GEN. ED : MATHEMATICS | PROF: JOSEPH RANDOLPH P.

PALATTAO

LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS (LEPT)

Refresher Course

WHAT TO EXPECT
FOCUS: GENERAL EDUCATION
AREA: MATHEMATICS
LEPT Competencies:
1. Exhibit competence in mathematical concepts and procedures
2. Relate mathematics with the real and the concrete through problems that occur in daily
life

PREPARED BY: Mr. Joseph Randolph P. Palattao, LPT, MEd

PART I: Content Update

I. PROPERTIES OF NUMBERS
A. SETS OF NUMBERS

Real Numbers (R)

2 1
-9, −√6, − 3, 0, 1, 4, 𝜋, √21, 5

Rational Numbers (Q) Irrational Numbers (H)

2 1
-9, − 3, 0, 1, 4, 5 −√6, 𝜋, √21

Integers (Z) Non-Integers

… -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 2 1
- 3, 4
…

Negative Integers Whole Numbers (W)

… -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …

Zero Natural Numbers (N)

0 1, 2, 3, …

THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Set Definition

▪ All numbers that we encounter everyday

Real Numbers (R)
▪ Consist of rational and irrational numbers

a
▪ Numbers that can be expressed as the quotient or ratio of two integers a and b, represented as ,
b
where b ≠ 0
▪ Have a specific place on the number line.
▪ Can be written as terminating (e.g. 1.75, 2.5) or repeating decimals (e.g. 0.1111…, 2. 090909…)
Rational Numbers
(Q)
Subsets Definition

Natural Numbers (N) ▪ Consist of the numbers 1, 2, 3, ….

Whole Numbers (W) ▪ Consist of the natural numbers and zero

Integers ▪ Consist of the natural numbers, their negatives, and zero

Irrational Numbers ▪ Numbers that cannot be expressed as fractions
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(H) ▪ Have decimal representations that are non-terminating and non-repeating

B. THE ORDER OF OPERATIONS
When performing multiple operations, remember GEMDAS:
G Grouping symbols (brackets, braces, parentheses)
E Exponents
MD Multiply and divide from left to right
AS Add and subtract from left to right
C. NUMBER PROPERTIES

Property Definition Examples

▪ When we add or multiply any element in a set of 14 + 25 + 44 + 52 = 135
Closure Property numbers, the sum or product is a unique real number
which belongs to that same set. 23 x 14 x 10 = 3 220
33 + 10 = 10 + 33
▪ states that changing the position of the addends or
Commutative Property
the factors does not affect the sum or the product
18 x 9 = 9 x 18
▪ states that changing the grouping of addends in a sum (5 + 6) + 7 = 5 + (6 + 7)
Associative Property or the grouping of factors in a product does not
change the resulting sum or product 2 x (4 x 6) = (2 x 4) x 6
▪ The sum of any number and zero
Addition is the same number. 512 + 0 = 512
Identity Property ▪ 0 is the identity.
▪ The product of any number and
Multiplication one is the same number. 512 x 1 = 512
▪ 1 is the identity
Distributive Property of
▪ states that multiplication distributes over addition and 7(9 + 12) = 7(9) + 7(12)
Multiplication over Addition /
subtraction
Subtraction
II. NUMBER THEORY
A. DIVISIBILITY RULES

Divisible by Rule
2 If the number is an even number
3 If the sum of all individual digits in the number is divisible by 3
4 If the last two digits of the number is divisible by 4
5 If the last digit of the number is 0 or 5
6 If the number is even and is divisible by 3
Double the last digit. Subtract the doubled last digit from the number without the last digit. If
7
the difference is a multiple of 7, then it is divisible by 7.
8 If the last three digits of the number is divisible by 8
9 If the sum of the individual digits in the number is divisible by 9

10 If the last digit of the number is 0

11 If after subtracting and adding the digits successively the result is divisible by 11
B. FACTORS and MULTIPLES
❖ The factors of integer n are the positive integers that divide n evenly without remainder.
Example: factors of 24: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24
❖ The multiples of n are the integers that n divides without any remainder.
Example: multiples of 7: 7, 14, 21, 28, 35…
C. PRIME and COMPOSITE NUMBERS
❖ Prime Numbers – counting numbers that have exactly two distinct, positive divisors
Examples: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19 …

❖ Composite Numbers – counting numbers greater than 1 that have positive factors other than 1 and itself
Examples: 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16…
Prime Factorization
→ expressing a number as a product of factors, each of which is a prime number

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Methods in Finding the Prime Factors of a Given Number

Factor Tree Method Continuous Division Method

56
2 56
2 28
7 8
2 14
7
56 = 7 x 8 2 4
56 = 7 x 8
= 7 x (2 x 4)
2 2 = 7 x (2 x 4)
=7x2x2x2
=7x2x2x2
56 = 23 x 7
56 = 23 x 7

D. GCF and LCM

❖ Greatest Common Factor (GCF)
→ Refers to the largest common factor of two or more numbers
Ex: Find the GCF of 45 and 60.

METHODS
Intersection of Sets
For each of the given numbers, list their factors in ascending order, and pick out the factor that is common to
both lists.
Factors of 45 → {1, 3, 5, 9, 15, 45}
Factors of 60 → {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60}
Common Factors → {1, 3, 5, 15}
GCF → 15
Prime Factorization Repeated Division by Primes

45 → 3 ∙ 3 ∙ 5 3 45 60
60 → 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 5 5 15 20
3 4
GCF → 3 ∙ 5 = 15 The resulting quotients, 3 and 4 have no common factors.
Therefore, the GCF of 45 and 60 is the product of their common
factors:
(3)(5) = 15
GCF → 15
❖ Least Common Multiple (LCM)
→ Refers to the smallest number that two or more numbers will divide without remainder
Ex: Find the LCM of 18 and 20

METHODS
Intersection of Sets
For each of the given numbers, list their multiples in ascending order, and pick out the smallest non-zero
multiple that is common to both lists.
Multiples of 18 → {18, 36, 54, 72, 90, 108, 126, 144, 162, 180, 198…}
Multiples of 20 → {20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200}
Common Multiple → 180
LCM → 180

Prime Factorization Repeated Division by Primes

Write the prime factorization for each of the given
numbers in such a way that common, and only 2 18 20
common, prime factors are in the same column. The 2 9 10
LCM is the product of the highest powers occurring in 3 9 5
3 5
a column of any of the prime factorizations.
18 = 2 x 32
20 = 22 x x 5 LCM → 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 3 ∙ 5
22 x 32 x 5 = 180
→ 180

LCM → 180

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III. INTEGERS
❖ Integers – refer to the set of whole numbers and their opposites
❖ Absolute Value – the number of units a number is away from 0 in a number line
Ex: -7 = 7

❖ Integer Operations

Operation Like Signs Unlike Signs

Add the integers and keep the sign. Subtract the integers and take the sign of
the integer with the largest absolute value.
Addition

Examples: Examples:
5+3=8 7 + (-4) = 3
(-6) + (-10) = -16 (-9) + 4 = -5

Change the sign of the subtrahend, and then proceed to addition.

Subtraction

Examples:

4 – (-6) = 4 + 6 (-9) – (-5) = (-9) + 5

= 10 = -4

If the signs of the factors or If the signs are different, the

Multiplication

dividend/divisors are the same, the product/quotient is negative.

and Division

product/quotient is positive.
Examples: Examples:
(3)(7) = 21 (-9)(5) = -45
(-32) ÷ (-8) = 4 100 ÷ (-10) = -10

IV. FRACTIONS
❖ Fractions
a
→ A number whose value can be expressed as the quotient or ratio of any two numbers a and b, represented as ,
b
where b ≠ 0. It is a part of a whole or a set.

❖ Reducing Fractions to Lowest Terms

Divide the numerator and the denominator by its GCF.
18 6 3
Example: ÷6=4
24

❖ Conversions
Mixed Number to Improper Fraction Improper Fraction to Mixed Number
1. Multiply the denominator to the whole number. 1. Divide the numerator by the denominator.
2. Add the product to the numerator. 2. The quotient is the whole number for the mixed
3. The sum is the new numerator, then copy the same number.
denominator. 3. The remainder is the new numerator over the same
Example: denominator.
Example:
1 77
3 = (3 x 3) + 1 = 10 → new numerator = 77 ÷ 6 = 12 r. 5
3 6
1 10
3 = 77 5
3 3 = 12
6 6

❖ FRACTION OPERATIONS
A. Addition and Subtraction
a. Of Similar Fractions:
→ Just add/subtract the numerators and copy the denominator.
Examples:
2 4 6
+7=7
7
5 2 3
-8=8
8

b. Of Dissimilar Fractions:
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→ Convert the fractions to similar fractions by using the LCD (Least Common Denominator) to write
equivalent fractions. Then add/subtract the numerators and keep the denominators. Reduce to
lowest terms if necessary.
Examples:
The LCD of 5 and 6 is 30
3 1 18 + 5 23 30 ÷ 5 x 3 = 18
+ = =
5 6 30 30 30 ÷ 6 x 1 = 15

The LCD of 7 and 8 is 56

6 1 42 − 8 34 17 56 ÷ 8 x 6 = 42
- = = or
8 7 56 56 28 56 ÷ 7 x 1 = 8

B. Multiplication of Fractions
→ Simply multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators. Reduce the product to its lowest terms, if
necessary.
Example:
3 8 24
x =
4 9 36
24 12 2
÷ =
36 12 3
C. Division of Fractions
→ Take the first fraction and multiply it by the reciprocal of the second fraction.
Example:
5 3 5 2 10
÷ = x =
8 2 8 3 24
10 2 5
÷ =
24 2 12
❖ Complex Fractions
→ Fractions whose numerator and/or denominator is/are also fraction/s
→ To simplify these fractions, remember that the fraction bar means to divide. Rewrite the fraction as a division
problem and follow the procedure for dividing fractions.
Example:
8
Simplify 15 .
4
8
15 = 8 ÷ 4
4 15
8 1 8 2
= x = or
15 4 60 15
V. RATIO and PROPORTION

RATIO RATE PROPORTION

A comparison of two or more amounts Refers to a ratio whose two amounts An equation or statement that
or quantities, such as a and b, which represent different quantities expresses the equality of two ratios.
can be expressed in the following
a Examples: May be expressed as:
equivalent ways: a:b, a b ,
b 35 mi⁄h, 5 m⁄s a c
1) = , or
b d
2) a : b = c : d
In each form, b and c are called means,
and a and d are called extremes.

Extremes-Means Property:
→ In any proportion, the product of the means is equal to the product of the extremes.
a c
From = or a : b = c : d, we get ad = bc
b d

❖ Finding the Missing Terms of a Proportion

→ To find the missing term of a proportion, use the Extremes-Means Property and solve for the unknown.
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Example:
4 : x = 8 : 10

(8)(x) = (10)(4)
8x = 40
x = 5
❖ TYPES OF PROPORTIONS
A. DIRECT PROPORTION
→ As one quantity increases, the other also increases.

Example:
If 4 kg of mangoes cost as much as 3 kg of guavas, how many kg of mangoes would cost as much as 75 kg of
guavas?

Solution:
Equate the ratio of the terms in the first condition to the ratio of the terms in the second condition. So, we
have:

First Condition Second Condition

4 kg of mangoes = n kg of mangoes
3 kg of guavas 75 kg of guavas
Using the Extremes-Means Property, solve for the unknown.
(4 kg of mangoes)(75 kg of guavas)
n= 3 kg of guavas

n = 100
Answer: 100 kg of mangoes would cost as much as 75 kg of guavas.
B. INVERSE PROPORTION
→ As one quantity increases, the other quantity decreases, and vice versa.
Example:
If the food in a crate is sufficient to feed 15 castaways in 14 days, how many days would it last for 30 castaways?
Solution:
Equate the product of the terms in the first condition to the product of the terms of the second condition. So,
we have:
First Condition Second Condition
(15 castaways)(13 days) = (30 castaways)(n days)
(15 castaways)(14 days)
n= 30 castaways
n=7
Answer: The food supply will last for only 7 days for 30 castaways.
C. PARTITIVE PROPORTION
→ One quantity is being partitioned into different proportions.
Example:
A piece of wood 150 cm long is cut in the ratio 2 : 3 : 5. Find the measure of each part.
Solution:
1. Add the terms of the ratio. → 2 + 3 + 5 = 10
2. Divide the whole measure that was partitioned by the sum of the terms.
150 cm ÷ 10 = 15 cm
3. Multiply the quotient to each term of the ratio to find the measure of each part.
2 (15 cm) = 30 cm
3 (15 cm) = 45 cm
5 (15 cm) = 75 cm
Answer: The measures of the cut parts of wood are 30 cm, 45 cm, and 75 cm.
❖ APPLICATIONS INVOLVING RATIO and PROPORTION
A. SCALES
When working with scale models, the scale is often given as the ratio:
model measurement : actual measurement
Example:
If the scale model of a boat measures 6 inches and the model has a scale of 1:20, what is the actual
measurement of the boat?
model length 1 6
Solution: = 20 = x
actual length
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x = (6)(20) = 120
Answer: The actual measurement of the boat is 120 in., or 10 ft.
B. SIMILARITY
→ When figures have corresponding sides that are in proportion with one another and corresponding angles
with the same measure, the figures are similar.
Example:
Find the missing side of the larger triangle.
D Solution:
A
10 cm AB BC 10 6
15 cm = → =
DE EF 15 x
B C 10x = 90
6 cm
E F x=9
x
Answer: The measure of the missing side of the larger triangle is 9 cm.
VI. DECIMALS
A. CONVERSIONS

Decimal to Fraction or Mixed Number Fraction to Decimal Mixed Number to Decimal

Simply use the place value and then Simply divide the numerator by the Separate and keep the whole number
reduce to lowest terms, if necessary. denominator. part. Then convert the fractional part
to decimal.
Example: Example: Example:
3 3
18.6 = 18 + 0.6 6 18 5 = 18 + 5
= 6 ÷ 15
6 15 = 18 + (0.6)
= 18 + ( )
10 3
6 18 5 = 18.6
= 0.4
3 15
= 18 + ( )
5
3
18.6 = 18
5
B. DECIMAL OPERATIONS
a) Addition and Subtraction
→ Make sure to LINE UP the decimal points first. Add trailing zeroes if necessary to avoid careless mistakes. Then
perform the indicated operation.
b) Multiplication
Steps:
1. Multiply the numbers without regard to the decimal point to obtain a whole number product.
2. Count the number of digits that are to the right of the decimal point of BOTH factors.
3. Alter the whole number product to have the same number of digits to the right of the decimal point, as
counted in step 2.
c) Division
Steps:
1. Set up the long division problem.
2. Count how many digits there are to the right of the decimal point in the divisor.
3. Move the decimal point in the dividend with the amount from step 2.
4. Raise the newly placed decimal point up to the quotient.
5. Divide as usual, as if there were no decimal points.
VII. PERCENTS
❖ PERCENT (Literally meaning ‘per hundred’)
→ refers to a special ratio that compares a numerical quantity to 100.
❖ CONVERSIONS

Between Decimals and Percents Between Fractions and Percents

A. Percent to Decimal A. Percent to Fraction
x a
→ Remove the percent symbol (%) and move the → Use the proportion 100 = b, and cross-multiply to
decimal point two places to the left. solve for the variable x.

B. Decimal to Percent B. Fraction to Percent

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1.
Multiply the decimal by 100; or → Remove the percent symbol (%) and multiply the
2.
Move the decimal point two places to the right 1
number by 100.
and write a percent symbol.
❖ PERCENTAGE, BASE, and RATE

(“equals”) (indicates multiplication)

75 is 30% of 250.

Percentage (P) Rate (R) Base (B)

(the number usually before (the number usually in (the number usually before
or after the word “is”) “percent”) or after the word “of”)

P P
P=RxB R= B=
B R
❖ APPLICATIONS INVOLVING PERCENT
A. Percent Increase or Decrease
→ To increase a number by a certain percent, (1) add 100% to the given percent, (2) convert the sum to a
decimal, and (3) multiply the number by that decimal.
Example: increase 40 by 45%
Solution: 45% + 100% = 145% = 1.45
40 x 1.45 = 58
B. Simple Interest Rate
I → interest charged or paid out
I = Prt P → principal amount that is saved or borrowed
r → percentage rate written as a decimal
Example: t → time in years
If Cedric borrows P15,000 at an interest rate of 17% for 18 months, how much will he have paid in simple
interest at the end of the 18 months?

Solution:
P → P15,000 I = Prt
r → 17% I = (P15,000)(17%)(1.5)
t → 18 months = 1.5 years
I = P3,825

Answer: At the end of 18 months, Cedric will pay P3,825 in simple interest.
VIII. PLANE GEOMETRY
A. BASIC NOTIONS
LINEAR NOTIONS
Term Definition Illustration

Point An exact location in space A B

point A point B

m
A straight path of points that continues A B
Line line m, line AB or
infinitely in opposite directions
BA

l
D E F

G
Collinear
Points that lie on the same line
Points Line l contains points D, E, and F.
Points D, E, and F belong to line l.
Points D, E, and F are collinear.
Point D, E, and G are not collinear.

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Line A subset of a line that contains two points

of the line and all points between those X Y
Segment
two points

A subset of a line that contains the

Ray endpoint and all points on the line on one
side of the point M N

Midpoint
A point that separates a line segment into 3 cm 3 cm
two equal segments z
B

PLANAR NOTIONS
Term Definition Illustration

A flat surface that continues

Plane
infinitely in all directions

Plane ABCD

D
Coplanar Points Points that lie in the same plane
A
B
C

Coplanar Lines Lines that lie in the same plane Points A, B, and C are coplanar.
Points A, B, C, and D are noncoplanar.
Lines AB, BC, and AC are coplanar.

Two coplanar lines with exactly Lines AB and AC are intersecting lines. They
Intersecting Lines intersect at point A.
one point in common.

Lines that contain the same Lines AC, BC, and DC are concurrent.
Concurrent Lines
point
Lines AB and CD are skew lines.
Lines that do not intersect, and
Skew Lines there is no plane that contains
them
Two distinct coplanar lines that l
have no points in common and m
Parallel Lines
are always equidistant from
each other l is parallel to m, written as l  m.

Lines in the same plane that

Perpendicular Lines intersect at one point and form
four 90° angles

❖ ANGLES
→ An angle is formed by two distinct rays sharing the same endpoint.

a. Classification of Angles
Type of Angle Description
Acute Measure is between 0° and 90°
Right Measures exactly 90°
Obtuse Measure is between 90° and 180°
Straight Measures exactly 180°
Reflex Measure is between 180° and 360°
b. Special Angle Pair Relationships
Term Definition Illustration

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Complimentary Any two angles whose combined measures

Angles equal to 90°.

Supplementary Any two angles whose combined measures

Angles equal to 180°.

Formed when two lines intersect;

Two angles that share a common vertex but A transversal cuts through
Vertical Angles
share no common sides two parallel lines:
Ex: ∠1 ≅ ∠4; ∠6 ≅ ∠7
Two angles on the same side of the
Corresponding transversal, but one is in the interior of the
Angles parallel lines, the other on the exterior 1 2
Ex: ∠1 ≅ ∠5; ∠4 ≅ ∠8 3 4
Two angles on different sides of the
Alternate Interior transversal, both in the interior of the parallel 5 6
Angles lines 7 8
Ex: ∠3 ≅ ∠6; ∠4 ≅ ∠5
Two angles on different sides of the
Alternate Exterior transversal, both in the exterior of the parallel
Angles lines
Ex: ∠1 ≅ ∠8; ∠2 ≅ ∠7
B. POLYGONS
❖ Polygon
→ A simple and closed geometric figure which have sides that are line segments
→ A point where two sides of a polygon meet is a vertex.

❖ TRIANGLES

Name Definition Illustration

A triangle in which all the

Acute Triangle
angles are acute

According to A triangle containing one

Right Triangle
the Angle right angle
Measures
CLASSIFICATION

A triangle containing one

Obtuse Triangle
obtuse angle

A triangle with no
Scalene Triangle
congruent sides
According to
the Measures
of Sides
A triangle with at least two
Isosceles Triangle
congruent sides

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A triangle with three

Equilateral Triangle
congruent sides

➢ In any triangle, the sum of the measures of the angles is 180°.

➢ An exterior angle of a triangle is formed by extending a side of the triangle.

❖ QUADRILATERALS

Name Properties Illustration

Trapezoid ▪ At least one pair of sides are parallel.

▪ Two pairs of adjacent sides are equal.

Kite
▪ Only one pair of opposite angles are equal.

Isosceles
▪ Exactly one pair of sides are congruent.
Trapezoid

▪ Opposite sides are parallel and congruent.

Parallelogram ▪ Opposite angles are equal.
▪ Adjacent angles are supplementary.

▪ Opposite sides are parallel and equal.

Rectangle ▪ All 4 angles are right angles.
▪ Adjacent sides are perpendicular.

▪ All 4 sides are equal.

Rhombus ▪ Opposite sides are parallel.
▪ Opposite angles are equal.

▪ All 4 sides are equal.

Square ▪ Opposite sides are parallel.
▪ All 4 angles are right angles.
C.CIRCLES
❖ A circle is made up of all points in a plane that are the same distance from a given point in that plane, called
the center.
❖ The sum of all the central angles of any circle is 360°.
Related Terms Description
▪ Any line segment that joins a point on the circle to its center
Radius
▪ Half the length of the diameter
▪ Any line segment that passes through the center of a circle and has its
Diameter endpoints on the circle
▪ Twice the length of the radius
Chord ▪ Any line segment that has its endpoints on the circle
IX. MEASUREMENT

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PLANE FIGURES
Formula
Figure Name of Figure
Perimeter Area

w
Rectangle 2l + 2w lw

s Square 4s s2

b
a Parallelogram 2a + 2b bh
h

b1
a1 a2 b1 + b2
h Trapezoid a1 + a 2 + b 1 + b 2 ( )h
2
b2

s s Triangle s+s+s
1
bh
h 2

Circumference:
r
Circle πr2
2πr

SOLID FIGURES
Formula
Figure Name of Figure
Total Surface Area Volume

Rectangular Prism 2lw + 2wh + 2hl lwh

6e2
Cube e3
(e = edge)

Cylinder 2πr2 + 2πrh πr2h

s2 + 2sl
1
s = side of the base Bh
Pyramid 3
l = slant height of the (B = Area of the base)
pyramid

1
Cone πr2 + πrs πr2h
3

4 3
Sphere 4πr2 πr
3

❖ METRIC SYSTEM
Dimension
Prefix Equivalent
Length Capacity Mass
kilo- (k) 1000 meter liter gram
Greek
hecto- (h) 100 (m) (l) (g)

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deka- (da) 10
deci- (d) 1/10
Latin centi- (c) 1/100
milli- (m) 1/1000

❖ UNIT CONVERSIONS

Length: 1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in)

1 yard (yd) = 3 feet
1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet = 1760 yds
1 inch = 2.54 centimeters
1 foot = 0.3 meter
1 meter = 1.1 yards
1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Area: 1 sq. cm (cm2) = 100 sq. mm. (mm2)

1 sq. m (m2) = 10 000 sq. cm. (cm2)
1 hectare (ha) = 10 000 sq. m. (m2)

Mass: 1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces (oz)

1 ton = 2000 pounds
1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds

Time 1 minute (min) = 60 seconds (s) 1 leap yr = 366 d

1 hour (hr) = 60 minutes 1 decade = 10 yrs
1 day (d) = 24 hours 1 score = 20 yrs
1 week (wk) = 7 days 1 century = 100 yrs
1 year (yr) = 12 months = 365 d = 52 wks 1 millennium = 1000 yrs

Volume: 1 cubic cm (cm3) = 1000 cu. mm (mm3)

1 cu. meter (m3) = 1 000 000 cm3

Temperature: 0°C = freezing point of water

37°C = normal body temperature
100°C = Boiling point of water

❖ PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
→ In every right triangle, the sum of the squares of the legs is equal to the square of the hypotenuse.

c2
b2 Hypotenuse
→ Side that is opposite of
the right angle
Legs
→ sides of the a2
triangle that form
the right angle c2 = a2 + b2

X. PROBABILITY
A. SIMPLE PROBABILITY
→ The probability (P) of an event (E) is defined as:
Number of favorable outcomes
P(E) =
Total number of possible outcomes
Example:A gumball machine has 18 pieces remaining (6 blue, 5, yellow, 7, red).
6 1
The probability of getting a blue gumball is or .
18 3
B. COUNTING TECHNIQUES
a) PERMUTATION
→ refers to the number of possible arrangements for a given set of objects
Case 1: All of the objects are considered for each different arrangement
(nPn, read as “the permutation of n objects taken n at a time”)
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This is represented by this operation:

nPn =
n! (read as “n factorial”)
The factorial of a whole number is the product of that whole number and each of the natural numbers
less than the number.
n! = n x (n – 1) x (n – 2) x … x 1
Example: In how many ways can 6 books be placed on a shelf?
Solution: 6! = 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 720
Answer: There are 720 ways that 6 books can be placed on a shelf.
Case 2: Not all of the objects are considered for each different arrangement
(nPr, read as “the permutation of n objects taken r at a time”)
n!
nPr =
(n − r)!
Example: How many different arrangements of 5 students can be made in a row of 3 desks?
Solution:
n!
nPr =
(n − r)!
5! 5! 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1
5P 3 = → 5P 3 = = = 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3 = 60
(5 − 3)! 2! 2 ·1
Answer: There are 60 different arrangements of 5 students that can be made in a row of 3 desks.

b) COMBINATION
→ refers to the total number of groupings of a set of objects.
→ The order of the objects is not important when dealing with combinations.
n!
nCr =
(n − r)! r!
Example:
How many different 4-person committees can be formed from a total of 8 people?
Solution:
n!
nCr =
(n − r)! r!
8! 8! 8 · 7 · 6 ·5 · 4 · 3 · 2 ·1 8 · 7 · 6 ·5
8C4 = → = = = 70
(8 − 4)!4! 4!4! (4 · 3 · 2 ·1)(4 · 3 · 2 ·1) 4 · 3 · 2 ·1
Answer: There are 70 different 4-person committees that can be formed from 8 people.
XI. BASIC ALGEBRA
A. ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
❖ TRANSLATING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

Add (+) Subtract (-) Multiply (x) Divide (÷) Equal (=)
plus, sum, minus, times, multiplied divide by, is, result, total,
increased by, difference, by, product, of, quotient, into equal to
more than, decreased by,
exceeds less than,
reduced
Algebraic Expression – contains numbers, variables, and operations to state a relationship
Examples: 5, 7n, 3x + 2, x2+4x+4
Equation – two algebraic expressions set equal to each other
Example: 3x + 5 = x + 7
❖ EXPONENTS
Exponent or Power – the total number of times a base is used as a factor
a) Multiplying and Dividing Like Bases

Multiplication Division

When multiplying like bases, add the exponents: When dividing like bases, subtract the exponents:
xm · xn = xm+n xm
= xm-n
xn

Example: Example:
a3 · a2 = a3+2 = a5

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b5
= b5-2 = b3
𝑏2

b) Operations with Powers

Simply multiply the exponents: (xm)n = xmn
Raising a Power to a Power Example: (a2)3 = a(2)(3) = a6

Raise each base number and/or variable to that

exponent: (xmyn)t = xm·t yn·t
Raising a Product to a Power
Example: (4x2)3 = (41·3)(x2·3) = 64x6

Raise both numerator and denominator to that

exponent and simplify the expression:
x m xm
(y) = ym
Raising a Quotient/Fraction to a Power
3
22 22∙3 26 64
Example: ( b ) = = =
b3 b3 b3

c) Negative Exponents
1
To simplify an expression with negative exponents, remember that: x-m = xm
❖ POLYNOMIALS
a) Adding and Subtracting Polynomials
When adding and subtracting polynomials, only like terms can be combined.
Examples: 5z + 6z = 11z 18x2 - 8x2 = 10x2
b) Multiplying Polynomials
1. Monomial by a monomial
→ Multiply the coefficients and then follow the rules for multiplying the exponents for like bases.
Example:
2x3 ∙ 4x4

Solution:
2x3 ∙ 4x4 = (2)(4)∙(x3)(x4) = 8x7
2. Monomial by a Polynomial
→ Use the distributive property

Example:
3a2 (2a + 4)
Solution:
3a2 (2a + 4) = (3a2)(2a) + (3a2)(4)
= 6a3 + 12a2
3. Binomial by a Binomial
→ Use FOIL (First, Outer, Inner, Last)

Example: (x – 3)(x + 4) Terms Factors Product

First x∙x x2
(x – 3)(x + 4) = x2 + 4x – 3x – 12 Outer x∙4 4x
Inner -3 ∙ x -3x
= x2 + x – 12
Last -3 ∙ 4 -12

4. Any polynomial by a polynomial

→ Use the distributive property

Example: (2x – 1)(3x2 – 5x + 2)

Solution: (2x – 1)(3x2 – 5x + 2) = 6x3 – 10x2 + 4x - 3x2 + 5x – 2

= 6x3 – 13x2 + 9x – 2
❖ FACTORING
a) Using GCF
→ To find the GCF of any polynomial, look for common factors in the coefficients, and common
variables between each term.

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Example: Factor 4x4 + 12x3.

Solution: The GCF of 4x4 + 12x3.is 4x3, so factor out 4x3 from each term.
4x4 + 12x3 = 4x3 (x + 3)
b) Difference Between Two Perfect Squares
→ To factor the difference between two perfect squares, take the square root of each term. Then, express
the factors in the following form:
(x – a)(x + a)

Example: Factor x2 – 49.

c) Solution: x2 – 49 = (x – 7)(x + 7)Polynomials in the form ax2 + bx + c
→ When factoring any factorable polynomial in the form ax2 + bx + c, where a = 1, the constant terms of the
factors have a sum of b and a product of c. If the value of a 1, use the factors of c with trial-and-error to
find the factors.
Example: Factor x2 + 5x + 6

Solution: x2 + 5x + 6
a = 1, b = 5, c = 6
1. List the factors of 6 (c): 1 and 6, -1 and -6, 2 and 3, -2 and -3
2. Find the pair of factors that has a sum of 5 (b). Here that pair is 2 and 3.
3. Use the factors 2 and 3 as the second terms in the binomial factors.
(x + 2)(x + 3)

Answer: The factors of x2 + 5x + 6 are (x + 2)(x + 3).

d) Perfect Square Trinomials
→ Has two equal binomial factors; they have two forms and factored as follows:
x2 + 2ax + a2 = (x + a)2
2 2 2
x – 2ax + a = (x – a)

Example: Factor b2 – 10b + 25.

Solution: b2 – 10b + 25.= (b – 5)(b – 5)

e) = (b – 5)2Factoring Completely
→ To factor polynomials completely, the expression must be broken down into its smallest possible factors.
Steps:
1. Factor out the GCF, if it exists.
2. Factor the difference between two squares.
3. Factor the trinomial into two binomials (FOIL).
a
❖ RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS -Expressions that may involve constants and/or variables in the form b, where b ≠ 0.
a) Simplifying
→ When simplifying rational expressions, factor first and make sure to only cancel factors.
𝑥 2 − 𝑥−6
Example:
𝑥2 − 9

𝑥 2 − 𝑥−6 (x−3)(x+2)
Solution: =
𝑥2− 9 (x−3)(x+3)

(𝒙 + 𝟐)
= (𝒙 + 𝟑)
b) Adding and Subtracting
Steps:
1. Find a common denominator (LCD) by finding the smallest expression that each denominator will
divide into without a remainder.
2. When this denominator is found, multiply both the numerator and denominator of the rational
expressions by the missing factor needed to make the LCD.
3. Combine the expressions.
4. Keep the common denominator.

7x 4
Example: + x2
2x2
7x 4 7x 4∙2
Solution: + x2 = 2x2 +
2x2 2x2
7x 8
= 2x2 + 2x2
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7x + 8
c) = Multiplying and Dividing
2x2
Steps:
1. Factor each numerator and denominator of the fractions when possible.
2. Cancel out any common factors between the numerators and denominators.
3. Multiply across any remaining factors.
4. When dividing, simply take the reciprocal of the fraction being divided by and then multiply as
explained in steps (1) to (3).

2x - 4 4 - x2
Example: ÷
z 3z
2x - 4 x2 - 4 2x - 4 3z
Solution: ÷ = x
z 3z z x2 - 4
2(x – 2) 3z
= x (x - 2)(x + 2)
z
3
= 2 ∙ (x + 2)
6
= (x + 2)

B. ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
❖ Solving Equations
Here are the steps to ensure success when solving an equation:
1. Simplify each side of the equation separately:
▪ Apply the distributive property when needed.
▪ Combine like terms when needed.
2. Move the variable to one side of the equation.
3. Perform the inverse operations of either addition or subtraction.
4. Perform the inverse operations of multiplication or division.
5. Check your answer by substituting the value of the variable into the original equation.
Example 1: -2(x + 8) = 32
Solution:

-2(x + 8) = 32 Given

(-2 ∙ x) + (-2 ∙ 8) = 32 Apply the distributive property to get rid of the

-2x – 16 = 32 parentheses.

-2x – 16 + 16 = 32 + 16
Add 16 to both sides.
-2x = 48
-2x 48
= -2
-2
Divide both sides of the equation by -2.
x = -24
Check: Substitute in the equation the value of -24 for x:
-2(x + 8) = 32
-2(-24 + 8) = 32
-2(-16) = 32
32 = 32
Example 2: 4x – 6 – 7x = 27
Solution:

4x – 6 – 7x = 27 Given

4x – 7x – 6 = 27 Apply the commutative property.

-3x – 6 = 27 Combine like terms

-3x – 6 + 6 = 27 + 6
Add 6 to both sides of the equation
-3x = 33
-3x 33
= -3
-3
Divide both sides of the equation by -3.
x = -11
Check: Substitute in the equation the value of -24 for x:
4x – 6 – 7x = 27
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4(-11) – 6 – 7(-11) = 27
-44 – 6 +77 = 27
-50 + 77 = 27
27 = 27
C. SEQUENCES and SERIES
❖ Sequence
→ An ordered set whose elements consist of consecutive natural numbers
Types of Sequences:
1. ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION
→ a sequence of numbers in which the difference between any two successive terms is constant; the
constant difference is called the common difference (d)
Elements of an Arithmetic Progression:
a1 = the first term
an = general term
n = no. of terms
d = the common difference
Sn = sum of the first n terms
To find any term (nth term): an = a1 + (n – 1)d
To find the sum of n terms (Sn) of an arithmetic progression:
n
Sn =   (a1 + an)
2
→ a sequence of numbers in which the ratio of every pair of successive terms is constant; the constant ratio
is called the common ratio (r).

Elements of a Geometric Progression:

a1 = the first term
an = general/nth term
n = no. of terms
r = the common ratio
Sn = sum of the first n termsTo find any term (nth term): an = a1rn – 1
To find the sum of n terms (Sn) of a geometric progression:
(1 − r n )
Sn = a1 where r ≠ 1
(1 − r )
2. INFINITE GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION
→ A geometric progression with an infinite number of terms

To find the sum of n terms (Sn) of an infinite geometric progression:

a1
Sn = where │r│< 1
1− r
3. HARMONIC PROGRESSION
→ A sequence of numbers whose reciprocals form an arithmetic progression
Example:
AP: 2, 5, 8, 11, 14
1 1 1 1 1
HP: 2, 5, 8, 11, 14

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