Computer Applications

Unit-2

Introduction to computer Network :

A computer network is a collection of devices that are connected to share data and
resources. The devices can be computers, printers, and other devices that can send and
receive data.

How does a computer network work?

• Devices use a set of rules called communications protocols to send and receive data.
• These protocols define how data is transmitted over physical or wireless
connections.
• The network's capacity is how much traffic it can support at any given time.
• The network's capacity is measured in bandwidth, which is the maximum number of
bits per second that can pass through a network device.
Examples of computer networks
• The internet, which is a global network of computer networks
• Local Area Networks (LANs)
• Wide Area Networks (WANs)
• Wireless Networks
• Cloud Networks
Uses of Computer Networks
• Communicating using email, video, instant messaging, etc.
• Sharing devices such as printers, scanners, etc.
• Sharing files.

• Sharing software and operating programs on remote systems.

• Allowing network users to easily access and maintain information

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Evolution of Networks
A network additionally enables associated PCs to share documents and information and also
equipment assets, i.e., scanners, plotters, projectors, and storage devices, making it simpler
to gather and administer data, and enabling clients to work together. The system was simply
not advanced in one day; rather took a long time to be an all the more incredible, productive,
and dependable system. Advancement of systems administration began path back in 1969’s
with the improvement of the first system called ARPANET, which prompted the
improvement of the web. At that point, constant everyday upgradation occurs in the system
innovation. The system has gone through a few phases which are described below:

ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network)

ARPANET was the network that became the basis for the Internet. It was the first network that came
into existence in 1969, which was designed and named by the Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) and the US Department of Defence (DoD). It was where a bunch of PCs was associated at
various colleges and US DoD for sharing information and messages and playing long separation
diversions and associating with individuals to share their perspectives.

NSFNET (National Science Federation Network)

In the mid-’80s another federal agency, NSFNET (National Science Federation Network) created a
new network that was more capable than ARPANET and became the first backbone infrastructure
for the commercial public Internet. Its main aim was to use networks only for academic research and
not for any kind of private business activity. Later, many privately owned businesses with their very
own private systems joined with ARPANET and NSFNET to make a more capable and wide network,
the Internet.

ARPANET + NSFNET + PRIVATE NETWORKS = INTERNET

Internet

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The Internet, which is a network of networks, came into existence. The internet
has evolved from ARPANET. The internet is a globally connected network
system that utilizes TCP/IP (Transmission Control protocol) to transmit
information. It allows computers of different types to exchange information
and is known as the internet. The Internet is the financial communications
method on the planet, in which the following services are instantly available:
• Email
• Web-enabled audio/video conferencing services
• Online movies and gaming

• Data transfer/file-sharing, often through File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

• Instant messaging
• Internet forums
• Social networking
• Online shopping

• Financial services

Types Network
There are mainly five types of Computer Networks
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

1.Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is the most basic type of computer network. It is a type of network designed to
connect devices within a short range, typically around one person. It allows your
personal devices, like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearables, to communicate and
share data with each other. PAN offers a network range of 1 to 100 meters from person
to device providing communication. Its transmission speed is very high with very easy
maintenance and very low cost. This uses Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee as technology.
Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA, etc.

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Types of PAN
• Wireless Personal Area Networks: Wireless Personal Area Networks are
created by simply utilising wireless technologies such as WiFi and Bluetooth.
It is a low-range network.
• Wired Personal Area Network: A wired personal area network is constructed
using a USB.
Advantages of PAN
• PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network
ranges.
• It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.
• It does not require frequent installations and maintenance
• It is easy and portable.

• Needs fewer technical skills to use.

Disadvantages of PAN
• Low network coverage area/range.
• Limited to relatively low data rates.
• Devices are not compatible with each other.

• Inbuilt WPAN devices are a little bit costly.

Applications of PAN
• Home and Offices
• Organizations and the Business sector
• Medical and Hospital
• School and College Education

• Military and Defense

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that
connects computers through a common communication path, contained within a
limited area, that is, locally. A LAN encompasses two or more computers
connected over a server. The two important technologies involved in this network
are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km & transmission speed is very high
with easy maintenance and low cost. Examples of LAN are networking in a home,
school, library, laboratory, college, office, etc.

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Advantages of a LAN
• Privacy: LAN is a private network, thus no outside regulatory body controls it, giving
it a privacy.
• High Speed: LAN offers a much higher speed(around 100 mbps) and data transfer
rate comparatively to WAN.
• Supports different transmission mediums: LAN support a variety of communications
transmission medium such as an Ethernet cable (thin cable, thick cable, and twisted
pair), fiber and wireless transmission.
• Inexpensive and Simple: A LAN usually has low cost, installation, expansion and
maintenance and LAN installation is relatively easy to use, good scalability.
Disadvantages of LAN
• The initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high because there is
special software required to make a server.
• Communication devices like an ethernet cable, switches, hubs, routers, cables are
costly.
• LAN administrator can see and check personal data files as well as Internet history of
each and every LAN user. Hence, the privacy of the users are violated
• LANs are restricted in size and cover only a limited area

3. Campus Area Network (CAN)

CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer network
that is usually used in places like a school or colleges. This network covers a limited
geographical area that is, it spreads across several buildings within the
campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet technology with a range from 1km to 5km. Its
transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance cost and moderate cost.
Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges, buildings, etc.

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4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network that
connects computers over a geographical distance through a shared communication path over a city,
town, or metropolitan area. This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with a
range from 5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average. It is difficult to maintain and it comes
with a high cost. Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area
within multiple buildings, etc.

Advantages of MAN
• MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-100 Mbps.
• The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.
• It support to transmit data in both directions concurrently because of dual bus architecture.
• MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed internet to all the users.
• MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network, making it easier to
monitor and manage network resources and security.
Disadvantages of MAN
• The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to design and maintain.
• This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to set up fiber optics.
• It provides less fault tolerance.
• The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large geographical distance
through a shared communication path. It is not restrained to a single location but extends over
many locations. WAN can also be defined as a group of local area networks that communicate with
each other with a range above 50km. Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its
transmission speed is very low and it comes with very high maintenance and very high cost. The
most common example of WAN is the Internet.

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Advantages of WAN
• It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of organisation to transmit data
quickly and cheaply.
• The data can be stored in centralised manner because of remote access to data provided by
WAN.
• The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area of work can be minimised.
• WAN enables a user or organisation to connect with the world very easily and allows to
exchange data and do business at global level.
Disadvantages of WAN
• Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.
• The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.
• Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple connection point.
• The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large distances and high
number of connected system within the network.

Comparison between Different Computer Networks

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Network Devices
Network devices are physical devices that allow hardware on a computer network to communicate
and interact with each other. Network devices like hubs, repeaters, bridges, switches, routers,
gateways

Modem
Modem stands for Modulator/Demodulator. The modem is defined as a networking device that is
used to connect devices connected in the network to the internet. The main function of a modem is
to convert the analog signals that come from telephone wire into a digital form. In digital form, these
converted signals are stored in the form of 0s and 1s. The modem can perform both the task
of modulation and demodulation simultaneously. Modems are majorly used to transfer digital data in
personal systems. The modem is also known as a signal translator as it translates one signal into
another signal by modulating the digital signal into an analogy signal for transmission and then
demodulates receiving analogy signals into digital signals.
Features of Modem
• Modems can modulate as well as demodulate the signals simultaneously.
• Modem allows to connect only a specific number of devices to the internet.
• According to the features of modem, it’s price ranges.
• Modems can be upgraded with the help of a specific software patch.
• To use the devices over the internet with a modem devices need to be configured with
an Internet Service Provider(ISP).
• When the modem is connected to Hub it slows down its process.
Working of Modem

RJ45 Connector
In networking, a node is any device connected to a network that can send, receive, or process
data. Nodes in a network can be classified based on their roles and functions. Here’s how different
nodes are identified in networking devices:
Types of Nodes in Networking Devices
1. End Nodes (Hosts)
o Devices that serve as a source or destination for data.
o Examples:
▪ Computers (Laptops, Desktops)
▪ Smartphones
▪ Tablets
▪ IoT Devices

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 2. Intermediate Nodes (Network Devices)
o Devices that help in directing and managing network traffic.
o Examples:
▪ Routers – Direct data between different networks.
▪ Switches – Manage data flow within a local network.
▪ Hubs – Basic device that broadcasts data to all nodes.
▪ Bridges – Connect different network segments.
▪ Gateways – Convert protocols between networks.
3. Server Nodes
o Provide services and resources to other nodes.
o Examples:
▪ Web Servers
▪ File Servers
▪ DNS Servers
▪ Mail Servers
4. Wireless Nodes
o Nodes that communicate over wireless protocols.
o Examples:
▪ Access Points (Wi-Fi Routers)
▪ Bluetooth Devices
▪ Mesh Network Nodes
Identification of Nodes in a Network
1. IP Address
o Each node in a network is assigned a unique IP address (IPv4 or IPv6).
o Example: 192.168.1.10
2. MAC Address
o Each network interface card (NIC) has a unique Media Access Control (MAC)
address.
o Example: 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E
3. Hostnames
o Human-readable names assigned to devices in a network.
o Example: server1.company.com
4. Network Topology Mapping
o Tools like ping, traceroute, ARP tables, and network monitoring software help
identify nodes.
5. DHCP and DNS Logs
o DHCP assigns dynamic IPs to nodes, and DNS resolves hostnames.
6. Network Scanning Tools
o Tools like Nmap, Wireshark, and Netstat help in discovering active nodes.

An RJ45 connector is a standardized interface that allows devices to

connect to a network. It's commonly used to connect computers

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to Ethernet-based networks

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Identification of Nodes in Networked
In networking, a node is any device connected to a network that can send, receive, or process data.
Nodes in a network can be classified based on their roles and functions. Here’s how different nodes
are identified in networking devices:
Types of Nodes in Networking Devices
1. End Nodes (Hosts)
o Devices that serve as a source or destination for data.
o Examples:
▪ Computers (Laptops, Desktops)
▪ Smartphones
▪ Tablets
▪ IoT Devices
2. Intermediate Nodes (Network Devices)
o Devices that help in directing and managing network traffic.

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 o Examples:
▪ Routers – Direct data between different networks.
▪ Switches – Manage data flow within a local network.
▪ Hubs – Basic device that broadcasts data to all nodes.
▪ Bridges – Connect different network segments.
▪ Gateways – Convert protocols between networks.
3. Server Nodes
o Provide services and resources to other nodes.
o Examples:
▪ Web Servers
▪ File Servers
▪ DNS Servers
▪ Mail Servers
4. Wireless Nodes
o Nodes that communicate over wireless protocols.
o Examples:
▪ Access Points (Wi-Fi Routers)
▪ Bluetooth Devices
▪ Mesh Network Nodes
Identification of Nodes in a Network
1. IP Address
o Each node in a network is assigned a unique IP address (IPv4 or IPv6).
o Example: 192.168.1.10
2. MAC Address
o Each network interface card (NIC) has a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address.
o Example: 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E
3. Hostnames
o Human-readable names assigned to devices in a network.
o Example: server1.company.com
4. Network Topology Mapping
o Tools like ping, traceroute, ARP tables, and network monitoring software help
identify nodes.
5. DHCP and DNS Logs
o DHCP assigns dynamic IPs to nodes, and DNS resolves hostnames.
6. Network Scanning Tools
o Tools like Nmap, Wireshark, and Netstat help in discovering active nodes.

Web and the Internet of Things (IoT)

The Web and the Internet of Things (IoT) are closely related, as IoT devices often rely on web
technologies to communicate, process, and share data. Let's break down their relationship.

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1. The Web (World Wide Web)
The Web refers to the system of interconnected documents and resources that can be accessed via
the internet using web browsers. It consists of:
• Web Pages & Websites (HTML, CSS, JavaScript)
• Web Servers (Host and serve web content)
• Web Protocols (HTTP/HTTPS, REST, WebSockets)
• Web Applications (Cloud-based apps, APIs)
2. Internet of Things (IoT)
IoT refers to a network of physical devices embedded with sensors, software, and connectivity that
allow them to collect and exchange data over the internet.
Key Components of IoT:
• Devices (Nodes): Sensors, actuators, smart appliances, wearables.
• Connectivity: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, LoRa, 5G.
• IoT Platforms: AWS IoT, Google Cloud IoT, Microsoft Azure IoT.
• Data Processing: Cloud computing, Edge computing, AI-based analytics.
3. Relationship Between Web and IoT
IoT devices rely on web technologies for:
• Data Transmission: IoT devices send data to web-based servers using protocols like HTTP,
MQTT, or CoAP.
• Remote Monitoring & Control: Web apps allow users to monitor and control IoT devices via
dashboards.
• APIs & Web Services: IoT devices use RESTful APIs or WebSockets for real-time
communication.
• Cloud Integration: IoT data is stored and processed in cloud platforms, accessible via web
interfaces.

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 . Example Use Cases
1. Smart Home Automation: Controlling lights, thermostats, and cameras through a web-based
dashboard.
2. Industrial IoT (IIoT): Monitoring machine performance via a web app.
3. Healthcare IoT: Wearable devices sending patient data to a web-based health monitoring
system.
4. Smart Agriculture: IoT sensors tracking soil moisture, accessible via a web platform.

Domain Name System (DNS)

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical and decentralized naming system used to
translate human-readable domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP addresses (e.g.,
192.168.1.1), which computers use to identify each other on a network.
Key Functions of DNS:
1. Domain-to-IP Resolution: Converts domain names into IP addresses.
2. Load Balancing: Distributes network traffic across multiple servers.
3. Email Routing: Helps in directing emails to the correct mail servers (MX records).
4. Security Features: Protects against cyber threats like phishing and DDoS attacks.
Components of DNS:
• DNS Resolver (Recursive Resolver): The first step in DNS lookup, queries DNS servers to find
the correct IP address.
• Root Name Server: The top level of the DNS hierarchy, directing queries to TLD servers.
• TLD (Top-Level Domain) Server: Manages domains like .com, .org, .net.
• Authoritative Name Server: Stores and provides the final IP address for a domain.
Example of DNS Resolution Process:
1. User types www.example.com into a browser.
2. DNS resolver queries the Root Server.
3. Root Server directs to the .com TLD server.
4. TLD server directs to the authoritative name server for example.com.
5. The authoritative server provides the IP address (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
6. The browser connects to the website using the retrieved IP.
DNS Security: Threats and Prevention
1. DNS Security Threats
• DNS Spoofing (Cache Poisoning): Attackers inject fake DNS records to redirect users to
malicious sites.
• DDoS Attacks: Overloading DNS servers with traffic to disrupt services.
• DNS Hijacking: Hackers modify DNS settings to control web traffic.
• Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) Attacks: Intercepting DNS queries to steal information.
2. DNS Security Prevention Measures
• DNSSEC (DNS Security Extensions): Digitally signs DNS records to verify authenticity.
• Firewalls & Monitoring: Protect against unauthorized access and suspicious traffic.
• Encryption (DoH/DoT): Uses HTTPS (DoH) or TLS (DoT) to secure DNS queries.
• Regular Updates & Patch Management: Keeps DNS software secure from vulnerabilities.
• Anycast Routing: Distributes traffic to multiple DNS servers for better resilience

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How to Prevent Virus Attacks
✅ Do Not Open Unknown Email Attachments or Links.
✅ Use a Strong & Updated Antivirus Program.
✅ Download Software Only from Trusted Sources.
✅ Enable Firewalls to Block Suspicious Connections.
✅ Regularly Update Your Operating System & Software.
✅ Avoid Using Unknown USB Drives or External Devices.

Malware Worms: Definition

A worm is a type of malware (malicious software) that self-replicates and spreads to other
computers or devices, often without any user intervention. Unlike viruses, worms do not need to
attach themselves to other programs or files to spread—they are standalone programs that exploit
vulnerabilities in a network or system.
Key Characteristics of Worms:
• Self-Replication: Worms can make copies of themselves and spread automatically across
systems or networks.
• No User Interaction Needed: Unlike viruses, worms do not require a user to open a file or
click on something to activate. They spread by exploiting security flaws.
• Network Propagation: Worms typically spread over network connections like email, instant
messaging, or vulnerabilities in web servers.
• Payload Delivery: Worms may carry additional malicious payloads like ransomware, spyware,
or other harmful software.
How Worms Spread:
1. Exploiting Vulnerabilities: Worms scan for and exploit weaknesses in software or operating
systems.
2. Email Attachments: A worm may be spread as an email attachment, often disguised as an
innocent file.
3. File Sharing Networks: It can also spread through peer-to-peer file-sharing programs.
4. Remote Access: Some worms use weak passwords or other means to gain unauthorized
access to systems remotely.
Prevention:
• Regularly update software and operating systems to patch vulnerabilities.
• Use firewalls and antivirus software to detect and block worm activity.
• Practice caution when opening email attachments or clicking on links.

Ransomware: Definition
Ransomware is a type of malware (malicious software) that encrypts a victim’s
files or locks them out of their system, demanding a ransom payment (usually in
cryptocurrency) to restore access. If the ransom is not paid, the attacker may delete,
leak, or permanently block access to the files.

Definition of Trojan (Trojan Horse Malware)

A Trojan is a type of malware that disguises itself as a legitimate or harmless
program but, once executed, grants attackers unauthorized access, steals data, or

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 causes system damage. Unlike worms and viruses, Trojans do not self-replicate but
rely on social engineering to trick users into installing them.

Definition of Spyware
Spyware is a type of malware that secretly monitors and collects user data without
permission. It operates in the background, tracking activities like keystrokes,
browsing history, login credentials, and financial information. Spyware is often used
for stealing personal data, spying on users, and delivering targeted ads.
Keyloggers: Definition and Function
A keylogger (short for keystroke logger) is a type of spyware malware that secretly records
every keystroke a user types on a keyboard. Cybercriminals use keyloggers to steal sensitive
information such as passwords, credit card details, and personal messages.

Modes of Malware Distribution

Malware spreads through various techniques, often exploiting human errors and system
vulnerabilities. Here are the most common modes of malware distribution:
1. Email Attachments & Phishing
How it Works:
• Attackers send emails with malicious attachments (e.g., PDFs, Word documents,
ZIP files) or fake links.
• Clicking the link or opening the attachment infects the system.
Example: Emotet malware spreads through fake invoice emails.
Prevention:
Avoid opening emails from unknown senders.
Use email security filters.
Check for suspicious file extensions (.exe, .js, .scr).
2.Malicious Websites & Drive-By Downloads
How it Works:
• Visiting a compromised or fake website can trigger an automatic malware
download.
• No user interaction is required in drive-by download attacks.
Example: Exploit kits like RigEK install malware silently when users visit infected sites.
Prevention:
Use a secure browser with anti-malware protection.
Avoid clicking on pop-up ads.
Enable automatic updates for browsers and plugins.

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3. Infected Software & Cracked Programs
How it Works:
• Downloading pirated software or cracked games often comes bundled with
malware.
• Attackers hide malware inside legitimate-looking programs.
Example: The PirateMatryoshka Trojan spreads through torrent sites.
Prevention:
Download software only from official sources.
Avoid pirated software and cracks.
Use application whitelisting to allow only trusted programs.
4. USB Drives & Removable Media
How it Works:
• Plugging in an infected USB drive can execute malware automatically.
• Used in air-gapped network attacks where internet access is restricted.
Example: Stuxnet worm spread through USB drives to attack industrial systems.
Prevention:
Disable AutoRun/AutoPlay for external drives.
Scan USB devices with antivirus software.
Use read-only USB drives for sensitive data.
5. Social Engineering & Fake Updates
How it Works:
• Users are tricked into downloading malware disguised as a software update or
security tool.
• Common with fake Flash Player or browser updates.
Example: Vidar Stealer spreads through fake browser update pop-ups.
Prevention:
Always update software from official sources.
Avoid clicking on pop-ups claiming your system is "infected."

Antivirus: Definition and Function

Antivirus software is a security program designed to detect, prevent, and remove malware
(such as viruses, worms, Trojans, spyware, and ransomware) from a computer or network. It
continuously monitors system activities and files to block threats before they cause harm.
How Antivirus Works
1. Signature-Based Detection
o Compares files with a database of known malware signatures.
o If a match is found, the antivirus blocks or removes the threat.
o Limitation: Cannot detect new, unknown malware (zero-day attacks).
2. Heuristic Analysis

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 o Identifies malware by analyzing suspicious behavior instead of relying on
known signatures.
o Helps detect new and modified malware strains.
3. Behavioral Monitoring
o Monitors system activity in real time for unusual behavior (e.g.,
unauthorized encryption of files by ransomware).
o If detected, the antivirus stops and isolates the malware.
4. Sandboxing
o Runs suspicious programs in a virtual environment to observe their behavior
before allowing them to execute on the actual system.
5. Quarantine & Removal
o If a threat is found, the antivirus moves the infected file to quarantine or
removes it completely.
o
Popular Antivirus Software

✔ Windows Defender (Built-in for Windows) – Free, effective for basic protection.
✔ Norton Antivirus – Strong malware protection and advanced security features.
✔ Bitdefender – Lightweight, fast scanning, and strong AI detection.
✔ Kaspersky – Excellent for real-time protection and threat removal.
✔ McAfee – Comprehensive security suite with web protection.
✔ Avast/AVG – Free and paid versions with decent malware detection.

HTTP vs HTTPS

HTTP and HTTPS are protocols used for communication between a web browser and a
website. The key difference is that HTTPS is secure, while HTTP is not.

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Firewall
A firewall is a security system that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on predefined security rules. It acts as a barrier between a trusted internal
network (like your computer or company network) and an untrusted external network (like
the internet).
How a Firewall Works
1. Traffic Filtering – Examines data packets and decides whether to allow or block them.
2. Prevents Unauthorized Access – Blocks hackers and malicious software from entering
a system.
3. Monitors Network Activity – Keeps logs of all network traffic for security analysis.
4. Protects Against Malware & Cyberattacks – Stops viruses, ransomware, and
intrusions before they reach your device.
Why You Need a Firewall
Blocks hackers & malware before they reach your system.
Prevents unauthorized access to sensitive data.
Stops harmful websites & phishing attacks.
Protects personal and business networks from cyber threats

Cookies: Definition and Function

A cookie is a small text file stored on a user's device by a website. It helps
websites remember user preferences, login details, and browsing activities to
enhance the user experience.
Hacker: Definition
A hacker is a skilled individual who uses their knowledge of computer
systems, networks, and programming to explore, improve, or secure
technology. Hackers can be ethical (White Hat) or unethical (Black Hat),
depending on their intent.
Cracker: Definition
A cracker is a malicious individual who illegally breaks into computer
systems, networks, or software to steal data, cause damage, or bypass security
protections for personal gain or destruction. Crackers engage in cybercrimes
such as hacking, password cracking, and software piracy.

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