Unit-2 Rural Sanitation

UNIT-2
Rural Sanitation

Sanitation refers to public health conditions related to clean drinking water and adequate treatment
and disposal of human excreta and sewage. Preventing human contact with feces is part
of sanitation, as is hand washing with soap.

Sanitation systems aim to protect human health by providing a clean environment that will stop
the transmission of disease, especially through the fecal–oral route. For example, diarrhea, a main
cause of malnutrition and stunted growth in children, can be reduced through adequate sanitation.
There are many other diseases which are easily transmitted in communities that have low levels of
sanitation, such as ascariasis (a type of intestinal worm infection or helminthiasis), cholera,
hepatitis, polio, schistosomiasis, and trachoma, to name just a few.

A range of sanitation technologies and approaches exists. Some examples are community-led total
sanitation, container-based sanitation, ecological sanitation, emergency sanitation, environmental
sanitation, onsite sanitation and sustainable sanitation. A sanitation system (also referred to as the
''sanitation service chain'') includes the capture, storage, transport, treatment and disposal or reuse
of human excreta and wastewater. Reuse activities within the sanitation system may focus on the
nutrients, water, energy or organic matter contained in excreta and wastewater. This is referred to
as the "sanitation value chain" or "sanitation economy". The people responsible for cleaning,
maintaining, operating, or emptying a sanitation technology at any step of the sanitation chain are
called "sanitation workers".

Conservancy System of Sanitation:

1. Conservancy system is very cheap in initial cost.

2. Due to foul smell from the latrines, they are to be constructed away from the living room, so
building cannot be constructed as compact units.

3. The aesthetic appearance of the city cannot be increased.

4. For burying of excremental matter, large area is required.

5. Excrete is not removed immediately hence its decomposition starts before its removal, causing
nuisance of smell.

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6. Storm water is carried in usually surface drains, hence no problem of pumping the storm water.

7. The quantity of waste liquid reaching the disposed point is less, hence it can be disposed of
without any treatment.

8. The conservancy system is fully dependent on the human agency. In case of strike by the
sweepers, there is danger of insanitary conditions in the city, which may cause spreading of
disease.

Water-carriage systems

1. Water-carriage systems involves high initial cost.

2. As there is no foul smell, latrines remain clean and neat hence are constructed with rooms.

3. Good aesthetic appearance of the city can be obtained.

4. Less area is required as compared with the conservancy system.

5. Excreta is immediately removed with water, no problem of foul smell or hygienic trouble.

6. Sewage is treated before disposing off, it may or may not require pumping, it depends on the
topography of the town.

7. Large quantity of sewage highly polluted in nature, it requires its treatment before disposal. So
it is costlier in operation and maintenance.

8. As no human agency is involved in this system, there is no such problem as in case of

conservancy system.

9. Sewage is treated up to required degree of sanitation.

10. As sewage is disposed of without any treatment, it may pollute the natural water courses.

Public latrine

A public toilet is a room or small building with toilets (or urinals) and sinks that does not belong
to a particular household. Rather, the toilet is available for use by the general public, customers,
travelers, employees of a business, school pupils, prisoners etc.

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Public toilets are commonly separated into male and female facilities, although some are unisex,
especially for small or single-occupancy public toilets. Increasingly, public toilets are accessible
to people with disabilities. Public toilets are known by many other names depending on the
country. Examples are: restroom, bathroom, men's room, and women’s room in the US, washroom
in Canada, and toilets, lavatories, water closet (W.C.), ladies and gents in Europe.

A latrine is a toilet or an even simpler facility that is used as a toilet within a sanitation system.
For example, it can be a communal trench in the earth in a camp to be used as emergency sanitation,
a hole in the ground (pit latrine), or more advanced designs, including pour-flush systems.

Pit latrine is a simple and inexpensive toilet, minimally defined as a hole (pit) in the ground. More
sophisticated pit latrines may include a floor plate, or ventilation to reduce odor and fly and
mosquito breeding (called ventilated improved pit latrine or "VIP latrine").Many military units, if
intended for extended use, place basic shelters and seating over the pits. A pit is typically sited
well away from any water sources to minimize possible contamination. After prolonged use, a pit
is typically buried.

Trench latrine: In a location without longer term sanitation infrastructure, such as for emergency
sanitation, a trench latrine is a workable solution. It typically consists of a pit or a trench in the
ground, 4 feet (1.2 m) to 5 feet (1.5 m) deep and 4 feet (1.2 m) to 20 feet (6.1 m) long.

Ecological sanitation

Ecological sanitation is an age-old “technology” that protects human and ecosystem health while
preventing water pollution, conserving energy, and capturing nutrients.

Ecological sanitation, commonly abbreviated as ecosan (also spelled eco-san or EcoSan), is an

approach to sanitation provision which aims to safely reuse excreta in agriculture. It desires to
"close the loop" mainly for the nutrients and organic matter between sanitation and agriculture.
One of the aims is to minimize the use of non-renewable resources. When properly designed and
operated, ecosan systems provide a hygienically safe system to convert human excreta into
nutrients to be returned to the soil, and water to be returned to the land.

Trenching and composing methods

Trenching Methods

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A Shallow Trench Latrine is a simple improvement of a defecation field (U.5). It consists of one
or several shallowly dug trenches into which people defecate.

Faeces are covered after each use with the dug-out soil, thereby improving overall hygiene and
convenience compared to that of defecation fields. A Shallow Trench Latrine is only recommended
for the immediate emergency response.

Design Considerations

Shallow trenches should be around 20–30 cm wide and 15 cm deep, and shovels may be provided
to allow each user to cover their excreta with soil. If several trenches are foreseen they should be
divided into strips of around 1.5 m width with associated access paths. Trenches furthest from the
entrance should be used first. When a section of trench has its bottom layer fully covered with
excreta it is filled in. Only short lengths of a trench should be opened for use at any one time to
encourage the full utilization of the trench in a short time. It may be appropriate to have a number
of trenches open at the same time. Shallow Trench Latrines are very land use intensive. Materials

Simple digging tools are needed for Shallow Trench Latrines, such as shovels and picks. In order
to assure privacy screening should be provided. This can be done with plastic canvas or materials
such as bamboo, fabrics and others. Shovels for users can be provided to allow each user to cover
their excreta with soil.

Applicability

A Shallow Trench Latrine is only recommended as temporary solution for the acute emergency
response and is not a suitable long-term sanitation solution. It is not considered an improved
sanitation technology and should be stopped as soon as other improved emergency sanitation
solutions are in place.

Operation and Maintenance

After each defecation, faeces should be covered with soil. After one trench section is full, the soil
with excreta should be treated with on-site disinfection such as lime treatment or should be taken
away to a treatment facility. When closing one defecation trench section, privacy screens and

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simple slabs (if applicable) need to be moved to the next trench section. In order to ensure security,
proper use and the opening and closing of defecation trenches there should be an attendant at all
times.

Composing methods

A composting toilet is a type of dry toilet that treats human waste by a biological process called composting.
This process leads to the decomposition of organic matter and turns human waste into compost-like material
but does not destroy all pathogens.

Composting is carried out by microorganisms (mainly bacteria and fungi) under controlled aerobic
conditions. Most composting toilets use no water for flushing and are therefore called "dry toilets".

Composting toilets, together with the secondary composting step, produce a humus-like end
product that can be used to enrich soil if local regulations allow this. Some composting toilets
have urine diversion systems in the toilet bowl to collect the urine separately and control excess
moisture. A vermifilter toilet is a composting toilet with flushing water where earthworms are
used to promote decomposition to compost.

Two pit latrines

A further possible improvement is the use of a second pit which is used in alternation with the first
pit. It means that the first pit can rest for the duration of time it takes to fill up the second pit. When
the second pit is also full, then the first pit is emptied. The fecal sludge collected in that first pit
has in the meantime undergone some degree of pathogen reduction although this is unlikely to be
complete. This is a common design for so-called twin-pit pour flush toilets and increases the safety
for those having to enter the pit.] Also VIPs are sometimes built with two pits, although for VIP
toilets one problem can be that the users may not stick to this alternation method and fill up both
pits at the same time.

The pits should be of an adequate size to accommodate a volume of waste generated over one or
two years. This allows the contents of the full pit enough time to transform into a partially
sanitized, soil-like material that can be manually excavated. It is recommended that the twin pits

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be constructed 1 m apart from each other to minimize cross-contamination between the maturing
pit and the one in use.

Advantages

Advantages of pit latrines may include

• Can be built and repaired with locally available materials

• Low (but variable) capital costs depending on materials and pit depth
• Small land area required

Measures to improve access to safe water, sanitation and better hygiene, which includes
the use of pit latrines instead of open defecation, is believed to be able to prevent nearly
90% of deaths due to infectious diarrhea.

Disadvantages

Disadvantages of pit latrines may include:

• Flies and odors are normally noticeable to the users

• The toilet has to be outdoors with the associated security risks if the person is living in an
insecure situation
• Low reduction in organic matter content and pathogens
• Possible contamination of groundwater with pathogens and nitrate

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• Costs to empty the pits may be significant compared to capital costs

• Pit emptying is often done in a very unsafe manner
• Sludge (called fecal sludge) requires further treatment and/or appropriate discharge

Pit latrines are often relocated or re-built after some years (when the pit is full and if the pit is not
emptied) and thus need more space than urine-diverting dry toilets for example and people are less
willing to invest in a high-quality super-structure as it will have to be dismantled at some point.

Sulabh flush(Two pit latrines) compost toilet is eco-friendly, technically appropriate, socio-
culturally acceptable and economically affordable. It is an indigenous technology and the toilet
can easily be constructed by local labour and materials. It provides health benefits by safe disposal
of human excreta on-site. It consists of a pan with a steep slope of 25°-28° and an especially
designed trap with 20 mm water seal requiring only 1 to 1.5 liters of water for flushing, thus helping
conserve water. It does not need scavengers to clean the pits.

There are two pits of varying size and capacity depending on the number of users. The capacity of
each pit is normally designed for 3 years’ usage. Both pits are used alternately. When one pit is
full, the incoming excreta is diverted into the second pit. In about two years, the sludge gets
digested and is almost dry and pathogen free, thus safe for handling as manure.

Digested sludge is odorless and is a good manure and soil-conditioner. It can be dug out easily and
used for agricultural purposes. The cost of emptying the pit can be met partially from the cost of
manure made available. Sulabh toilet can also be constructed on the upper floors of buildings. It
has a high potential for upgradation, and can later be easily connected to sewers when introduced
in the area. Sulabh has so far constructed over a million individual household toilets in different
parts of the country.

Advantages of Toilets

• Hygienically and technically appropriate, and socio-culturally acceptable.

• Affordable and easy to construct with locally available materials.

• Design and specifications can be modified to suit householder's needs and affordability.

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• Eliminates mosquito, insect and fly breeding.

• Can be constructed in different physical, geological and hydrogeological conditions.

• Free from health hazards and does not pollute surface or ground water, if proper precautions and
safeguards are taken during construction.

• Can be located within the premises as it is free from foul smell and fly/mosquito nuisance etc.

• Can be constructed on upper floors of houses.

• Pits are generally designed for 3-year desludging interval, but if desired, it can be designed for
longer periods or it can be reduced even to two years.

• Maintenance is easy, simple and costs very little.

• Needs only 1 to 1.5 litres of water for flushing, while conventional flush toilet needs 12 to 14
litres of water.

• Needs less space than a septic tank toilet system.

• Does not need scavengers for cleaning the pits or disposal of sludge. This can be done by the
householder.

• Makes available rich fertilizer and soil conditioner.

• Can be easily connected to sewers when introduced in the area.

• A low volume flushing cistern could be attached to avoid pour flushing.

AQUA-PRIVY
An aqua-privy has a watertight tank immediately under the latrine floor. Excreta drop directly into
the tank through a pipe. The bottom of the pipe is submerged in the liquid in the tank, forming a
water seal to prevent escape of flies, mosquitos and smell.

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The conventional aqua privy is essentially a small septic tank located directly below a squatting
plate which has a drop pipe extending below the liquid level in the tank to form a simple water
seal. To prevent odor, fly and mosquito nuisance in the toilet, the water seal has to be maintained
by adding sufficient water per toilet visit to the tank via the drop-pipe to replace any losses. The
excreta are deposited directly into the tank where they are decomposed anaerobically similar to a
septic tank. A housing or shed is built over the tank. A vent pipe with a fly screen at the top end is
attached to the housing. A water-tight tank is desirable to minimize losses. An effluent (overflow)
pipe is installed above the level of the drop-pipe.

Advantages
No danger of clogging by bulky anal cleansing materials.
Low odor and insect problems.
Potential for upgrading.
Minimal risks to health.
Disadvantages
Water seal is often broken particularly during cleaning.
Needs small but significant amount of water to maintain water level.
The tank requires desludging, usually every 2-3 years.
Requires water tight tank, hence more expensive and needs skills to construct.

Applying conditions

• Vaults and chambers are suitable in areas with a hard subsurface and high ground water table.

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• The system can be applied in rural, as well as in urban areas. However, it should be noted that,
if composted and dehydrated matter cannot be used on site, the need for transport will increase
the operation and maintenance costs.
• Processing mixed excreta is only possible in arid climates.
• As with other dry sanitation options, the health risks related to handling of (pre-) treated
excreta or faeces have to be taken into consideration.

Water closet (WC)

A flush toilet (also known as a flushing toilet, water closet (WC) – see also toilet names) is a toilet
that disposes of human excreta (urine and feces) by using water to flush it through a drainpipe to
another location for disposal, thus maintaining a separation between humans and their excreta.
Flush toilets can be designed for sitting (in which case they are also called "Western" toilets) or
for squatting, in the case of squat toilets. Most modern toilets are designed to dispose of toilet
paper also. The opposite of a flush toilet is a dry toilet, which uses no water for flushing.

Flush toilets are a type of plumbing fixture and usually incorporate an "S", "U", "J", or "P" shaped
bend called a trap that causes water to collect in the toilet bowl to hold the waste and act as a seal
against noxious gases. Most flush toilets are connected to a sewerage system that conveys waste
to a sewage treatment plant; where this is not available, a septic tank may be used. When a toilet
is flushed, the wastewater flows into a septic tank, or is conveyed to a treatment plant. Associated
devices are urinals, which dispose of male urine, and bidets, which use water to cleanse the anus,
perineum, and genitals after using the toilet.
• Water Savings. Toilets and urinals account for about half of a typical building’s
water consumption. In the United States, almost five billion gallons of water are
used every day to flush urinals and toilets, according to the Environmental
Protection Agency. Conventional flush-type urinals use about one to five gallons
per flush, depending on their age. Because no-flush urinals use no water, one to five
gallons of water is saved with each use.
• Low Maintenance. Waterless urinals generally require little maintenance. The
absence of a flush valve eliminates valve repairs and reduces opportunities for
tampering. Additionally, overflow due to clogged drains and vandalism is not a

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problem because large amounts of water are not being flushed. According to the
manufacturers, drain lines on waterless urinals are less susceptible to clogging as
the mixture of water and urine, absent with no-flush urinals, causes encrustations to
form in the pipes. Occasional flushing with a few gallons of water is recommended
to keep lines clean.
• Improved Hygiene. Many people think that urine is an unclean substance. However,
it is generally a sanitary liquid, composed mainly of dissolved metabolic waste and
excess water. Urine normally does not contain harmful microorganisms unless the
person is harboring some type of urinary tract infection. Water used by conventional
urinals gives germs in the restroom the moist environment they need to grow.
Manufacturers design waterless urinals to remain dry.

This makes them hostile to bacteria and viruses. Also, flushing tends to send these
microbes airborne, spreading them throughout the restroom. In addition, because
there is no handle, no-flush urinals are touch-free, reducing the spread of
communicable diseases.

Disadvantages

• User Acceptance. Some owners report initial reluctance on the part of users to
psychologically accept waterless urinals. Two universities reported that signs posted
near the urinals explaining how they work and why they were installed seemed to
increase favorable responses.
• Retrofits. When replacing conventional urinals, removal of flush valves and
capping of water supply lines will be necessary. Some remodeling may be required
to lower the drain lines where needed to bring the new waterless urinals to the proper
mounting height.
• Local Approval. Acceptance of no-flush urinals varies from city to city. However,
acceptance of no-flush urinals is now ubiquitous throughout the country with only
three states not yet having their plumbing codes changed.

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Septic tank

• A septic tank is an underground chamber made of concrete, fiberglass, or plastic through

which domestic wastewater flows for basic treatment. Settling and anaerobic processes
reduce solids and organics, but the treatment efficiency is only moderate.
• Septic tank systems are a type of simple onsite sewage facility (OSSF). They can be used
in areas that are not connected to a sewerage system, such as rural areas. The treated liquid
effluent is commonly disposed in a septic drain field, which provides further treatment.
Nonetheless, groundwater pollution may occur and can be a problem.
• The term "septic" refers to the anaerobic bacterial environment that develops in the tank
that decomposes or mineralizes the waste discharged into the tank. Septic tanks can be
coupled with other onsite wastewater treatment units such as biofilters or aerobic systems
involving artificially forced aeration.

The rate of accumulation of sludge—also called septage or fecal sludge—is faster than the rate
of decomposition. Therefore, the accumulated fecal sludge must be periodically removed, which
is commonly done with a vaccum truck

Environmental concerns
Odor and gas emissions

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Some constituents of wastewater, especially sulfates, under the anaerobic conditions of septic
tanks, are reduced to hydrogen sulfide, a pungent and toxic gas. Methane may also be released.
Nitrates and organic nitrogen compounds can be reduced to ammonia. Because of the anaerobic
conditions, fermentation processes take place, which may generate carbon dioxide and/or methane.

Nutrients in the effluent

Septic tanks by themselves are ineffective at removing nitrogen compounds that have potential to
cause algal blooms in waterways into which affected water from a septic system finds its way.
This can be remedied by using a nitrogen-reducing technology or by simply ensuring that the leach
field is properly sited to prevent direct entry of effluent into bodies of water.

The fermentation processes cause the contents of a septic tank to be anaerobic with a low redox
potential, which keeps phosphates in a soluble and, thus, mobilized form. Phosphates discharged
from a septic tank into the environment can trigger prolific plant growth including algal blooms,
which can also include blooms of potentially toxic cyanobacteria.

The soil's capacity to retain phosphorus is usually large enough to handle the load through a normal
residential septic tank. An exception occurs when septic drain fields are located in sandy or coarser
soils on property adjacent to a water body. Because of limited particle surface area, these soils can
become saturated with phosphates. Phosphates will progress beyond the treatment area, posing a
threat of eutrophication to surface waters.

Groundwater pollution

In areas with high population density, groundwater pollution beyond acceptable limits may occur.
Some small towns experience the costs of building very expensive centralized wastewater
treatment systems because of this problem, due to the high cost of extended collection systems. To
reduce residential development that might increase the demand to construct an expensive
centralized sewerage system, building moratoriums and limitations on the subdivision of property
are often imposed. Ensuring existing septic tanks are functioning properly can also be helpful for
a limited time, but becomes less effective as a primary remediation strategy as population density
increases.

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Surface water pollution

In areas adjacent to water bodies with fish or shellfish intended for human consumption,
improperly maintained and failing septic systems contribute to pollution levels that can force
harvest restrictions and/or commercial or recreational harvest closures.

Soak Pit

A Soak Pit is a covered, porous-walled chamber that allows water to slowly soak into the ground.
Pre-settled effluent from septic tank is discharged to the underground chamber from where it
infiltrates into the surrounding soil.

DESIGN

A layer of sand and fine gravel is spread across the bottom to help disperse the flow.

Depth should be between 1.5 and 4m deep, but never less than 1.5m above the ground water
table.

A-MASONRY RING B-STONE OR BRICK AGGREGATE C-BRICK CHAMBER D-30CM

THICK OUTER CASING WITH COARSE SAND E-EFFLUENT FROM SEPTIC TANK

The Soak Pit is filled with coarse rocks and gravel.

The rocks and gravel will prevent the walls from collapsing, but will still provide adequate space
for the wastewater.

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WORKING PRINCIPLE

As wastewater percolates through the soil from the soak pit, small particles are filtered out by
the soil matrix and organics are digested by micro-organism.

Soak pit are best suited to soils with good absorptive properties; clay, hard packed or rocky soils
are not appropriate.

ADEQUACY

A Soak Pit does not provide adequate treatment for raw wastewater and the pit will clog quickly.
A Soak Pit should be used for discharging pre settled black water or grey water.

Soak pits are appropriate for rural and suburban settlements.

They depend on soil with a sufficient absorptive capacity. They are not appropriate for areas
that are prone to flooding or have high groundwater tables.

HEALTH ASPECTS The technology is located underground and thus, humans and animals
should have no contact with the effluent. The Soak Pit is located a safe distance from a drinking
water source (ideally 30m). The Soak Pit is odourless and not visible.

MAINTENANCE the effluent should be clarified or filtered well to prevent excessive buildup
of solids. The Soak Pit should be kept away from high- traffic areas. Particles and biomass
will clog the pit so need to be cleaned or moved. for future access a removable lid should be
used to seal the pit.

ADVANTAGES can be built and repaired with locally available materials. Small land area
required. Power conservative. can be built and maintained with locally available materials.
Simple technique for all users.

DISADVANTAGES Pretreatment is required to prevent clogging, although eventual clogging

is inevitable. negatively affects soil and groundwater properties.

STORM WATER AND SULLAGE DISPOSAL

Sullage may be discharged into storm water drains. Careful hydraulic design is necessary if both
sullage and storm water are to be disposed of in the same drain, to prevent solids in the sullage
being deposited in the drain and causing an obstruction to the flow.

OBJECTS OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL

• To eliminate or reduce danger to the public health by possible contamination of water

supplies.
• To render the sewage inoffensive without causing odour or nuisance.

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• To prevent the life of fish or other aquatic life by allowing raw sewage into bodies of water
as such.
• The destruction of fish & other Aquatic life can be prevented by the sewage disposal
methods.
• With proper sewage disposal the environment or the areas does not become polluted.
• Sanitary conditions are maintained in the area.
There are two principal methods of sewage disposal by utilizing natural agencies i.e.,

1. Dilution i.e., disposal of sewage of water.

2. Land disposal or irrigation.

Both methods are very simple. But these may be regulated carefully so that the quantity of sewage
put in water or applied to land is such that they are capable of receiving the organic load present
in the effluent.

Dilution: Dilution is the disposal of sewage by discharging it into large bodies of water like sea,
streams, rivers etc. This method is possible only when the natural water is available in large
quantity near the town. Proper care should be taken while discharging sewage in water so that
sewage may not pollute natural water and make it unfit for any other purposes like bathing,
drinking, irrigation etc.

The dilution method for disposing of the sewage can be favorable

1. When sewage is comparatively fresh

2. When the diluting water has a high DO content

3. Where diluting waters are not used for the purpose of navigation

4. Where the flow of currents of the diluting water are favorable, causing no deposition,

nuisance or destruction of aquatic life

5. When the outfall sewer of the city or the treatment plant is situated near natural waters.

Dilution in Rivers and self-purification of natural streams

1. Physical forces

a. Dilution and dispersion

b. Sedimentation

c. Sunlight

2. Chemical forces

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a. Oxidation

b. Reduction

Dilution and Dispersion

When the putrescible organic matter is discharged into a large volume of water contained in the
river stream, it gets rapidly dispersed and diluted. The action thus results in diminishing the
concentration of organic matter and thus reduces potential nuisance of sewage.

Sedimentation

The settleable solids if present in sewage effluents will settle down into the bed of the river, near
the outfall of sewage thus helping in the self-purification process.

Sunlight

The sunlight has a bleaching and stabilizing effect of bacteria. It also helps certain microorganisms
to derive energy from it and convert themselves into food for other forms of life through
photosynthesis.

Oxidation

The oxidation of organic matter present in sewage effluents, will start as soon as the sewage
Outfalls into the river water containing DO. The process of oxidation will continue till the Organic
matter has been completely oxidized. This is the most important action responsible for affecting
self-purification of rivers.

The various factors on which these natural forces of purification depend are:

Temperature

Turbulence

Hydrography

SELF PURIFICATION OF NATURAL STREAMS

The automatic purification of natural water is known as self-purification. The self-purification of

natural water systems is a complex process that often involves physical, chemical, and biological
processes working simultaneously.

The amount of dissolved Oxygen (DO) in water is one of the most commonly used indicators of a
river health. As DO drops below 4 or 5 mg/L the forms of life that can survive begin to be reduced.
A minimum of about 2.0 mg/L of dissolved oxygen is required to maintain higher life forms. A
number of factors affect the amount of DO available in a river. Oxygen demanding wastes remove

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DO; plants add DO during day but remove it at night; respiration of organisms removes oxygen.
In summer, rising temperature reduces solubility of oxygen, while lower flows reduce the rate at
which oxygen enters the water from atmosphere.

Factors Affecting Self Purification

1. Dilution: When sufficient dilution water is available in the receiving water body, where the
waste water is discharged, the DO level in the receiving stream may not reach to zero or critical
DO due to availability of sufficient DO initially in the river water before receiving discharge of
wastewater.

2. Current: When strong water current is available, the discharged wastewater will be thoroughly
mixed with stream water preventing deposition of solids. In small current, the solid matter from
the wastewater will get deposited at the bed following decomposition and reduction in DO.

3. Temperature: The quantity of DO available in stream water is more in cold temperature than in
hot temperature. Also, as the activity of microorganisms is more at the higher temperature, hence,
the self-purification will take less time at hot temperature than in winter.

4. Sunlight: Algae produces oxygen in presence of sunlight due to photosynthesis. Therefore,

sunlight helps in purification of stream by adding oxygen through photosynthesis.

5. Rate of Oxidation: Due to oxidation of organic matter discharged in the river DO depletion
occurs. This rate is faster at higher temperature and low at lower temperature. The rate of oxidation
of organic matter depends on the chemical composition of organic matter.

Zones of pollution in a River-Stream

When sewage is discharged into water, a succession of changes in water quality takes place. If the
sewage is emptied into a lake in which currents about the outfall are sluggish and shift their
direction with the wind, the changes occur in close proximity to each other and, as a result, the
pattern of changes is not crisply distinguished. If, on the other hand, the water moves steadily away
from the outfall, as in a stream, the successive changes occur in different river reaches and establish
a profile of pollution which is well defined. However, in most streams, this pattern is by no means
static. It shifts longitudinally along the stream and is modified in intensity with changes in season
and hydrography

1. Zone of degradation: This zone is characterized by water becoming dark and turbid with
formation of sludge deposits at the bottom. Conditions are un-favorable for the development of
aquatic life. Fish may be present feeding on fresh organic matter.

2. Zone of active decomposition: This is characterized by heavy pollution by water becoming

grayish and darker than in the previous zone.DO concentrations may fall below zero and anaerobic

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conditions may set in with the evolution of gases like methane, carbon di oxide, hydrogen sulphide
etc.

3. Zone of Recovery: In this zone the river stream tries to recover from its degraded condition to
its former appearance. Water becomes clearer, algae reappears & there is a rise in DO
concentrations.

4. Zone of cleaner water: In this zone river attains original conditions with DO rising up to the
saturation value. Water becomes attractive in appearance, fish & aquatic organisms reappear.
Throughout the stages of recovery of self-purification, disease organisms are greatly reduced in
number because they lack proper food, and experience unfavorable temperatures and pH values of
water. However, the water is still dangerous since all disease organisms have not perished.

Oxygen Sag Curve

The oxygen sag or oxygen deficit in the stream at any point of time during self-purification process
is the difference between the saturation DO content and actual DO content at that time. The amount
of resultant oxygen deflect can be obtained by algebraically adding the de -oxygenation and re -
oxygenation curves. The resultant curve so obtained is called oxygen sag curve Oxygen deficit, D
= Saturation DO – Actual DO The saturation DO value for fresh water depends upon the
temperature and total dissolved salts present in it; and its value varies from 14.62 mg/L at 0oC to
7.63 mg/L at 30oC, and lower DO at higher temperatures.

The DO in the stream may not be at saturation level and there may be initial oxygen deficit “Do‘.
At this stage, when the effluent with initial BOD load” Lo”, is discharged in to stream, the DO
content of the stream starts depleting and the oxygen deficit (D) increases. The variation of oxygen
deficit (D) with the distance along the stream, and hence with the time of flow from the point of
pollution is depicted by the“Oxygen Sag Curve‘. The major point in sag analysis is point of
minimum DO, i.e., maximum deficit. The maximum or critical deficit (Dc) occurs at the inflexion
points (as shown in fig) of the oxygen sag curve

Deoxygenation and Reoxygenation Curves

De-oxygenation curve: The curve which represents (or) showing the depletion of D.O with time
at the given temperature. Re-oxygenation Curve: In order to counter balance the consumption of
D.O due to the de – oxygenation, atmosphere supplies oxygen to the water and the process is called
the re –oxygenation.When wastewater is discharged in to the stream, the DO level in the stream
goes on depleting. This depletion of DO content is known as deoxygenation.

The rate of deoxygenation depends upon the amount of organic matter remaining (Lt), to be
oxidized at any time t, as well as temperature (T) at which reaction occurs. The variation of
depletion of DO content of the stream with time is depicted by the deoxygenation curve in the
absence of aeration. The ordinates below the deoxygenation curve indicate the oxygen remaining

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in the natural stream after satisfying the bio-chemical demand of oxygen. When the DO content of
the stream is gradually consumed due to BOD load, atmosphere supplies oxygen continuously to
the water, through the process of re-aeration or reoxygenation, i.e., along with deoxygenation, re-
aeration is continuous process.

The rate of reoxygenation depends upon:

i) Depth of water in the stream: more for shallow depth.

ii) Velocity of flow in the stream: less for stagnant water.
iii) Oxygen deficit below saturation DO: since solubility rate depends on difference between
saturation concentration and existing concentration of DO.
iv) Temperature of water: solubility is lower at higher temperature and also saturation
concentration is less at higher temperature

DISPOSAL ON LAND

The method will help in increasing crop yields as the sewage generally contains a lot of fertilizing
minerals and other elements. The effluent irrigation method for disposal of sewage can be
favourably adopted under the following conditions

1. When some natural rivers are not located in the vicinity.

2. When irrigation water is scarcely available broad irrigation may be practiced over it with

the help of sewage effluents.

3. In areas of low rainfall

4. When sandy, loamy or alluvial soils are present.

5. When areas of low water table

METHOD OF LAND TREATMENT

Sewage mainly contains water which can be used for irrigation purposes. The fertilizing

value of sewage is more because it contains nitrogen, potash & phosphate .The sewage can

be applied in the following forms

BROAD IRRIGATION

SEWAGE FARMING

BROAD IRRIGATION In this method, sewage is allowed to flow over cultivated lands, from
which a part of the sewage evaporates, some percolates and the rest escape into surface drainage
channels. Sewage waters the land and adds to its fertilizing value, due to the presence of nitrogen,

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phosphorus, potash etc. These fertilizing elements of sewage are consumed by the roots of crops.
Crops like cotton, potatoes, sugarcane, grass etc, can be profitably grown. This is also called
sewage farming.

SEWAGE FARMING

The process in which sewage is used for growing crops is known as sewage farming .The fertilising
elements of sewage i. e nitrates, sulphates, & phosphates areused by the roots of crops. The
nutrients of sewage make the fields fertile .It is a profitable business & a good income can be
generated by sewage farming.

APPLICATION OF SEWAGE METHODS

FLOODING METHOD

SURFACE IRRIGATION METHOD

ZIG ZAG METHOD

LAGOONING METHOD

BASIN METHOD

SUB-SOIL IRRIGATION METHOD

RIDGE AND FERROW IRRIGATION METHOD.

FLOODING:- The area to be irrigated is divided into various parts surrounded by dykes. The
sewage is filled like small ponds in between the dykes. The depth of dose varies from 3.0 cms. To
5.0 cms. Depending on the irrigation requirements.

SURFACE IRRIGATION:- This method is most suited in sloping area. Here, parallel drains are
constructed in the fields. All these drains are connected to a distributaries drain with the help of
regulating device so that sewage may flow in the require drain. Here when sewage flows over the
fields, its large quantity is absorbed by the field and only excess quantity reaches another drain.

ZIG ZAG METHOD: In this method the ridges are arranged in a zag-zag method with
Corresponding furrows by their side

LAGOONING: These are used cheaply for sewage disposal. In this method the sewage is allowed
to in a natural depression available or artificial constructed tanks. Detention period is about a
month. During this period the sludge is stabilized and dried. The purified effluent passes way from
an outlet placed at the other end. Lagoons should be shallow and must be constructed away from
the town.

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SUB SURFACE IRRIGATION: Here sewage is applied at the roofs of plants, through the open
jointed agricultural drain-pipes. These pipes are laid about 1.0 m below the ground level. The
sewage rises up due to capillary action. Here soil takes fewer loads but this is an economical
method.

BASIN METHOD: In this method big trees are planted in an isolated manner, basins are formed
around each tree. These basins are filled with sewage. This method is suitable for fruit gardens.

RIDGE AND FURROW IRRIGATION: In this method, sewage is supplied in furrows between
crop rows. Sewage spreads laterally irrigating the area between two furrows. The width of furrow
varies from 120-150 cm and the depth from 25-50 cm. The width of the ridge varies from 125-250
cm and length from 10-30 m. The percolated effluent is collected in underground drains flows
towards natural drainage for disposal.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LAND DISPOSAL

Advantages:-

1. Add manure to land

2. Pollution of natural water courses is minimized.

3. Increase fertility of land.

4. Gives high calorific value to crops grown in sewage farms.

5. Does not require any installation of equipment involving high initial cost.

6. Crops could be grown and hence a return value is always possible to obtain.

7. Method specially suitable where large quantity of river water is not available at all times of the
year.

DISADVANTAGES:-

1. Difficult to get land during rainy and harvest seasons.

2. Additional land is required for reserve.

3. Sanitary reasons may not permit growing of crops on sewage farms.

4. More land area is required is sewage volume is greater since land capacity is limited.

5. If all precautions are not taken, sewage farming results in sewage sickness to land and health to
life.

Methods of applying sewage effluents to farms

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1. Surface irrigation called broad irrigation

2. Sub surface irrigation

3. Sprinkler or spray irrigation

Rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is the collection and storage of rain, rather than allowing it to run
off. Rainwater is collected from a roof-like surface and redirected to a tank, cistern, deep pit (well,
shaft, or borehole), aquifer or a reservoir with percolation. Dew and fog can also be collected with
nets or other tools. Rainwater harvesting differs from storm water harvesting as the runoff is
collected from roofs, rather than creeks, drains, roads or any other land surfaces.[1][2] Its uses
include watering gardens, livestock, irrigation, domestic use with proper treatment, and domestic
heating. The harvested water can also be committed to longer-term storage or groundwater
recharge.

Rainwater harvesting is one of the simplest and oldest methods of self-supply of water for
households, and residential and household scale projects usually financed by the user. However,
larger systems for schools, hospitals and other facilities can run up costs only able to be financed
by companies, organization and governmental units.

1. Reduces Flooding and Erosion

Harvesting rainwater can help the environment in a number of ways. For starters, it can reduce
erosion around downspouts and in gardens. It can also control stormwater run-off. Rainwater
doesn’t produce scale and corrosion as hard water does. The collection of rainwater may reduce
flooding in certain areas as well.

2. Reduces Water Bills

Rainwater harvesting will not only help individuals save on their water bills but can cut costs for
entire communities. The cost to supply mains and overall water services can be substantially
reduced when many people in one community use rainwater. Having a source of water can also
reduce dependence on municipal sources in case the water becomes contaminated. Rainwater can
be used as the primary source of water or as a backup source when needed.

3. Reduces Demand on Ground Water

Sources of groundwater are increasingly being strained in many areas throughout the world.
Digging deeper wells is not only expensive but can cause environmental damage such as collapsing
the soil where the water used to be. It only makes sense to use sources of rainwater whenever
possible. Harvested rainwater can be stored and then used during times of drought and when the
groundwater supplies have been depleted.

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4. Can Be Used for Non-drinking Purposes

The majority of the water we need is used for non-drinking. Everything from washing clothes and
dishes to bathing and flushing toilets requires large amounts of water. Rainwater can be used for
all of these things. Rainwater is soft and can lessen the need for detergents when washing clothes
and dishes. Rainwater can also be used for washing vehicles, bathing pets, and nearly all cleaning
that uses water.

5. Can Improve Plant Growth

Rainwater harvesting can also be used to improve plants and gardens. Using harvested water can
flush the salt buildup from plants and soil. Harvested rainwater is generally free from several types
of pollutants and man-made contaminants. Rain is also free from chlorination. Using water that is
clean and healthy for plants and trees can save money on overall property maintenance and
landscaping needs.

While regular maintenance is required, simple collection systems can be constructed that most
people can easily build and maintain. Rainwater harvesting and storage can be incorporated in both
rural and urban areas and provides many benefits to individuals, communities, and the
environment.

THE WATER CONSERVATION BENEFITS OF RAINWATER HARVESTING:

The rainwater that falls on your roof and property is essentially free. All it takes is a method to
harvest it into a tank or cistern for later use. Rainwater harvesting can be a great educational tool
to get people to recognize their individual or household water usage. This can get them to start
conserving water in other areas around their home. For communities that rely on imported water
to supply their needs, collecting rainwater that falls naturally in the community can reduce the
need for imported water. Rainwater harvesting helps utilities reduce peak demands during summer
months, saving treated water for more important and appropriate water uses. While rainwater can
be a perfect primary water source for many uses and situations, it is also a great backup water
supply for emergency situations.

THE ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF RAINWATER HARVESTING:

Rainwater harvesting can reduce storm water runoff from a property. The elimination of runoff
can reduce contamination of surface water with pesticides, sediment, metals, and fertilizers. By
reducing storm water runoff, rainwater harvesting can reduce a storm’s peak flow volume and
velocity in local creeks, streams, and rivers, thereby reducing the potential for stream bank erosion.
Rainwater harvesting systems can be employed as simple and effective methods to meet a
municipality’s storm water management program requirements of individual properties. It is an
excellent source of water for plants and landscape irrigation since it has no chemicals such as
fluoride and chloramines (chlorine).

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Components of Rainwater Harvesting System

• Catchments.
• Coarse mesh.
• Gutters.
• Conduits.
• First flush.
• Filters.
• Storage tanks and.
• Recharge structures.

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