Name: Group No.

Group Members Present

Year & Section:
Date Performed:
Date Submitted:

Experiment No. 1
MEASUREMENTS

Objective: To understand the relationship between the construction of a measuring

instrument and the precision of the measurements made with it.

Apparatus: meter stick, ruler (English and Metric scale), vernier caliper, micrometer
caliper, rectangular wooden block, metal cylinder, steel ball, measuring
cup (calorimeter), platform balance.

Theory:

Since Physics is a science based on accurate measurements, familiarity with

common measuring instruments is necessary. A measurement taken from a body or from
an object must have a corresponding number or unit. Unit involves three fundamental
concepts — length, mass and time— and that all the rest can be derived from these
showing the unity of physics.

The simplest method in measuring the length, the width and the thickness of an
object is the use of meterstick or ruler. The smallest accurate reading that can be obtained
from the meterstick is 0.1cm on the CGS scale and 1 8 in. on the English scale. Inaccurate
measurement occurs when estimating the fraction of the smallest division. To minimize
error in measurement, smallest reading must be taken.

For most measurements with a ruled scale, it is desirable to estimate fractions of

the smallest division on the scale. To increase the accuracy of the estimates, two
common scale attachments are introduced, the vernier scale and the micrometer screw.
Because of difficulty of holding a linear scale against a curved surface or against a
narrow width, calipers are used. A caliper is an instrument with two jaws, straight or

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curved used to determine the diameters of objects or the distances between two surfaces.
A caliper with a vernier scale is called a vernier caliper, a caliper with a micrometer
screw is called a micrometer caliper.

A vernier caliper (VC) is composed of main scale (MS) and a vernier scale (VS).
The MS divisions are in centimeters, or in degrees. The graduations on the vernier scale
are smaller than the main scale divisions. When the jaws of the caliper are closed, the
zero of the MS coincides with the zero of the VS.

The general principle of the VC is that a certain number “n” of divisions on the
VS is equal in length to a different number (usually one less) of MS divisions. In
symbol:

nV = ( n − 1) S

where: n is the number of divisions on the VS coinciding the MS

V is the length of smallest division on the VS
S is the length of the smallest MS divisions

The least count (LC) is applied to the smallest value that can be read directly from
a VS. It is equal to the difference between the length of the smallest MS division and
vernier division.

LC = S − V = 1
n ( S)

To make a measurement with this instrument, read the MS before zero of VS.
Consider this as your MS reading. Then note which vernier division coincides with the
mark on the MS. Multiply the number of the coinciding vernier mark by the LC to obtain
the frictional part of MS division. The indicated reading is equal to MS reading +
(number of the coinciding vernier mark with MS division x LC).

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Example:

VERNIER CALIPER

19 mm
S

0 10 20

0 2 4 10

V
n = 20
S = 1.0mm
19
V= = 0.95mm
20
LC = S - V = 1 - 0.95 = 0.05mm
or

(S) = (1) = 0.05mm

1 1
LC =
n 20

MS reading -= 11.0 mm

0 10 20

n=4

Indicated reading = MS reading + (number of the coinciding vernier

mark with MS division  LC)
= 11mm + (4  0.05)
= 11.20mm

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 A micrometer caliper is used for the precise measurement of small lengths. It
consists of a micrometer screw mounted in a strong frame. The object to be measured is
placed between the end of the screw and the projecting end of the frame called anvil.

The least count of a micrometer caliper is determined by dividing the pitch (P) by
the number (N) of circular scale division.
P
LC =
N
where:
N is the number of divisions on the circular scale (usually 50 divisions)
P(pitch) is the distance moved by the screw in one revolution = 0.50 mm

Note: In as much as it requires two revolutions of the screw to make it advance a

distance of 1mm, it is necessary to note whether the screw has advanced more or
less than one-half of a linear scale division).

In making measurements, the indicated reading is the sum of the initial reading on
the linear scale and the fractional reading. The fractional reading can be obtained by
multiplying the least count by the circular scale graduation coinciding the horizontal line
on the linear scale.

Examples:

a.
Initial Reading = 5.5 mm Circular Scale

0 5
Linear Scale

0
48.5

4.5

Indicated Reading = 5.50 mm + [0.010  48.5]

= 5.50 + 0.485
= 5.985 mm

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 b.
Initial Reading = 5.0 mm

0 5
25
23.2

20

Indicated Reading = 5.0 mm + [0.010  23.2]

= 5.0 mm + 0.232
= 5.232 mm

Procedures:

A. Meterstick/Ruler
1. Measure the length, width and thickness of the rectangular wooden block
at some intermediate mark in centimeters and in inches. Record your
readings. Repeat the measurement but this time, start the measurement at a
different mark on the meterstick/ruler. Make at least three measurements
at a different mark on the meterstick/ruler. The reading at the mark with
which you start the measurement must be subtracted from the final
reading. Record all your readings. The average of the three readings will
be considered as the most probable value.
2. Compute the volume of the block (V = length  width  thickness) on
Metric and English scales. From these values, find out how many
centimeters make an inch, accurate to the second decimal place.
Determine the percentage error.

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B. Vernier Caliper
1. Examine the vernier caliper. For each of its scales, determine the length S
of the smallest MS division, the length V of each vernier division, and the
number ’n’ of divisions on the vernier scale. Determine the LC for each
scale. Record all your findings. Practice reading the scales by setting the
zero in various places.
2. Close the jaws of the vernier caliper and determine the zero reading of the
instrument. The zero reading must be added or subtracted from all
readings made with the instrument.
3. Measure the internal diameter and depth of the measuring cup using the
vernier caliper. Make three measurements of each dimension. Get the
average measurement and calculate the volume of the cup, or

. Weigh the cup, first empty and then level full of water. Each

gram of water has as volume very nearly 1 cubic centimeter. From this
relationship, determine the volume of the water and compare this value of
the volume with that computed from the dimensions of the cylinder.

C. Micrometer Caliper
1. Determine and record
a. the value of the smallest division of the linear scale
b. the number of revolutions of the sleeve required to advance the screw
one division on the linear scale
c. the pitch of the screw (P)
d. the number of divisions on the circular scale (N); and
e. the least count (LC) of the micrometer caliper
2. Record the zero reading of the micrometer and subtract or add it from all
readings of the instrument.
3. Make three measurements of the diameter and thickness of the metal
cylinder. Compute the average diameter and thickness and use this in
determining the volume ( ) of the cylinder. Record your findings.
4. Measure the diameter of the steel ball. Make three measurements.

Consider the average diameter in computing the volume of the

steel ball. Record your findings.

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Data and Observation

A. Meterstick/Ruler

METRIC ENGLISH
Length Width Thickness Length Width Thickness
Trial
(cm) (cm) (cm) (in) (in) (in)
1
2
3
Average

Volume of block in cm3 (ave) = cm3

Volume of block in inch3 (ave) = inch3
Therefore, 1 inch3 = cm3 Accepted value:1 in3 = 16.39 cm3
Percentage difference = %

B. VERNIER CALIPER
S = mm
V = mm
n =
LC = mm

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Measuring Cup

Zero reading of the instrument = cm

Trial Internal Diameter (cm) Depth (cm)

1
2
3
Average

Volume of the cup in cm3 = cm3 , Volume of water in cm3 = _ cm3

Amount of error = cm3, Percentage deviations = _%

C. MICROMETER CALIPER

Length of smallest division of the linear scale = mm

Number of revolutions of the sleeve required to
advance the screw one division on the linear scale =
Pitch (P) = mm
Number of divisions on the circular scale (N) =
Least count (LC) = mm

Zero reading of the instrument = mm

Cylinder Steel Ball

Trial
Diameter (mm) Depth (mm) Diameter (mm)

1
2
3
Average

Volume of cylinder = _ cm3

Volume of steel ball = _ cm3

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Computation and Analysis

Conclusion:

Review Questions:
1. Give the advantage of the Metric systems of units over the English system.

2. What will you do first before using a new type of vernier scale?

3. Enumerate the steps to be taken in making a measurement with a micrometer

caliper.

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4. Can the accuracy with which a scale may be read by the unaided eye be increased
by dividing the scale more and more finely, for example, by ruling a millimeter
scale into tenths of a millimeter?

5. State some of the sources of error that one might make in measuring the length of
a cylindrical cup with a vernier caliper.

6. The smallest division on the linear scale of a micrometer caliper is 1mm and the
number of divisions on the circular scale is 50. It takes two revolutions of the
circular scale to uncover a division on the linear scale. Determine the least count
of the instrument and sketch it with a reading of 5.42 mm.

7. Given the data concerning vernier and main scale, determine the least count and
the indicated reading of the instrument:
total number of vernier divisions = 10
reading of main scale:
just before the vernier zero = 12 mm
just after the vernier zero = 13 mm
number of the vernier division coinciding
with a main-scale division = 6

8. Sketch a vernier scale that would read to 0.2 cm if the smallest division of its
main scale is 1 cm
a. in the zero position
b. indicating a reading of 3.6 cm.

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 Name: Group No. Group Members Present
Year & Section:
Date Performed:
Date Submitted:

Experiment No. 2
VECTORS

Objectives: 1. To determine the resultant or vector sum of two or more concurrent

vectors, graphically and analytically.

2. To show that in a set of three concurrent vectors or forces in

equilibrium, the third vector or force is the equilibrant.

Apparatus: force table, set of masses, ruler, protractor, strings.

Theory:

The resultant of two or more concurrent vectors using the graphical method is
determined by representing the magnitude and direction of each vector by arrows using a
convenient scale.

On the other hand, the resultant of two or more concurrent vectors is determined
analytically by applying trigonometry. If a right triangle is formed by the two vectors,
Pythagorean Theorem is employed for the magnitude of the resultant, and tangent
function for the direction (see Fig. 1). But if the triangle formed is not a right triangle,
the Law of Cosine is applied to determine the magnitude of the resultant, and the Law of
Sine for the direction (see Fig. 2).

From Figure 1 we get the following relations:

a. By Pythagorean Theorem:
R
Ry Ry

133


Rx
 R2 = Rx2 + Ry2

Ry
b. tan  =
Rx
Ry
 = tan −1
Rx

Figure 1
Based on Figure 2 below:

c. Law of Cosine:
F2

R2 = F12 + F2 2 − 2 F1F2 cos

d. Law of Sines: R


F1 R F
= = 2
Sin  Sin  Sin  F1


Figure 2

The resultant and equilibrant are equal in magnitude but point in opposite
directions, thereby forming a straight line.

Procedure:

1. Mount the force table with its surface maintained along a horizontal level and the ring
at the center. Set F1 and F2 as shown in Fig. 3. Locate the magnitude of the force that
will balance the two forces. This force is the equilibrant.

2. Using any convenient scale, compute the value of the equilibrant by parallelogram
method. Then apply the Law of Sines and Cosines to solve for this equilibrant force.
The values obtained on several methods must be equal or nearly equal.

3. Repeat procedure 1 by setting F1, F2 and F3 as the three given forces.

4. Check the value of F4 (equilibrant of the three forces) using the polygon method and
the analytical method.

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F2 F1

F3

Equilibrant = F3

Figure 3

135
Data and Observation

1. Using F1 and F2
Equilibrant e Resultant r
0
(g) [ ] (g) [0]
a. Force Table
b. Parallelogram Method
c. Analytical Method
(Law of Sine and Cosine)

2. Using F1, F2 and F3

Equilibrant e Resultant r
0
(g) [ ] (g) [0]
a. Force Table
b. Polygon Method
c. Analytical Method
(Component Method)

Computation and Analysis:

1. Using the force table, determine the equilibrant of F1 and F2. Consider this as F3.

2. Compute F3 applying parallelogram and analytical method.

3. Compute the results obtained using the three different methods.

4. Using F1, F2 and F3, determine the equilibrant F4 by the force table.

5. Compare it with the resultant obtained using polygon method and component method.

136
Conclusion:

Review Questions:

1. Define: vector quantity, resultant force and equilibrant force.

2. Differentiate vector sum from algebraic sum.

3. Explain the component method of adding vectors.

4. What items must be stated to specify a vector quantity completely?

5. What are the handicaps in solving complicated vector problems by the parallelogram
method?

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