LECTURE NOTE

COURSE CODE- B18CE5020

BASIC GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING-I
 SYLLABUS

UNIT I
INTRODUCTION
Definition of Soil and Soil Mechanics, Soil Problems in Civil Engineering Field, Basic
definition in soil mechanics, Three phase diagram definition & relations. Laboratory methods
of determination of index properties.
Grain size analysis, particle size distribution, Atterberg limits - Plasticity, liquidity and
consistency indexes, Classification of coarse grained and fine grained soils as per BIS.
Introduction:

The term "soil" can have different meanings, depending upon the field in which it is considered.

To a geologist, it is the material in the relative thin zone of the Earth's surface within which roots occur, and which
are formed as the products of past surface processes. The rest of the crust is grouped under the term "rock".

To a pedologist, it is the substance existing on the surface, which supports plant life.

To an engineer, it is a material that can be:

 built on: foundations of buildings, bridges 

 built in: basements, culverts, tunnels 
 built with: embankments, roads, dams 
 supported: retaining walls

Soil Mechanics is a discipline of Civil Engineering involving the study of soil, its behaviour and application as an
engineering material.

Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with
sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles, which are produced by the mechanical and
chemical disintegration of rocks, regardless of whether or not they contain an admixture of organic constituents.

Soil consists of a multiphase aggregation of solid particles, water, and air. This fundamental composition gives rise
to unique engineering properties, and the description of its mechanical behavior requires some of the most classic
principles of engineering mechanics.

Engineers are concerned with soil's mechanical properties: permeability, stiffness, and strength. These
depend primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the current stress, the water content and unit weight.

Formation of Soils:
Soil is formed from rock due to erosion and weathering action. Igneous rock is the basic rock formed from the
crystallization of molten magma. This rock is formed either inside the earth or on the surface. These rocks undergo
metamorphism under high temperature and pressure to form Metamorphic rocks. Both Igneous and metamorphic
rocks are converted in to sedimentary rocks due to transportation to different locations by the agencies such as wind,
water etc. Finally, near the surface millions of years of erosion and weathering converts rocks in to soil .
.

Fig. Geologic Cycle of Soil

Soils are formed from materials that have resulted from the disintegration of rocks by various processes of
physical and chemical weathering. The nature and structure of a given soil depends on the processes and
conditions that formed it:

 Breakdown of parent rock: weathering, decomposition, erosion.


  Transportation to site of final deposition: gravity, flowing water, ice, wind. 
 Environment of final deposition: flood plain, river terrace, glacial moraine, lacustrine or marine. 

 Subsequent conditions of loading and drainage: little or no surcharge, heavy surcharge due to ice or
overlying deposits, change from saline to freshwater, leaching, contamination. 

All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from different rock types.

Weathering:
Physical weathering reduces the size of the parent rock material, without any change in the original composition of
the parent rock. Physical or mechanical processes taking place on the earth's surface include the actions of water,
frost, temperature changes, wind and ice. They cause disintegration and the products are mainly coarse soils.

The main processes involved are exfoliation, unloading, erosion, freezing, and thawing. The principal cause is
climatic change. In exfoliation, the outer shell separates from the main rock. Heavy rain and wind cause erosion of
the rock surface. Adverse temperature changes produce fragments due to different thermal coefficients of rock
minerals. The effect is more for freeze-thaw cycles.

Chemical weathering not only breaks up the material into smaller particles but alters the nature of the original parent
rock itself. The main processes responsible are hydration, oxidation, and carbonation. New compounds are formed
due to the chemical alterations.

Rain water that comes in contact with the rock surface reacts to form hydrated oxides, carbonates and sulphates. If
there is a volume increase, the disintegration continues. Due to leaching, water-soluble materials are washed away
and rocks lose their cementing properties.

Chemical weathering occurs in wet and warm conditions and consists of degradation by decomposition and/or
alteration. The results of chemical weathering are generally fine soils with altered mineral grains.

The effects of weathering and transportation mainly determine the basic nature of the soil (size, shape, composition
and distribution of the particles).

The environment into which deposition takes place, and the subsequent geological events that take place there,
determine the state of the soil (density, moisture content) and the structure or fabric of the soil (bedding,
stratification, occurrence of joints or fissures)

Transportation agencies can be combinations of gravity, flowing water or air, and moving ice. In water or air, the
grains become sub-rounded or rounded, and the grain sizes get sorted so as to form poorly-graded deposits. In
moving ice, grinding and crushing occur, size distribution becomes wider forming well-graded deposits.

In running water, soil can be transported in the form of suspended particles, or by rolling and sliding along the
bottom. Coarser particles settle when a decrease in velocity occurs, whereas finer particles are deposited further
downstream. In still water, horizontal layers of successive sediments are formed, which may change with time, even
seasonally or daily.

Wind can erode, transport and deposit fine-grained soils. Wind-blown soil is generally uniformly-graded.

A glacier moves slowly but scours the bedrock surface over which it passes.

Gravity transports materials along slopes without causing much alteration.

Soil Types:
Soils as they are found in different regions can be classified into two broad categories:

(1)Residual soils
(2) Transported soils

Residual Soils:
Residual soils are found at the same location where they have been formed. Generally, the depth of residual soils
varies from 5 to 20 m.

Chemical weathering rate is greater in warm, humid regions than in cold, dry regions causing a faster breakdown of
rocks. Accumulation of residual soils takes place as the rate of rock decomposition exceeds the rate of erosion or
transportation of the weathered material. In humid regions, the presence of surface vegetation reduces the possibility
of soil transportation.

As leaching action due to percolating surface water decreases with depth, there is a corresponding decrease in the
degree of chemical weathering from the ground surface downwards. This results in a gradual reduction of residual
soil formation with depth, until unaltered rock is found.

Residual soils comprise of a wide range of particle sizes, shapes and composition.

Transported Soils:
Weathered rock materials can be moved from their original site to new locations by one or more of the
transportation agencies to form transported soils. Tranported soils are classified based on the mode of transportation
and the final deposition environment.

(a) Soils that are carried and deposited by rivers are called alluvial deposits.

(b) Soils that are deposited by flowing water or surface runoff while entering a lake are called lacustrine deposits.
atlernate layers are formed in different seasons depending on flow rate.
(c) If the deposits are made by rivers in sea water, they are called marine deposits. Marine deposits contain both
particulate material brought from the shore as well as organic remnants of marine life forms.

(d) Melting of a glacier causes the deposition of all the materials scoured by it leading to formation of glacial
deposits.

(e) Soil particles carried by wind and subsequently deposited are known as aeolian deposits.
Phase Relations of Soils:

Soil is not a coherent solid material like steel and concrete, but is a particulate material. Soils, as they exist in nature,
consist of solid particles (mineral grains, rock fragments) with water and air in the voids between the particles. The
water and air contents are readily changed by changes in ambient conditions and location.

As the relative proportions of the three phases vary in any soil deposit, it is useful to consider a soil model which
will represent these phases distinctly and properly quantify the amount of each phase. A schematic diagram of the
three-phase system is shown in terms of weight and volume symbols respectively for soil solids, water, and air. The
weight of air can be neglected.

The soil model is given dimensional values for the solid, water and air components.

Total volume, V = Vs + Vw + Vv

Three-phase System:

Soils can be partially saturated (with both air and water present), or be fully saturated (no air content) or be
perfectly dry (no water content).

In a saturated soil or a dry soil, the three-phase system thus reduces to two phases only, as shown.

Under Revision
The various relations can be grouped into:

 Volume relations
 Weight relations
 Inter-relations

Basic Definitions

The following are the basic definitions of soil.

1. Water Content (ω)

2. Void Ratio (e)
3. Porosity (n)
4. Degree of Saturation (S)
5. Air content (Ac)
6. Percentage air voids (na)
7. Bulk Density (γb)
8. Dry density (γd)
9. Density of soil solids (γs)
10. Saturated density (γsat)
11. Density of water (γω)
12. Submerged density (γsub)
13. Specific Gravity of Soil Solids (G)
14. Specific Gravity of Soil Mass (Gm)
15. Relative density (Dr)
Each of the above definition is defined with soil represented as three phase diagram.
Volume Relations:

As the amounts of both water and air are variable, the volume of solids is taken as the reference quantity.
Thus, several relational volumetric quantities may be defined. The following are the basic volume relations:

(a) Void ratio (e)

1. It is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to volume of solids
2. It has no unit. It is normally expressed in decimals.
3. It indicates the amount of voids present in a soil mass in comparison with the amount of solids.
4. Normally, void ratio of clayey soil will be large.
5. The more the void ratio, more loose will be the soil mass and hence, less strong and less stiff.
6. It is not possible to determine void ratio in the laboratory. Hence, it is computed from other properties.

b. Porosity (n)
1. It is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil (V ), and is expressed as a percentage.
2. It has no unit. It is expressed in decimals or percentage.
3. Its value ranges from 0 to 100 % (0 < n < 1)
4. Similar to void ratio, it indicates the amount of voids in comparison with the total volume of soil mass
5. In some countries, it is more familiar than void ratio. But either can be used interchangeably in
calculation
6. Like void ratio, porosity is computed and can not be directly determined in the laboratory Like void ratio,
porosity is computed and can not be directly determined in the laboratory

Void ratio and porosity are inter-related to each other as follows:

and

c. Degree of Saturation (S)

1. The volume of water (Vw) in a soil can vary between zero (i.e. a dry soil) and the volume of voids. This
can be expressed as the degree of saturation (S) in percentage.
2. It has no unit. It is usually expressed in percentage
3. Its value ranges from 0 to 100 % (0 < S < 100 %)
4. It represents the amount of water present in the void space of soil mass
5. In dry soil, S = 0 and in fully saturated soil S = 100 %. Hence, during summer S is close to zero, while
during rainy season, S is close to 100 %. In partially saturated soil, S lies between zero to 100 %.
6. It is computed and cannot be directly determined in the laboratory.
7.

For a dry soil, S = 0%, and for a fully saturated soil, S = 100%.
d. Air content (ac)
1. It is the ratio of the volume of air (Va) to the volume of voids.
2. It has no unit. It is usually expressed in percentage
3. Its value ranges from 0 to 100 % (0 < Ac < 100 %).
4. It represents the amount of air present in the void space of soil mass
5. In dry soil, Ac is 100 % and in fully saturated soil A c is 0 %. In partially saturated soil Ac lies between
0 and 100 %.
6. S + Ac = 1
7. It is computed and cannot be directly determined in the laboratory

e. Percentage air voids (na)

1. It is the ratio of the volume of air to the total volume.
2. It has no unit. It is expressed in percentage.
3. Its value ranges from zero to 100 % (0 < na < 100 %).
4. It represents the amount of air present in the total volume of soil mass.

5. Always na < Ac.

6. It is computed and cannot be directly determined in the laboratory.
Weight Relations:

Density is a measure of the quantity of mass in a unit volume of material. Unit weight is a measure of the weight of a
unit volume of material. Both can be used interchangeably. The units of density are ton/m³, kg/m³ or g/cm³. The
following are the basic weight relations:

a. Water content: The ratio of the mass of water present to the mass of solid particles is called the water
content (w), or sometimes the moisture content.

Its value is 0% for dry soil and its magnitude can exceed 100%.

b. Specific gravity of soil solids (G)

1. The mass of solid particles is usually expressed in terms of their particle specific gravity (G) of the soil
grain solids.
2. It is defined as the ratio of weight of soil solids to weight of equivalent volume of soil solids.
3. It is always greater than dry density of soil.

where = Unit weight of water

For most inorganic soils, the value of G lies between 2.60 and 2.80. The presence of organic material reduces
the value of G.

c. Dry unit weight

1. It is defined as the ratio of weight of soil solids to total volume of soil mass.
2. In SI units, it is expressed as kN/m3.
3. Dry density will always be less than or equal to bulk density of soil mass
4. Knowing water content and bulk density, dry density can be computed.

d. Bulk unit weight is a measure of the amount of solid particles plus water per unit volume.

e. Saturated unit weight is equal to the bulk density when the total voids is filled up with water.

f. Buoyant unit weight or submerged unit weight is the effective mass per unit volume when the
soil is submerged below standing water or below the ground water table.
Specific Gravity of Soil Solids (G)
1) It is defined as the weight of soil solids to weight of equal volume of water.

2) Hence, it is the ratio of density of soil solids to density of water.

3) It has no units and is expressed in decimals.

4) Normally, G of most soils varies from 2.6 to 2.75. Organic soils may have G up to 2.

5) G is determined in the laboratory and is used to compute other parameters such as void ratio.

6) Many a times, specific gravity means G

Relative density (Dr)

3. It is also called Density Index.

4. It has no unit. It is expressed in percentage.

5. Dr ranges from 0 to 100 %.

6. It is applicable for coarse grained soil such as sand and gravel.

7. It indicates whether the insitu density of soil is close to loosest or densest state.

emax  e
6. Dr 
e e
max min

8. In terms of dry density, relative density is given as follows.

9.When Dr = 1, soil in its densest state and when Dr = 0, soil is in its loosest state. Table :
Influence of Relative density on Soil State
Relative Density (%) State of Soil
0 to 20 Very Loose
20 to 40 Loose
40 to 60 Medium dense
60 to 80 Dense
80 to 100 Very Dense
Inter-Relations:
1. Relationship between e and n
1. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN e AND n

&
We Know that

1.4.1 Three Phase diagram of Soil

But V=Vs + Vv , But
Divide by V
There fore Vs=V – Vv

Hence

2. Relationship between n and e

2. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN n AND e

We Know that &

1.4.1 Three Phase diagram of Soil

But V=Vs + Vv , Divide by Vs But

Hence
3 Relationship between e, Sr, w and G

3 Relationship between e, Sr, w and G

=

We Know that &

Divide & 1.4.1 Three Phase diagram of Soil

But, Multiply by Vv

Hence

4. Relationship between γBulk , γDry, & w

4. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN γBulk , γDry, & w

1.4.1 Three Phase

diagram of Soil

.
5 Relationship between γBulk , e, S , G & γWat

.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN γBulk , e, S , G & γWat

We Know that

1.4.1 Three Phase

diagram of Soil
But
But
Divide & Multiply by Vv

Divide & Multiply by Vs

If soil Saturates, S=1 If soil is Dry, S=0

Example 1: A soil has void ratio = 0.72, moisture content = 12% and G s= 2.72. Determine
its
(b) Dry unit weight
(c) Moist unit weight, and the
(d) Amount of water to be added per m3 to make it saturated.
Use

Solution:

(a) = 15.51 kN/m3

(b) = 15.51(1+0.12) = 17.38 kN/m3

(c) =

= = 19.62 kN/m3

Water to be added per m3 to make the soil saturated

 = = 19.62 – 17.38 = 2.24 kN

Example 2

Example 2
 INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOIL
GENERAL

Index properties are the properties of soil that help in identification and classification of soil. Water content,
Specific gravity, Particle size distribution, In situ density (Bulk Unit weight of soil), Consistency Limits and
relative density are the index properties of soil. These properties are generally determined in the laboratory.
In situ density and relative density require undisturbed sample extraction while other quantities can be
determined from disturbed soil sampling.

The following are the Index Properties of soil.

1. Water content
2. Specific Gravity
3. In-situ density
4. Particle size distribution
5. Consistency limits
6. Relative Density
DETERMINATION OF INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOIL

This section explains the important methods approved by Indian Standards for the determination of Index
properties of soil both in laboratory and in field.

Water Content

Oven drying method and Calcium carbide method are the two popular methods of determination of water
content. Refer to IS 2720 – Part 2- 1973 for more detail.

1. Oven Drying Method

It is an accurate method of determining water content of soil in the laboratory. The procedure is as follows.

1. Collect a representative sample of soil in a steel cup carrying a lid.

2. Find the weight of cup and lid along with soil (W1)

3. Keep the cup with lid open in a thermostatically controlled oven for 24 hours at around 105 oC. Free
water in the soil evaporates.
4. After cooling the cup, find the weight of cup and lid along with dry soil (W2)
5. Find the empty weight of cup and lid (W3)
2. Calcium Carbide method or Rapid Moisture Meter Method

It is a rapid method of determination of water content of soil. It consists of an air tight container with a
diaphragm and a calibrated meter. About 6 g of soil is mixed with fresh Calcium carbide. The mixture is
rigorously shaken. Water in the soil reacts with Calcium Carbide to release acetylene gas. The amount of gas
produced depends on available water.
This gas creates a pressure on sensitive diaphragm and water content is directly recorded on the calibrated
meter. The method is not very accurate, but is extremely rapid.

Typical picture of Rapid Moisture meter and its assembly

Specific Gravity of Soil Solids
Specific gravity of soil solids is commonly determined by Pycnometer method. Refer to IS 2720 – Part 3-
Sections 1 & 2 - 1981 for more detail.

(1) Pycnometer method

a. Use pycnometer for the determination of specific gravity of coarse grained fraction and density
bottle for that of fine grained fraction.
b. Find the weight of clean, dry and empty pycnometer (W1).
c. Put dry soil (about one third the height) in the pycnometer and find the weight (W2).
d. Add water till the top such that the air bubbles are completely removed and find the weight (W3).
e. Empty the soil and fill water up to the top in the pycnometer and find the weight (W4).
Weight of Soil W2 W1 W2 W1
G Weight of equal volumeof water  (W W )(W W )  WWW W

Bulk Unit weight of soil

The density of soil (especially in coarse grained portion) is the direct indication of strength and stiffness. The
following are the popular methods of finding bulk density in field.

1. Core Cutter Method

2. Sand Replacement method
 Apparatus for field density determination of soil using Core Cutter
Bulk unit weight of soil at the site

Determination of In-situ unit weight of soil by Sand Replacement Method

Apparatus for field density determination of soil from Sand Replacement approach

Particle Size Distribution

It is necessary to adopt a formal system of soil description and classification in order to describe the various
materials found in ground investigation. Such a system must be meaningful and concise in an engineering context, so
that engineers will be able to understand and interpret.

It is important to distinguish between description and classification:

Description of soil is a statement that describes the physical nature and state of the soil. It can be a description of a
sample, or a soil in situ. It is arrived at by using visual examination, simple tests, observation of site conditions,
geological history, etc.

Classification of soil is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar characteristics and
potentially similar behaviour. A classification for engineering purposes should be based mainly on mechanical
properties: permeability, stiffness, strength. The class to which a soil belongs can be used in its description.
The aim of a classification system is to establish a set of conditions which will allow useful comparisons to be made
between different soils. The system must be simple. The relevant criteria for classifying soils are the size distribution
of particles and the plasticity of the soil.

For measuring the distribution of particle sizes in a soil sample, it is necessary to conduct different particle-size tests.

Wet sieving is carried out for separating fine grains from coarse grains by washing the soil specimen on a 75 micron
sieve mesh.

Dry sieve analysis is carried out on particles coarser than 75 micron. Samples (with fines removed) are dried and
shaken through a set of sieves of descending size. The weight retained in each sieve is measured. The cumulative
percentage quantities finer than the sieve sizes (passing each given sieve size) are then determined.

The resulting data is presented as a distribution curve with grain size along x-axis (log scale) and percentage passing
along y-axis (arithmetic scale).

Sedimentation analysis is used only for the soil fraction finer than 75 microns. Soil particles are allowed to settle
from a suspension. The decreasing density of the suspension is measured at various time intervals. The procedure is
based on the principle that in a suspension, the terminal velocity of a spherical particle is governed by the diameter
of the particle and the properties of the suspension.

In this method, the soil is placed as a suspension in a jar filled with distilled water to which a deflocculating agent is
added. The soil particles are then allowed to settle down. The concentration of particles remaining in the suspension
at a particular level can be determined by using a hydrometer. Specific gravity readings of the solution at that same
level at different time intervals provide information about the size of particles that have settled down and the mass of
soil remaining in solution.
Grain-Size Distribution Curve:
The results are then plotted between % finer (passing) and log size.

The size distribution curves, as obtained from coarse and fine grained portions, can be combined to form one
complete grain-size distribution curve (also known as grading curve). A typical grading curve is shown.

From the complete grain-size distribution curve, useful information can be obtained such as:

1.Grading characteristics, which indicate the uniformity and range in grain-size distribution.

2.Percentages (or fractions) of gravel, sand, silt and clay-size. Grading Characteristics

A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. The geometric properties of a grading curve are called
grading characteristics

To obtain the grading characteristics, three points are located first on the grading curve.

D60 = size at 60% finer by weight

D30 = size at 30% finer by weight
D10 = size at 10% finer by weight

The grading characteristics are then determined as follows:

1.Effective size = D10
2.Uniformity coefficient,
3.Curvature coefficient,

Both Cu and Cc will be 1 for a single-sized soil.

Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil, i.e. a soil which has a distribution of particles over a wide size range.

Cc between 1 and 3 also indicates a well-graded soil.

Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil, i.e. a soil which has a very narrow particle size range.

Consistency Limits

Liquid Limit (wL), Plastic Limit (wP) and Shrinkage Limit (wS) are the atterberg limits. These limits
are most useful for engineering purpose in order ro classify the soils.
1. Liquid Limit (wL) : It is the water content corresponding to an arbitrary limit between liquid and
plastic states of consistency of a soil. It is a minimum water content at which soil is still in liquid
state, but possessing a small shear strength and exhibiting some resistance to flow.

2. Plastic Limit (wP) : It is the water content corresponding to an arbitrary limit between plastic and
semi-solid states of consistency of a soil. It is a minimum water content at which soil will just
begin to crumble when rolled in to a thread of approximately 3 mm diameter.
3. Shrinkage Limit (wS) : It is the water content corresponding to an arbitrary limit between semi-
solid and solid states of consistency of a soil. It is the lowest water content at which soil is fully
saturated. It is also the maximum water content at which any reduction in water content will not
reduce the volume of the soil mass.
Figure explains the three limits. Water content is plotted along the horizontal axis and volume of soil
mass is plotted on the vertical axis. It can be seen that the soil mass in dry state possesses some
volume. Any addition of water will not immediately increase the volume as water occupies the void
space till wS is reached. Further increase in water content will continuously increase the volume of
soil mass

achieved.

The liquid limit device is calibrated such that the height fall is 10 mm. The soil is then taken into the cup
such that the surface is parallel to the horizontal. Then using a grooving tool, the soil is taken out such
that the grooving tool is always perpendicular to the cup at the time of
contact.

Blows are given such that handle revolves at 2 revolutions per second. The number of blows required for
the soil to fail is noted and a sample along the failure plane is taken for moisture content determination.
Best results are Determination of Liquid Limit from Casagrande approach

The water content at which a groove cut in a soil paste will close upon 25 repeated drops of a brass
cup with a rubber base.

A required amount of soil passing through a 425µm sieve is mixed with water until a uniform
consistency is obtained for blows ranging between 15 to 35.

Determination of Plastic Limit

The moisture content at which a thread of soil just begins to crack and crumble when rolled to a
diameter of 3 mm. The plastic limit (ωP) is the water content (w%) where soil starts to exhibit
plastic behavior. It is the water content at which a soil changes from a plastic consistency to a
semi-solid consistency. It was developed by Atterberg in 1911. The water content at which a 3
mm thread of soil can be rolled out but it begins to crack and cannot then be re-rolled was
arbitrarily defined as Plastic limit.
Determination of Shrinkage Limit
It is the water content where further loss of moisture will not result in any more volume reduction. It
is much less commonly used than the liquid limit and the plastic limit. It is the water content at
which the soil volume ceases to change.

The following are a few important definitions.

Flow Index (IF)

It is the slope of flow curve.

Toughness Index (IT)

- It is the ratio of plasticity index to flow index.

- It indicates the stiffness of soil.
- More the toughness index, greater will be the stiffness and resistance to deformation of soil

Activity of Clay
It is the ratio of Plasticity Index to percentage clay fraction.
PI
Ac =
% clay fraction (weight )
clay fraction : 0.002 mm
Type of Clay Activity

Inactive Clay < 0.75

Normal Clay 0.75 – 1.25

Active Clay > 1.25

It was proposed by Skempton (1953).

Plasticity Index is influenced by both the amount and type of clay. Activity separates this
effect.
Higher the activity of clay, greater will be the volume increase when wetted, and greater will
be shrinkage when dried.

Determination of Density Index

Please refer to IS 2720 – Part 14 – 1983.
To find emax

• Fill 1000 ml graduated glass cylinder up to 500 ml with distilled water.

• Place a large funnel on top such that its bottom tip is in water.

• Slowly place dry soil in to cylinder through the funnel such that particles settle uniformly &
independently.
• Measure the weight and volume of soil to find dry density and hence emax
To find emin

Place the soil in compaction mould with collar in wet state.

Using needle vibrator compact it and add more soil to fill beyond collar.
Remove the collar and level the soil. Find the volume and dry weight and hence dry density. emin can
be determined later

Example

Example
xample
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Introduction
Soil classification is the arrangement of soils into different groups such that the soils in a particular group
have similar behavior. As there are a wide variety of soils covering earth, it is desirable to classify the
soils into broad groups of similar behavior. Soils, in general, may be classified as cohesionless and
cohesive or as coarse-grained and fine-grained. These terms, however, are too general and include a wide
range of engineering properties. Hence, additional means of classification is necessary to make the terms
more meaningful in engineering practice
The need for Soil Classification
Natural soil deposits are never homogeneous in character; wide variations in properties and behavior are
commonly observed. Deposits that exhibit similar average properties, in general, may be grouped
together, as a class. Through classification of soils one can obtain an appropriate, but fairly accurate, idea
of the average properties of the soil group or a soil type, which is of great convenience in any routine
type of soil engineering project. From engineering point of view, classification may be made based on the
suitability of a soil for use as a foundation material or as a construction material. For complete
knowledge of behavior of soils, all the engineering properties are determined after conducting a large
number of tests. However, an approximate assessment of the engineering properties can be obtained from
the index properties after conducting classification tests. A soil is classified according to index properties,
such as particle size and plasticity characteristics. A classification system thus provides a common
language between engineers dealing with soils. It is useful in exchanging of information and experience
between the geotechnical engineers. It is important to note that soil classification is no substitute for
exact analysis based on engineering properties. For final design of large structures, the engineering
properties should be determined by conducting elaborate tests on undisturbed samples
Requirements for a Soil Classification System:
For a soil classification system to be useful to the geotechnical engineers, it should have the
following basic requirements.
3. It should have a limited number of groups
4. It should be based on the engineering properties, which are most relevant for the purpose for
which the classification has been made.
5. It should be simple and should use the terms, which are easily understood. Any soil
classification must provide with information about the probable engineering behavior of a soil. Most
of the classification systems developed satisfy the above requirements.
Soil Classification Systems
Several classification systems were evolved by different organizations having a specific purpose as
the object. A. Casagrande (1948) describes the systems developed and used in highway engineering,
airfield construction etc. The two classification systems, which are adopted by the US engineering
agencies and the State Departments, are the Unified Soil Classification (UCCS) and the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) system. Other countries,
including India, have mostly the USCS with minor modifications.

For general engineering purposes, soils may be classified by the following systems
1. Particle size classification
 2. Textural classification
3. Highway Research Board (HRB) classification
4. Unified Soil Classification

5. Indian Soil Classification

Indian Standard Classification

As per I.S. Classification (IS: 1498-1970) the soil is divided into six groups:
1. Boulders, particle size greater than 300 mm
2. Cobble, particle size between 80 mm to 300 mm
3. Gravel, particle size between 4.75 mm to 80 mm
4. Sand, particle size between 0.075 mm to 4.75 mm

5. Silt (size), particle size between 0.002 mm to 0.075 mm

6. Clay (size), particle size smaller than 0.002 mm (2 m)

Indian Standard Soil Classification System:

Indian Standard Soil Classification system is in many respects similar to the Unified system.
However, there is one basic difference in the classification of fine-grained soils. The fine-grained
soils in this system are sub-dived into three categories of low, medium and high compressibility
instead of two categories of low and high compressibility in Unified soil classification system.

Soils are divided into three broad divisions:

1. Coarse-grained soils, when 50 % or more of the total material by weight retained on 75 m IS
sieve.
2. Fine-grained soils, when more than 50 % of the total material passes 75 m IS sieve.
3. If the soil is highly organic and contains a large percentage of organic matter and particles of
decomposed vegetation, it is kept in a separate category marked as peat (Pt)
In all, there are 18 groups of soils
Coarse-grained soils – 8 groups
Fine-grained soils – 9 groups
Peat - 1 group
Coarse-Grained Soils
The classification of coarse-grained soils is done on the basis of their grain and gradation
characteristics as illustrated in Table, when the fines (0.0075 mm) present in them are less than 5 %
by weight. Coarse-grained soils are sub-dived into gravel and sand. The soil is termed gravel (G)
when more than 50 % of coarse fraction (>0.0075 mm) is retained on 4.75 mm IS sieve, and termed
sand (S) if more than 50 % of coarse fraction is smaller than 4.75 mm IS sieve. These are further
sub-divided as given in Table into 8 groups.

Coarse-grained soils which contain more than 12 % fines (< 0.0075 mm) are classified as GM or SM
if fines are silty in character (meaning, the limits plot below the A-line on the plasticity chart). On
the other hand they are classified as GC or SC if the fines are clayey in character (meaning the limits
plot above the A-line on the plasticity chart).
Fine-grained Soils
The fine-grained soils are classified on the basis of their plasticity characteristics using the I.S
Plasticity chart shown in Fig. The fine-grained soils are further divided into three sub-divisions
depending upon the values of the liquid limit:
3. Silts and clays of low compressibility – These soils have a liquid limit less than 35 %
(represented by a symbol L)
4. Silts and clays of medium compressibility – These soils have a liquid limit > 35 % but < 50 % (
represented by a symbol I)
5. Silts and clays of high compressibility – These soils have a liquid limit > 35 % (represented
by a symbol H)
Fine-grained soils are further sub-divided, as given in table in 9 groups.

Boundary Classifications:
Sometimes, it is not possible to classify to classify a soil into any one of 18 groups discussed above.
A soil may possess characteristics of two groups, either in particle distribution or in plasticity. For
such cases, boundary classifications occur and dual symbols are used.
a) Boundary classification for coarse-grained soils: Coarse-grained soils having 5 % to 12 % fines
are borderline cases and given a dual symbol. While giving dual symbols, first assume a coarse soil
and then a finer soil i.e., the first part of the symbol is indicative of the gradation of coarse fraction,
while the second part indicates the nature of fines.

For example, a soil with the dual symbol SW-SC is a well-graded sand with ‘clayey’ fines that
plot above A-line.
(i) Boundary classifications within gravel or sand groups can occur. The following
classification are common
GW-GP, GM-GC, GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, SW-SP,
SM-SC, SW-SM, SW-SC, SP-SM.
(ii) Boundary classifications can occur between the gravel and sand groups such as GW-SW, GP-
SP, GM-SM, and GC-SC
Note: The rule for correct classification is to favour the non-plastic classification.
For eg. A gravel with 10 % fines, Cu = 20 and Cc = 2 and IP= 6 will be classified as GW – GM, and
not GW – GC.
b) Boundary classification for fine-grained soils: Fine-
grained soils also can have dual symbols.
(i) If the limits plot in the hatched zone on the plasticity chart, i.e., IP between 4 and 7, the soil
has a group symbol CL – ML.
(ii) If the position of the soil on the plasticity chart falls close to the A-line, dual symbol is
used, such as CI – MI , CH – MH
(iii) If the liquid limit is very close to 35 % or 50 %, dual symbols are used, such as ML – MI, MI
– MH, CL – CI, CI – CH, OL – OI, OI – OH.
c) Boundary classification between coarse-grained and fine-grained soils:
Dual symbols can also be used when the soils have about equal percentage of coarse – grained and fine –
grained fractions. The possible dual symbols in this case are GM – ML, GM – MI, GM – MH, GC – CL,
GC – CI, GC – CH, SM – ML, SM – MI, SM – MH, SC – CL, SC – CI, SC – CH
 CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL 0.075mmSieve

A The 'A' line in this chart is expressed as IP A-line = 0.73 (WL - 20).

Symbols Laboratory Classification Criteria

GW Cu Greater than 4 Determine percentage of gravel and sand

Cc Between 1 and 3 from grain size curve depending on
GP Not meeting all gradation requirements for GW percentage of fines (fraction smaller than
75 μm sieve size); coarse-grained soils are
GM Atterberg limits below “A” line Limits plotting above “A” line with classified as follows:
or Ip less than 4 Ip between 4 and 7 are border line Less than 5 %:
cases requiring use of dual GW, GP, SW,SP
GC Atterberg limits above “A” line Symbols More than 12 %:
with Ip greater than 7
GM, GC, SM,SC
SW Cu Greater than 6 5 % to 12 % : Border line cases requiring
Cc Between 1 and 3
use of dual symbols
SP Not meeting all gradation requirements for SW Uniformity coefficient,
SM Atterberg limits below “A” line Limits plotting above “A” line Coefficient of Curvature,
or Ip less than 4 with Ip between 4 and 7 are
SC Atterberg limits above “A” line border line cases requiring use of
with Ip greater than 7 dual symbols

Peat and other highly Readily identified by colour, odour,

organic soils with very high spongy feel and frequently by fibrous
High organic soil Pt compressibility texture
worked Example:

The following test results were obtained for a fine-grained soil:

WL= 48% ; WP = 26%
Clay content = 55%
Silt content = 35%
Sand content = 10%
In situ moisture content = 39% = w

Classify the soil, and determine its activity and liquidity index

Solution:
Plasticity index, IP = WL– WP = 48 – 26 = 22%

Liquid limit lies between 35% and 50%.

According to the Plasticity Chart, the soil is classified as CI, i.e. clay of intermediate
plasticity.

Liquidity index , = = 0.59

The clay is of normal activity and is of soft consistency.