Rock

A rock is a naturally occurring solid substance composed of minerals or mineral-like

substances. Rocks can be made of a single mineral or a combination of minerals. They
can be formed by various processes, such as cooling and solidification of magma or
lava, deposition and cementation of sediments, or metamorphism.
Stone
A stone is typically a smaller piece of rock that has been shaped or cut for a specific
purpose. Stones can be used for building, construction, decoration, or as tools. Stones
can be made of various materials, including rocks, minerals, or artificial materials like
concrete.

Rock Cycle
The rock cycle is a natural process of constructing rocks from one form to another over
geological time. It is a continuous procedure that involves different stages of rock
formation, weathering, erosion, and lithification. The three main types of rocks -
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - are all part of the rock cycle.
Types of Rocks

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed due to the solidification of molten magma or lava. They are
one of the three main types of rocks, along with metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.
Igneous rocks have several uses in construction due to their strength, durability, and
resistance to weathering.
Main Category
Extrusive (volcanic) – the type of igneous rock that is produced whenever the magma
flowed out of the the volcanoes crater, or reaches the surface of the earth.
Example of this type of igneous rocks are granite, gabbro, diorite and pegamitite.

Intrusive (plutonic) – this type of igneous rock is produce when the magma solidified
beneath the Earth. As molten rocks rises toward the surface of the Earth it may cool
before it reaches the surface and that is how intrusive igneous rocks are form. Example
for this type of igneous rocks are Andesite, Basalt, Obsidian, Pumice, Rhyolite and
Scoria.

Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the proliferation of sediment (particles of rock,
mineral, or organic material) over the period of time. These sediments are consolidated
and cemented together to form solid rock. The three basic types of sedimentary rocks
are:
Clastic sedimentary rocks - These rocks are made up of particles of various types of
sizes that have been wridden out and deteriorated from pre-existing rocks. Examples of
clastic sedimentary rocks include sandstone, shale, conglomerate, and shale.

Chemical sedimentary rocks - These rocks are developed when dissolved minerals
in water, such as calcium carbonate or salt, residue out of the water and become solid.
Examples of chemical sedimentary rocks include limestone, rock salt, and chert.

Organic sedimentary rocks - These rocks are formed from the accumulation of
organic material, such as plant or animal remains, that have been compacted and
cemented together. Examples of organic sedimentary rocks include coal and some
classification of limestone.
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have undergone a change in texture or mineral
composition due to the effects of heat, pressure, and/or fluids. Metamorphism usually
occurs deep within the Earth's crust or mantle.
The two basic types of metamorphic rocks are:
Foliated metamorphic rocks- These rocks have a layered or streaked appearance
due to the alignment of minerals within the rock. Examples of foliated metamorphic
rocks include slate, schist, and gneiss.

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks - These rocks do not have a layered or wrapped

appearance and are typically composed of one mineral type. Examples of non-foliated
metamorphic rocks include marble (composed of calcite) and quartzite (composed of
quartz).

Dimension Stones
Rocks and stone are often cut, selected and fabricated to their specific shapes and
sizes.
Normal Requirements:
• Color
• Texture and Pattern
• Surface finish of the stone
• Durability
• Hardness
• Strength
 Additional criteria: resistance to moisture, decay and extreme temperatures, ability
of the stone to take on a polish or finish
Quarries
A quarry is a type of open-pit mine in which materials such as stone, rock, construction
aggregate, sand, gravel, or slate are dug up from the ground. The process of quarrying
involves the extraction of advantageous rocks or minerals from the earth's surface.
Quarries can be found all over the world and are used to remove a variety of materials
that are used for construction, landscaping, and other purposes. The process of
quarrying involves drilling, blasting, and cutting of rocks or other materials to create
large blocks that can be transported to factories or construction sites.

Stone and Rock Types

These are the common types of stones and rocks that are used for decorations
o Granite
o Limestone
o Marble
o Travertine
o Quartz-based stones
o Slate
o Alabaster (massive gypsum)
o Soapstone(massive talc)
o Serpentine
Fabrication
This refers to the process of creating structural components or elements from
raw materials like steel, aluminum or other metals. This process pertains to
cutting, bending or shaping the raw material to construct specific shapes and
sizes that are required for construction. These fabricated components are then
assembled on-site to create a larger structure or building. Examples of fabricated
components in construction include steel beams, columns, trusses and precast
concrete panels. These components are often used in the construction of
bridges, high-rise buildings, and other large structures.
 Finishes
It is the final touch of the project, forming the final surface of an element. These
finishes can protect the structure from any further destructions. They can also
serve as decorations of a structure.

Polished Finish – is a type of surface finish that is almost mirror like. This can
be achieve by grinding down the surface of the material by utilizing different
abrasive machine procedure.

Bush-Hammered – a type of finish that has been used with mansory tool. The
surface is hammered with Bush Hammer to tge point where it breaks up enough
surface to create. Deep pockets and ridges to have a visible and natural rough
texture.
Sand Blasted - a finish that has the texture of the sand, which provides
irregular surfaces that has pitted. A sandblasted finish can be used for both
decorative and functional purposes. For example, it can be used to create a non-
slip surface on concrete or metal, or it can be used to give decorative glass a
frosted appearance. It is also commonly used in the manufacturing of signs,
plaques and other decorative objects.Overall, a sandblasted finish is a versatile
and useful technique that can add both texture and aesthetic appeal to a wide
range of materials.

Thermal/Flamed Finish- this type of finish uses head to create a non reflective
surface, non slip, and has a semi rough surface. These may use torch or any
tools that can be use in construction.

Defects
There are a lot of cause of defects, some are from the starting of the
construction, failure of creations, it can also occur due to wetting /drying cycles.
Sulfation – this is from the sulfuric attacks, its one of the most common cause of
defections in construction where the sulfuric acid rises. Sulfation can cause
defects in construction, particularly in concrete structures. Sulfation is a chemical
reaction that occurs when sulfates in the environment react with concrete and
other cementitious materials. This reaction can cause the formation of crystalline
compounds that can expand and lead to cracking and spalling of the concrete.

Sulfates can enter the concrete through a variety of sources, including

groundwater, seawater, and industrial waste. When sulfates are present in high
concentrations, they can accelerate the process of sulfation and lead to more
rapid deterioration of the concrete.
Sulfation can also cause defects in other materials used in construction, such as
metals. When metals are exposed to sulfates, they can corrode and weaken over
time. To prevent sulfation-related defects in construction, it is important to use
materials that are resistant to sulfates and to take steps to minimize exposure to
sulfates in the environment. This may involve using protective coatings or
sealants, designing drainage systems to prevent water accumulation, and
avoiding the use of materials that are known to be susceptible to sulfation.

Organic growth is somehow destructive, when these plants are not appropriate
for the structure, this might cause destruction.
Uses
Flooring
Rock materials – most commonly use due to its durability, patterns, colors and
aesthetics.
Countertops And Walls – one of the basic parts of a residential home and any
buildings. A precise choice of rocks and stones can give you not just beautiful but
also durable house parts.

Roofing
Rocks can also serve as roofing, slate is a perfect match for this kind of roofing,
since it is a ductile and being capable in splitting into sheets, it is an ideal type of
roof tile.

Adenesite
Andesite is a type of volcanic rock commonly found in volcanic arcs and
mountain ranges, such as the Andes Mountains in South America, from which it
originate its name. It is a medium volcanic rock, meaning that it has a chemical
composition and texture that is between that of acidic rocks (like rhyolite) and
basic rocks (like basalt). Andesite is formed from the solidification of magma or
lava that has intermediate composition, typically in subduction zone volcanoes or
volcanic arcs. It is commonly used as a building material and for road
construction due to its durability and resistance to weathering.
 Basalt
● Is a dark fined grained igneous rock that is formed from solidification of
lava flows.
● The most common type of volcanic rock
● Compose of mainly plagioclase and pyroxene minerals
● Dense and heavy rock that is relatively resistant to westhering and erosion

Uses
● Crushed rock for road, building and concrete aggregate.
● Sometimes us as source of iron ore or a raw material for manufacturing glass
and ceramics.
● Decorative stones in landscaping and other architectural application.
Diorite

● Typical black to gray color rock, however it can also be light colored
● Individual mineral is visible to the naked eye due to its size
● Has a coarse grained texture
 ● Relatively hard and durable which is exactly good for construction
● Has intermediate composition between acidic rocks like granite and basic rock
like basalt.
Gabbro

● An intrusive rock that is primarily compose of quartz, feldspars and mica

minerals.
● It is chemically equivalent to basalt but with large crystal due to slower
solidification.
● A very hard rock with a great durability with a high resistance to weathering and
erosion.
Uses
● Use as decorative stone in landscaping and other architectural application.
● Particularly uses as crushed rock fo concrete aggregation
Granite

● Light colored rock ranging from gray to pink and white although if can also be
dark colors
● It is a hard rock that is durable and has a high resistance to westhering and
resistance.
● Had grains that is large enough to be visible in human’s naked eyes.
● Composition of feldspar, mica, quartz and other minerals.
Uses
● Countertops, walls, flooring, paving stones, building veers, road aggregate,
paving stones, curbing, monuments and stair treads
● Decorative stones for landscaping
● Building facades
 Obsidian

A natural volcanic glass that is a rapidly made by solidified lava. Obsidian has a smooth
glassy texture and conchoidal fracture meaning that it breaks in a way that produces
sharp edges. Composed of about 70-80% silica which chemically similar to rhyolite and
granite. It is developed when lava cools too quickly for mineral crystals to form, in
return, this results to a monocrystalline glassy texture.

Pegmatite

Pegmatite is a coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock that is composed of exceptionally

large crystals of minerals such as feldspar quartz and mica. Pegmatite is typically light-
colored ranging from white to paint the great although it can also be in dark color. It has
a very coarse grain texture meaning that the individual mineral grains are very visible to
the naked eye and is larger in other igneous rock.

Peroditit
Parody tide is a coarse-grained ultra matic igneous rock that is composed mainly of the
mineral olivine and pyroxene. It is a heavy and dance rock with high resistance to
weathering and erosion benedict id is an ultramafic rock meaning that it contains very
little silica and high percentage of magnesium and iron.
Uses
This type of rock is not commonly used as a building material due to its hardness and
lack of availability. Peridotite is not commonly used in buildings however it is important
type of earth's mantle as it please a role in the formation of oceanic crust and the mantle
crust boundary.
It is sometimes used as source of chromite it is a key ingredient in stainless steel it is
also a source of platinum group metal which are used catalytic converters electronics
and other industrial application.
Pumice

This type of rock is formed when molten lava is ejected from a volcano and rapidly cools
and solidifies in the air. Pumice is found in deposits around volcanic regions and can be
minded for various uses. The rapidly cooling traps the gas bubbles inside the lava which
become preserved.
Rhyolite

Rhyolite is a fine grained extrusive igneous rock that is primarily composed of quartz
feldspar mica and minerals. It is similar to granite what is formed from lava that cools
quickly at the earth's surface. It is typically light-colored ranging from white to pink to
 gray although it can be also a darker color. It has fine trained texture that is why they
aren't too visible to the naked eyes.

Scoria
Scoria is a dark-colored vascular volcanic rock that is formed from solidification of
fronting lava. It is denser and has smaller vesicles but almost similar topumice. It is
composed of volcanic glass minerals such as those for products in and amount of
crystalline silica scoria is typically dark red to black and color although it can also be
brown and gray it has four stature with small cavities and bubbles.
Tuff

Is a type of sedimentary rock that is formed from volcanic ash and other pyroclastic
debris that is ejected during explosive volcanic eruptions. It is often layered or stratified
with different liest representing different phases of volcanic.
Breccia

Breccia is a type of sedimentary rock that is composed of angular fragments of other

rocks that are cemented together. It can be formed through a variety of processes,
including landslides, earthquakes, and volcanic activity. Breccia rock can be found in a
lot of locations around the world and can be used for varied purposes.
 Uses
- Breccia is commonly used as a decorative stone in buildings and landscaping, due to
its unique texture and appearance.
- It is used as a substrate for roads and other types of construction, due to its ability to
compact and provide a stable base.
- Breccia can be crushed and used as a source of aggregate in concrete and masonry
applications.
- It can be used as a building material for retaining walls and other types of structures.

Chert (composition and uses)

Chert is a hard dense sedimentary rock that is primarily composed of cryptocrystalline
silica and microcrystalline. It often exhibits a waxy or glassy luster. It has extremely
small mineral grains that are not visible to the naked eye. It is a hard durable rock with
6.5 to 7.0 Mohs hardness.
Uses
● Source of silica for the production of glass
● Can be use for decorative stone in building and landscaping.
● Substrste for roads
Coal

Is a combustible sedimentary rock that is formed from the remain of plants that live and
died million of years ago. It is primarily composed of carbon, along with a small amounts
of other elements such as sulfur and nitrogen. While cone is primarily used as a fuel
source for electricity generation and industrial process it can also be used in
construction. Call ash switches find green residue that is left over after coal is burn can
be use as pozzolan in the production of concrete
Conglomerate (composition and uses)

Conglomerate is a sedimentary rock that is composed of rounded and sub rounded rock
fragments that are greater than 2 mm in diameter. This type of rock fragment or class
can be made up of variety of different rock types including sedimentary metamorphic
and igneous rocks. Conglomerate can have a range of color depending to the
composition of the composition of the rock fragments that make it up. It has a coarse
grain texture with glass that are clearly visible only rate can be classified based on the
size and shape of the clast that make it up as well as the type of cementing material that
holds the clast together.
Uses
● Decorative stones in buildings
● Substrate for roads
● Source of aggregate
Iron ore (meaning and uses)
Is a mineral substance that is mined and dug up from the earth’s crust. High enough to
be economically extracted. It can have a range of colors depending on the mineral
content and weathering.
Uses
Primarily use in the production of iron and steel, which is one of the most essential
materials in constructions.
Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary that is primarily composed of calcium carbonate in the form
of mineral calcite it also contains small amount of the sale heart feldspar and other
minerals. Limestone can have a range of colours depending on the mineral content and
the degree of weathering it is commonly gray white tan in color.
Uses
It is used as a source of calcium in the production of calcium oxide and calcium
hydroxide which are used variety of industrial processes. Limestone is used as a filler in
a variety of industrial products such as rubber paint and plastics.
Rock Salt

Rock salt is a type of sedimentary rock that is primarily composed of mineral halite
which is also known as table salt it is formed through the evaporation of saline water
and salt lakes and other bodies of water. Rock salt is typically white are colorless
although it may have range of colors depending on the presence of impurities it has
crystalline structure with visible salt crystals that are often cubic in shape.
Sand stone

Sandstone is a sedimentary rock that is primarily composed of sun size mineral

particles such as feldspar other rock fragments and quartz. It is formed through the
accumulation and cementation of sentence of when layers or bed sandstone can have
color depending on the mineral content and degree of weathering it is commonly white
grey yellow red brown in color.
Uses
Timezone is used as building material in construction of buildings monuments and other
structure due to its durability and aesthetic appeal. It is used as a raw material in the
production of glass ceramic and other industrial products sand stone can be crush and
use as a source of aggregate in concrete.
Shale

Shell is a fine-grained sedimentary rock that is composed of clay minerals as well as

other minerals such as quartz feldspar and calcite. It has a fine grain texture with visible
layers of lamination shell can be classified based on its mineral content by the structure
and degree of compaction and cementation.
Uses
It is used as source of oil and gas particularly in shell gas and shale oil extraction
techniques such as hydraulic fracture it is used as a building material in construction of
buildings and other structures to teach durability and resistance to weathering hail can
also be used as a source of play for production of ceramic such as pottery and tell.

Siltstone

Siltstone is a sedimentary rock that is contained of very fine particles, typically between
1/16 and 1/256 millimeters in size. These particles are primarily composed of quartz,
feldspar, and other minerals, and are held together by a cementing material, such as
clay or calcite.

Amphibolite
 Amphibolite is a metamorphic rock that is composed of amphibole minerals, such as
hornblende, as well as plagioclase hfeldspar and other minerals. It has a medium to
coarse-grained texture and is often banded or foliated.

Gneiss

Gneiss is a metamorphic rock that is composed of alternating layers of various minerals,

such as quartz, feldspar, mica, and amphibole. It has a coarse-grained consistency and
distinct banding or foliation.

Hornfels

is a metamorphic rock that is crested through the heating and recrystallization of other
rocks, such as shale or basalt. It is typically composed of fine-grained minerals, such as
quartz, feldspar, and mica, and has a uniform texture and no visible banding or foliation.
Marble
 Marble is a metamorphic rock that is composed of recrystallized calcite or dolomite
minerals. It has a fine-grained texture and is often used in sculpture and architecture
due to its beauty and durability.
. Phyllite

: Phyllite is a metamorphic rock that is similar to slate but has a finer texture and more
pronounced sheen due to the alignment of mica minerals. It is composed of mica,
quartz, and other minerals and is often used as a decorative stone.

Quartzite

Quartzite is a metamorphic rock that is composed of recrystallized quartz grains. It has

a very hard and durable texture and is often used as a building stone or as a source of
silica for industrial purposes.

Schist
 Schist is a metamorphic rock that is composed of coarse-grained minerals, such as
mica, quartz, and feldspar, that are aligned in a parallel fashion, giving the rock a
distinctive foliation or banding.

Slate

Slate is a metamorphic rock that is composed of fine-grained minerals, such as mica

and clay, that are aligned in a parallel fashion, giving the rock a distinctive foliation or
cleavage. It is often used as a roofing material or as a decorative stone.

Stone B: Natural stones as part of a construction materials

Natural stones - are any kind of stone that may be discovered in the crust of the
Earth, which is the outermost part of our planet. The sheer variety of different types
of stones that can be found in nature, ranging from precious ones showcased in a
jewelry shop to the polished ones we step on on a daily basis, won’t come as a
surprise because the creation of these materials occurred over a slow and diverse
process that ran over millions of years. The three primary varieties of natural stone
found on Earth are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic; this categorization is
determined by how the stone was formed over the years or millennia and provides
 us with interesting and practical insights on the
characteristics of that particular stone.

-When the igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks

were formed about 3,800 million years ago, the history of
natural stone began. When men first started utilizing
natural stone to create various tools, objects, and statues
during the
Palaeolithic period,
wood was still being
used as a significant component. Its use as
a foundational component for structures like
dolmens or defensive structures has grown
increasingly significant over time. Houses
were typically constructed of natural stone,
while the majority of the other buildings were
made of wood and earth. Men started using natural stone to construct entire
houses and buildings for urban life over the centuries.

1. Igneous stones - are high density, low porosity, and highly durable rocks because they were created by the cooling and

solidification of molten lava, or magma. The most prevalent igneous stone types are porphyry, basalt, or bluestone, and

granite. As gas bubbles are retained throughout the lava’s cooling process, Bluestone typically exhibits pitting in its texture
 as a monument to its formation.

-Types of Igneous

2. Sedimentary – Examples of sedimentary stones include

limestone, travertine and sandstone. This means they were
formed over time with the accumulation and subsequent
cementation of layers of mineral and organic particles. As
the components forming these stones can vary from sand
and mud to coral or molluscs skeletons, their overall
appearance can be quite varied – for instance, sandstone,
as the name suggests, is mostly formed by sand size particles and has a
characteristic amber-tan to peachy-red colour while limestone, mainly formed by
molluscs skeletons, tends to have a light colour and display little nicks and shells
through its texture.
 -Types of Sedimentary

3. Metamorphic stones – A process known as metamorphism, which involves

intense heat and pressure, transforms a precursor stone—which may have been
igneous, sedimentary, or an older metamorphic rock—into a new type of stone.
Marble, slate, and quartz are a few examples of metamorphic stones. For instance,
marble is limestone that has undergone this transformation. While veined varieties
of marble are created by impurities like clay, sand, or iron oxide that were initially
present as grains or layers in the precursor limestone, white varieties of marble are
the result of metamorphism of a very pure limestone. Slate is another form of
metamorphic stone that typically develops from sedimentary rocks that have been
exposed to metamorphism, such as clay or volcanic ash. The spilt faced and
 asymmetrical Arkkia crazy paving shown in the image is
a highly durable solution for paths, driveways,
courtyards, swimming pool areas, or garden paving.
Natural stone is divided into 7 several large groups

● Granite
● Marble
● Limestone
● Basalt and Slate
(most important)

-The use of granite – make countertops, floor

tiles, paving stone, curbing, stair treads,
building veneer, and cemetery monuments.
Countertops – Flat surface like table with a
kitchen / organizer under it.
 Floor tiles – It is a commonly know as a thin
square or rectangular coverings that we put as a floor in our house.

Paving stone- a large, flat piece of stone or similar material, used in paving.

Curbing- the aggregate of concrete or stones that form a curb

Stair treads – the level piece of the step that an individual will remain on, and
alongside the riser, is an essential piece of a flight of stairs.

Cemetery monuments – a grave marker, typically one of size and fanfare.

 Marble
Marble as flooring

Marble as wall cladding

Marble as countertop

Limestone
limestone as quarry site
limestone as house

limestone as floor
limestone large scale as a construction material

limestone as countertop
 Basalt

basalt as driveway

basalt as pathway
basalt as veneer

Slate
slate as paving
slate as wall cladding
slate as floor tile
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Finishes - Designing BuildingsFinishes

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