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Lecture 02

The document discusses propositional logic, focusing on implications, biconditionals, and truth tables. It explains the structure of conditional statements, their converses, contrapositives, and inverses, along with how to construct truth tables to demonstrate logical equivalences and non-equivalences. Additionally, it outlines the precedence of logical operators.

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3 views20 pages

Lecture 02

The document discusses propositional logic, focusing on implications, biconditionals, and truth tables. It explains the structure of conditional statements, their converses, contrapositives, and inverses, along with how to construct truth tables to demonstrate logical equivalences and non-equivalences. Additionally, it outlines the precedence of logical operators.

Uploaded by

ZenitsuAgatsuma
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Lecture 2:

Propositional Logic
Section 1.1 (Continued)
Implication
Implication
● If p and q are propositions, then p →q is a conditional statement or
implication which is read as “if p, then q ” and has this truth table:

p q p →q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

● Example : If p denotes “I am at home.” and q denotes “It is


raining.” then p →q denotes “If I am at home then it is raining.”
● In p →q , p is the hypothesis (antecedent or premise) and q is
the conclusion (or consequence).
An example
An example
Understanding Implication
○ In p →q there does not need to be any connection
between the antecedent or the consequent. The
“meaning” of p →q depends only on the truth values of
p and q.
● These implications are perfectly fine, but would not be
used in ordinary English.
○ “If the moon is made of green cheese, then I have more
money than Bill Gates. ”
○ “If the moon is made of green cheese then I’m on
welfare.”
○ “If 1 + 1 = 3, then you will buy combat boots.”
Understanding Implication (cont)
● Another way to view the logical conditional is to think
of an obligation or contract.
○ “If I am elected, then I will lower taxes.”
○ “If you get 100% on the final, then you will get an A.”
● If the politician is elected and does not lower taxes,
then the voters can say that he or she has broken the
campaign pledge. Something similar holds for the
professor. This corresponds to the case where p is true
and q is false.
Different Ways of Expressing p →q
● if p, then q ● p implies q
● if p, q ● p only if q
● q unless ¬p ● q when p
● q if p ● q if p
● q whenever p ● p is sufficient for q
● q follows from p ● q is necessary for p

● a necessary condition for p is q


● a sufficient condition for q is p
Converse, Contrapositive and Inverse
Converse, Contrapositive, and Inverse
● From p →q we can form new conditional statements .
○ q →p is the converse of p →q
○ ¬q → ¬ p is the contrapositive of p →q
○ ¬ p → ¬ q is the inverse of p →q
Example : Find the converse, inverse, and
contrapositive of “Raining is a sufficient condition for
me not going to town.”
Solution:
converse : If I do not go to town, then it is raining.
inverse : If it is not raining, then I will go to town.
contrapositive : If I go to town, then it is not raining.
Biconditional
● If p and q are propositions, then we can form the biconditional
proposition p ↔q , read as “p if and only if q .” The biconditional p
↔q denotes the proposition with this truth table:

p q p ↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

● If p denotes “I am at home.” and q denotes “It is raining.” then


p ↔q denotes “I am at home if and only if it is raining.”
Expressing the Biconditional
● Some alternative ways “p if and only if q” is expressed
in English:

○ p is necessary and sufficient for q


○ if p then q , and conversely
○ p iff q
Truth Tables For Compound
Propositions
● Construction of a truth table:
● Rows
○ Need a row for every possible combination of values for
the atomic propositions.
● Columns
○ Need a column for the compound proposition (usually at
far right)
○ Need a column for the truth value of each expression that
occurs in the compound proposition as it is built up.
■ This includes the atomic propositions
Example Truth Table
● Construct a truth table for
p q r ¬r p∨q p ∨ q → ¬r
T T T F T F
T T F T T T
T F T F T F
T F F T T T
F T T F T F
F T F T T T
F F T F F T
F F F T F T
Equivalent Propositions
● Two propositions are equivalent if they always have
the same truth value.
● Example : Show using a truth table that the conditional
is equivalent to the contrapositive.
Solution:
p q ¬p ¬q p →q ¬q → ¬ p
T T F F T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
Using a Truth Table to Show
Non-Equivalence
Example : Show using truth tables that neither the
converse nor inverse of an implication are not
equivalent to the implication.
Solution:
p q ¬p ¬q p →q ¬ p →¬ q q→p
T T F F T T T
T F F T F T T
F T T F T F F
F F T T T T T
Problem
● How many rows are there in a truth table with n
propositional variables?

Solution : 2n

● Note that this means that with n propositional


variables, we can construct 2n distinct (i.e., not
equivalent) propositions.
Precedence of Logical Operators
Operator Precedence
¬ 1
∧ 2
∨ 3
→ 4
↔ 5

p ∨ q → ¬r is equivalent to (p ∨ q) → ¬r
If the intended meaning is p ∨( q → ¬r )
then parentheses must be used.

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