous power grids in the world, serving over
1.4 billion people with an interconnected capacity of more than 400 GW. The grid integrates
multiple regions (Northern, Eastern, Western, Southern, and North-Eastern) and connects a variety
of energy sources, including coal, hydroelectric, nuclear, and renewable power.

222
Given the large size and complexity of the system, Automatic Generation Control (AGC) plays a
critical role in maintaining frequency stability and balancing power generation with varying load
demands across the country.

Problem

India’s power grid experiences significant frequency deviations due to fluctuating load demands
and the increasing integration of renewable energy sources, which are inherently variable.
Historically, the grid faced issues of frequency instability, particularly during peak load periods,
leading to voltage dips, blackouts, and grid imbalances. Managing power flows between regions
and ensuring that generation matches demand in real time was a major challenge.

In addition, India’s renewable energy capacity has been rapidly increasing, contributing to
variability in power supply. The grid needed a system that could manage these fluctuations
effectively, particularly in balancing supply-demand variations across different regions.

Solution: Implementing AGC in the Indian Grid

To tackle this issue, the Power System Operation Corporation (POSOCO), which operates the
Indian national grid, implemented Automatic Generation Control (AGC) at key power plants
across the country. The AGC system automatically adjusts the output of participating generators to
maintain the system frequency within strict limits.

1. AGC Pilot Project: In 2017, India launched a pilot AGC project at the Dadri Stage-II
thermal power station in Uttar Pradesh, with an installed capacity of 1,820 MW. This
project aimed to demonstrate how AGC could improve real-time control of power
generation in response to frequency variations and load changes.
2. System Operation:
o Real-Time Data Monitoring: Using Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) systems, real-time grid data (such as system frequency and tie-line power
exchanges) is monitored continuously.
o Frequency Control: When the system frequency deviates from the desired value
(typically 50 Hz), the AGC automatically signals participating power plants to either
increase or decrease their power output. This adjustment happens in real time, based
on the frequency deviation and the load demand.
o Inter-Regional Power Transfers: AGC also helps balance power flows between
different regions of the grid. For example, if the Southern region has a shortage of
power, the AGC system adjusts generation in other regions (such as the Northern or
Eastern regions) to export power to the deficit area, maintaining balance.
3. ALFC (Automatic Load Frequency Control) Operation:
o In response to changes in load demand, the ALFC mechanism within the AGC
adjusts the real power output of generators to stabilize the system frequency. It
adjusts the mechanical power input to the turbines in participating plants to restore
the frequency to its nominal value.
o For example, during periods of high demand (such as during peak consumption
times), the ALFC component increases the output of the participating generators,
ensuring that the frequency stays close to 50 Hz.
4. AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator) Integration:

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 o To maintain voltage stability across the network, AVRs are installed in each
participating generator. The AVR ensures that the reactive power supply is adjusted
to maintain terminal voltage, preventing voltage instability, while the AGC system
focuses on maintaining frequency through real power control.

Results

• Improved Frequency Stability: With AGC in place, frequency deviations in the Indian
grid were significantly reduced. The system now maintains a frequency closer to the
nominal 50 Hz, which has improved the reliability of the grid and reduced the risk of
blackouts.
• Seamless Renewable Integration: AGC has made it easier to integrate renewable energy
sources such as wind and solar into the grid. By responding quickly to fluctuations in
renewable energy generation, the AGC system helps maintain grid balance despite the
inherent variability of these energy sources.
• Interregional Power Transfers: AGC has improved the efficiency of power transfers
between regions, reducing congestion in transmission lines and ensuring that areas with
surplus power can quickly supply areas with power deficits.
• Economic Benefits: The AGC system optimizes generation and minimizes the need for
costly emergency measures, such as load shedding or purchasing expensive power from
short-term markets.

ACTIVITY 7: QUIZ 3

Question 1: Match the problem with the solution provided by AGC

1. Frequency deviations due to fluctuating loads

2. Challenges integrating variable renewable energy sources
3. Imbalances in inter-regional power transfers
4. Risk of blackouts during peak load times

Matches:

• Frequency deviations due to fluctuating loads → AGC adjusts real-time

generation output to maintain system frequency close to 50 Hz.
• Challenges integrating variable renewable energy sources → AGC helps balance
the grid by quickly responding to fluctuations in renewable energy generation.
• Imbalances in inter-regional power transfers → AGC balances generation
between regions to manage power flows efficiently.
• Risk of blackouts during peak load times → AGC ensures that generation meets
demand in real-time, reducing the likelihood of blackouts.

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Question 2: Match the component of the power system with its role in the AGC process

1. ALFC (Automatic Load Frequency Control)

2. AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator)
3. SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition)
4. Governor

Matches:

• ALFC (Automatic Load Frequency Control) → Regulates real power output to

maintain frequency stability.
• AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator) → Maintains voltage stability by controlling
reactive power output of generators.
• SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) → Monitors real-time data
such as frequency and power flows across the grid.
• Governor → Adjusts mechanical power input to the turbine to regulate real power
output and control frequency.

Question 3: Match the benefit with its outcome from implementing AGC in the Indian
National Grid

1. Improved frequency stability

2. Easier renewable energy integration
3. Enhanced interregional power transfers
4. Economic benefits

Matches:

• Improved frequency stability → The system maintains a frequency closer to the

nominal 50 Hz, reducing the risk of instability.
• Easier renewable energy integration → AGC balances fluctuations in renewable
generation by adjusting other generators to meet load demand.
• Enhanced interregional power transfers → AGC ensures efficient power flows
between regions, reducing transmission congestion.
• Economic benefits → AGC reduces the need for costly emergency measures and
optimizes generation efficiency.

Question 4: Match the system operation with the correct mechanism involved

1. Real-time generation adjustment based on frequency

2. Voltage control at generator terminals
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 3. Monitoring of system-wide data like frequency and power flows
4. Adjusting power flows between regions to maintain balance

Matches:

• Real-time generation adjustment based on frequency → ALFC

• Voltage control at generator terminals → AVR
• Monitoring of system-wide data like frequency and power flows → SCADA
• Adjusting power flows between regions to maintain balance → AGC

Question 5: Match the term with the correct description from the case study

1. Tie-Line Power Exchange

2. Load Shedding
3. Governor Response
4. Grid Frequency

Matches:

• Tie-Line Power Exchange → Power transferred between interconnected regions,

regulated by AGC to maintain balance.
• Load Shedding → A last-resort measure to reduce demand when generation is
insufficient, minimized by AGC.
• Governor Response → Adjusts the mechanical power input to the turbine,
controlling real power output in response to frequency deviations.
• Grid Frequency → A measure of system stability, maintained close to 50 Hz by
AGC and ALFC.

Question 6: Match the challenge related to renewable energy with its impact on
frequency control

1. Intermittency of renewable energy sources

2. Low inertia of renewable energy sources
3. Rapid changes in generation from renewables

Matches:

• Intermittency of renewable energy sources → Leads to unpredictable fluctuations in

generation, making frequency control more difficult.
• Low inertia of renewable energy sources → Increases the speed and magnitude of frequency
deviations due to the lack of rotational mass in generators.
• Rapid changes in generation from renewables → Requires quick adjustments in
conventional power plants to maintain frequency stability.

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Question 7: Match the issue caused by low inertia with the corresponding effect on the
grid

1. Lack of rotational inertia in wind and solar energy

2. High reliance on renewable sources
3. Sudden drop in wind or solar generation

Matches:

• Lack of rotational inertia in wind and solar energy → Decreases the grid’s ability to
naturally resist frequency deviations.
• High reliance on renewable sources → Increases the frequency of large, rapid fluctuations in
system frequency.
• Sudden drop in wind or solar generation → Requires backup power sources to ramp up
quickly to avoid a frequency drop.

Question 8: Match the frequency control solution with the renewable energy challenge it
addresses

1. Use of fast-responding gas turbines

2. Energy storage systems
3. AGC systems tuned for rapid response

Matches:

• Use of fast-responding gas turbines → Compensates for sudden drops in renewable energy
generation by quickly increasing power output.
• Energy storage systems → Stores excess renewable energy and releases it during periods of
low generation to help stabilize frequency.
• AGC systems tuned for rapid response → Quickly adjusts generator output to compensate
for the variability of renewable energy sources.

REFERENCE LIST AND FURTHER

READING
10. J. Fuller, P. Obiomon, S.I. Abood (2023). Power System Operation, Utilization and
Control. Chapter 3, Page 55-76

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 TAKE HOME MESSAGE/SELF REFLECTION
Congratulations on completing the module on Automatic Generation Control
(AGC)!
You've gained valuable insights into the heart of modern power systems,
understanding how stability is maintained in the face of fluctuating demand and
renewable energy integration. AGC is not just a technical tool—it's a key enabler for
a reliable and sustainable energy future.

WHAT’S NEXT?
Congratulations on completing the Power Systems Operation and Control
course! Your understanding of the grid’s operation and control makes you a
vital part of ensuring energy stability and efficiency in modern society.

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