WHAT ARE CARBON GROUPS

The "carbon group" refers to Group 14 (or Group 4A) on the periodic table, which
includes elements like carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb),
and flerovium (Fl). The carbon family is located very nearly in the middle of the
periodic table, with nonmetals to its right and metals to its left.

This group is characterized by its members having four valence electrons i.e (two
in the s orbital and two in the p orbitals), and they are all located in the p-block of
the periodic table.
The carbon family is also known as the "tetrels", “tetragens” or "crystallogens" due
to the four valence electrons shared by all elements in the group. This group is
named after its most well-known member, carbon, which is the building block of
life and many other organic compounds.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF GROUP 14 ELEMENTS

The group 14 elements have a general electronic configuration of ns2np2. These
elements have 2 electrons in the outermost p orbitals. The electronic
configuration of these elements is shown below:
PERI ELEME ATO ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
OD NT MIC
NO.
2nd Carbon 6 1s² 2s² 2p²
(C)
3rd Silicon 14 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p²
(Si)
4th German 32 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²
ium
(Ge)
5th Tin (Sn) 50 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s² 3d¹⁰ 4p⁶ 5s² 4d¹⁰ 5p²
6th Lead 82 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s² 3d¹⁰ 4p⁶ 5s² 4d¹⁰ 5p⁶ 6s² 4f¹⁴
(Pb) 5d¹⁰ 6p²
7th 114 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14 5s2 5p6 5d10 5f
Flerovi 14
6s2 6p6 6d10 7s2 7p2
um (Fl)

As all the elements in group 14 have 4 electrons in the outermost shell, the valency
of group 14 elements is 4. They use these electrons in the bond formation in order
to obtain an octet configuration.
The electronic configuration was obtain using the “Aufbau diagram" or a "diagonal
rule in which
electrons fill orbitals of lower energy levels before filling higher energy levels,
follow the order: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d,
7p.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON GROUPS

(GROUP14)
1. Metallic Character:
The metallic character increases as you move down the group. Carbon and silicon
are non-metals, germanium is a metalloid, and tin and lead are soft metals. This
trend is related to the increasing atomic size and decreasing electronegativity as
you move down the group.
***Atomic size: generally, refers to the trend where the size of an atom increases
as you move down a group (column) in the periodic table. This is primarily due to
the addition of electron shells, increasing the distance between the nucleus and the
outermost electrons.
***Electronegativity: The ability of an atom to attract electrons in a chemical
bond, generally decreases down the group. Carbon, being the most electronegative
member of the group, has a high tendency to form covalent bonds. As the group
descends, the tendency to form ionic bonds increases
2. Melting and Boiling Points:
All Group 14 elements are solids at room temperature. Carbon, silicon, and
germanium have high melting and boiling points due to strong covalent bonding.
Tin and lead have lower melting points, exhibiting the "inert pair effect" where the
inner electrons are less involved in bonding.
***The inert pair effect: describes the tendency of heavier p-block elements,
particularly in Groups 13-16, to exhibit oxidation states that are two less than their
predicted maximum valency. This is due to the reluctance of the two s-electrons in
the outermost shell (ns²) to participate in bonding. For instance, while carbon in
Group 14 typically shows a +4 oxidation state, lead exhibits a +2 state, which is
more stable.
3. Atomic and Ionic Radii:
The atomic and ionic radii of Group 14 elements increase as you move down the
group. This is due to the addition of new energy levels and the increasing number
of electron shells.
4. Density:
Element density generally increases as you move down the group.
5. Electrical Conductivity:
Carbon's electrical conductivity varies among its allotropes, with graphite being a
good conductor and diamond having low conductivity. The other elements exhibit
increasing electrical conductivity as metallic character increases down the group.
7. Allotropy:
Except for lead, all other elements in the group display allotropy, existing in
multiple forms with varying physical properties. Carbon, for example, has a wide
range of allotropes, including diamond, graphite, and fullerenes.
8. Oxidation States:
In Group 14 elements, the +2 oxidation state becomes increasingly more stable
than the +4 oxidation state as you move down the group, from carbon to lead. This
trend is primarily attributed to the inert pair effect
Stability of +2 vs. +4 Oxidation States:
 +2 Oxidation State:
o In the +2 state, the group 14 elements effectively lose the two p
electrons, leaving the ns² electrons inert.
o This is energetically favorable due to the inert pair effect, which
makes the ns² electrons less likely to be involved in bonding.
o As you move down the group, the stability of the +2 state increases
due to the enhanced inert pair effect.
 +4 Oxidation State:
o In the +4 state, all four valence electrons (2s² and 2p²) are involved in
bonding.
o Removing the ns² electrons requires more energy, especially as the
atomic size increases and the inert pair effect becomes stronger.
o Therefore, the +4 oxidation state becomes progressively less stable
down the group.
Examples:
Carbon: Primarily exhibits +4 oxidation states, as the inert pair effect is not as
significant.
Germanium, Tin, and Lead: Exhibit both +2 and +4 oxidation states, but the +2
state becomes increasingly more stable as you move down the group, with lead
showing a strong preference for the +2 state.
In summary, the inert pair effect explains why the +2 oxidation state becomes
more stable than the +4 oxidation state in Group 14 elements as you move down
the group. This is because the heavier elements have a stronger tendency to retain
9. Redox Reaction:
Sn(II) is a reducing agent, while Pb(IV) is an oxidizing agent due to the inert pair
effect, where the ns² electrons of the valence shell are less stable and thus less
readily used for bonding, especially in the heavier elements like Pb. This effect
makes Sn(II) more likely to lose two electrons and form Sn(IV), thus acting as a
reducing agent. Conversely, Pb(IV) is more stable and tends to gain electrons to
become Pb(II), thus acting as an oxidizing agent.
their ns² electrons (the inert pair), leading to greater stability in the +2 state

10. Catenation
Carbon is unique among the elements in the almost infinite capacity of its atoms to
bond to each other in long chains, a process called catenation (Latin catena, chain).
This characteristic reflects the strength of the bond between adjacent carbon atoms
in the molecule, both in relationship to similar bonds involving other elements of
the carbon family and in relationship to bonds between carbon atoms and atoms of
many other elements. Only the carbon–hydrogen, carbon–fluorine, and carbon–
oxygen single bonds (C―H, C―F, and C―O) are stronger than the carbon–carbon
single bond (C―C), and each of these is weaker than the carbon–carbon multiple
bonds (C=C or C≡C). On the other hand, the silicon–silicon single bond (Si―Si) is
weaker than other single bonds involving an atom of other elements with the
silicon atom. The same is undoubtedly true of the germanium–germanium and tin–
tin single bonds (Ge―Ge, Sn―Sn) in relationship to single covalent bonds
between atoms of these elements and atoms of other elements. Catenation is also
exhibited to a high degree by elemental silicon, germanium, and tin, but it is
strictly limited in compounds of these elements; silicon may have up to 14 atoms
in a chain; germanium, 9; and tin, 2 or 3 only, largely in hydrides (compounds
containing hydrogen). Double and triple bonds in catenated arrangements are
limited to carbon.
OXIDES OF GROUP 14
Group 14 elements (also known as the carbon family) form two main types of
oxides: monoxides (MO) and dioxides (MO2). Carbon forms both carbon
monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2), while silicon, germanium, tin, and lead
primarily form dioxides like silica (SiO2), germanium dioxide (GeO2), tin dioxide
(SnO2), and lead dioxide (PbO2).
Monoxides (MO):
In these oxides, each atom of the group 14 element forms an oxide with one
oxygen atom. For example, Carbon with Oxygen forms Carbon Monoxide
 Carbon monoxide (CO): A neutral oxide, it's a poisonous gas.
 Silicon monoxide (SiO): Less stable than silicon dioxide and not typically
formed in significant quantities. It has not been fully characterized.
 Germanium monoxide (GeO): Is a basic oxide. Less stable and less
common than germanium dioxide, according to an inorganic chemistry
resource.
 Tin monoxide (SnO): An amphoteric oxide, meaning it can react with both
acids and bases, according to an inorganic chemistry resource.
 Lead monoxide (PbO): Also an amphoteric oxide, known as litharge,
according to an inorganic chemistry resource
Dioxides (MO2):
In these oxides, each atom of the group 14 element forms an oxide with two
oxygen atoms. For example,
 Carbon dioxide (CO2): A common and important oxide, it's acidic and
plays a role in photosynthesis and respiration.
  Silicon dioxide (SiO2): Commonly known as silica, it's a key component of
sand and glass, and is weakly acidic, according to an inorganic chemistry
resource.
 Germanium dioxide (GeO2): An amphoteric oxide, similar to silica but
with more metallic character.
 Tin dioxide (SnO2): Another amphoteric oxide, used as a jewelry
abrasive.
 Lead dioxide (PbO2): Also an amphoteric oxide, used in lead-acid batteries
and as a pigment. Lead also forms a mixed oxide, Lead tetroxide (Pb3O4),
which is a combination of PbO and PbO2.

Acidic, Basic, and Amphoteric Oxides:

 Acidic oxides: These react with water to form acids (e.g., CO2, SiO2,
GeO2).
 Basic oxides: These react with water to form bases (e.g., GeO).
 Amphoteric oxides: These can react with both acids and bases (e.g., SnO,
PbO, SnO2, PbO2).

NOTE: the reactivity and stability of these oxides often change with the
state of matter and temperature, affecting their physical and chemical
properties.

BOND FORMATION IN CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2 ) AND CARBON

MONOXIDE (CO)
Carbon dioxide molecule (CO2):
Carbon dioxide is a covalent compound comprised of three atoms, carbon
surrounded by two oxygens. Both carbon and oxygen contain p orbitals that are
able to interact based on symmetry compatability. Carbon is four electrons short of
a full outer shell (8 electrons) and oxygen is two electrons short of a full outer shell
(8 electrons), so one carbon atom shares its four outer electrons with two outer
electrons from each of the oxygen atoms, so all three atoms now have a full outer
shell of 8 electrons in the formation of two double bonds (O=C=O). Each double
bond is comprised of one sigma bond and one π bond.
Electronically, carbon (2.4) becomes like neon (2.8) and oxygen (2.6), also
becomes like neon (2.8), so the hydrogen and carbon atoms effectively have full
outer shells in forming the covalent bonds when the atoms share their outer
electrons as shown below.

(Lewis diagram of carbon dioxide) simplified 'dot and cross' electronic diagram for
the covalently bonded carbon dioxide molecule.
Note:
 CO2 has a linear shape, and the O=C=O bond angle is 180o.
 The valencies of C and O are 4 and 2 respectively.
 The carbon dioxide molecule is held together by the strong C=O carbon–
oxygen double covalent bonds by sharing electrons.

Carbon monoxide molecule (CO):

A coordinate bond (also called a dative covalent bond) is a covalent bond (a shared
pair of electrons) in which both electrons come from the same atom. A covalent
bond is formed by two atoms sharing a pair of electrons. The atoms are held
together because the electron pair is attracted by both of the nuclei. In the
formation of a simple covalent bond, each atom that are bonding contributing one
of the electrons to the shared pair. There is an alternate type of covalent bond in
which one of the atoms provides both of the electrons in a shared pair. The bonding
between the C atom and the O atom can be thought of in the following procession:

Formation of a CO double bond (incorrect structure)

At this point, a double bond has formed between the two atoms, with each
atom providing one of the electrons to each bond. The oxygen atom now has a
stable octet of electrons, but the carbon atom only has six electrons and is unstable.
This situation is resolved if the oxygen atomcontributes one of its lone pairs in
order to make a third bond with the carbon atom

Correct CO structure.

Within the triple bond, one sigma bond is formed through head-on overlap of
atomic orbitals, and two pi bonds are formed through sideways overlap of atomic
orbitals.
The carbon monoxide molecule is correctly represented by a triple covalent
bond between the carbon and oxygen atoms. One of the bonds is
a coordinate covalent bond, a covalent bond in which one of the atoms
contributes both of the electrons in the shared pair. Once formed, a
coordinate covalent bond is the same as any other covalent bond. It is not as if the
two conventional bonds in the CO molecule are stronger or different in any other
way than the coordinate covalent bond.
Since the electrons are being donated from Oxygen atom to Carbon atom,
therefore, in actual structure of Carbon monoxide, there exists a partial positive
charge on Oxygen atom and Partial negative charge on Carbon atom as shown
below:
Note:
 CO has the strongest chemical bond observed, with a bond dissociation
energy of 1072 kJ/mol.
 CO has three resonance configurations
In summary: Both CO and CO2 have covalent bonds, formed by sharing electrons
between the carbon and oxygen atoms. However, CO has a triple bond between the
carbon and oxygen, while CO2 has double bonds between the carbon and each
oxygen atom.

POISONOUS NATURE OF CARBON MONOXIDE

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless and odorless poisonous gas produced by
incomplete combustion of fuels like wood, gas, and coal. Carbon monoxide
interferes with the body's ability to transport oxygen, as it binds to hemoglobin in
the blood cell, which is the protein responsible for carrying oxygen, thereby
forming carboxyhemoglobin. This binding is significantly stronger than oxygen
binding, preventing hemoglobin from carrying oxygen to the body's tissues and
organs. This leads to hypoxia, where the body's tissues don't receive enough
oxygen, causing serious health problems like headache, dizziness, nausea, and
fatigue. More severe cases can lead to loss of consciousness, coma, and death.

DIFFERENCE IN STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF CO2 AND SO2

Structure of CO2 and SO2
Carbon dioxide is a covalent compound comprised of three atoms, carbon
surrounded by two oxygens. Both carbon and oxygen contain p orbitals that are
able to interact based on symmetry compatability. Carbon is four electrons short of
a full outer shell (8 electrons) and oxygen is two electrons short of a full outer shell
(8 electrons), so one carbon atom shares its four outer electrons with two outer
electrons from each of the oxygen atoms, so all three atoms now have a full outer
shell of 8 electrons in the formation of two double bonds (O=C=O). Each double
bond is comprised of one sigma bond and one π bond.
SO2 is a covalent compound, meaning the bonds between sulfur and oxygen are
formed by sharing electrons between atoms. The molecule's geometry is bent (or
angular) because of the lone pair of electrons on the sulfur atom. These lone pairs
repel the bonding pairs of electrons, causing the molecule to bend rather than be
linear. There are two resonance structures for SO2, one with a double bond to one
oxygen and a single bond to the other, and vice versa. Despite the bent shape, SO2
is still considered a polar molecule due to the uneven distribution of electrons and
the presence of polar bonds.

Difference between CO₂ (carbon dioxide) and SO₂ (sulfur dioxide)

CO₂ (carbon dioxide) and SO₂ (sulfur dioxide) can be classified differently even
though they have similar formula as both belong to the AB2 type (A = C in CO2
and S in SO2; B = O in both cases).,SO₂ (sulfur dioxide) and CO₂ (carbon
dioxide) have different molecular structures because of the differences in the atoms
present in each molecule and their arrangement within the molecules.

CO2
 On the other hand, CO₂ consists of one carbon (C) atom and two oxygen (O)
atoms. Carbon forms two double bonds with the two oxygen atoms
(O=C=O), resulting in a linear molecular structure (linear molecular
geometry). The carbon-oxygen double bonds are formed by sharing two
pairs of electrons, creating a linear arrangement.
  The molecule is symmetrical, which means that the dipoles from the two
C=O bonds cancel each other out.
 CO₂ is a non-polar molecule due to its linear symmetry

SO2
 In the case of SO₂, sulfur (S) and oxygen (O) atoms are present. Sulfur
forms two bonds with oxygen, resulting in a bent or V-shaped molecular
structure. This bent structure occurs due to the presence of two lone pairs of
electrons on the sulfur atom, which create repulsion and force the bonding
pairs closer together.

 The bent shape leads to an unequal distribution of electron density, creating

a net dipole moment.
 SO₂ is a polar molecule because of its bent shape and the resulting dipole
moment.
Summary: The different atomic compositions and bonding arrangements lead to
distinct molecular structures for SO₂ and CO₂. SO₂ has a bent shape with a central
sulfur atom and two oxygen atoms, while CO₂ has a linear shape with a central
carbon atom and two oxygen atoms.
Properties of CO2 and SO2
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂):
 Physical Properties:
 Colorless and odorless gas.
 Non-flammable.
 Slightly soluble in water, with solubility decreasing as temperature
increases.
  Denser than air.
 Melting point: -56.6°C, Boiling point: -78.5°C.
 Forms a solid (dry ice) by sublimation.
 Molecular weight: 44.01.
 Chemical Properties:
 Reacts with water to form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃), contributing to the
acidity of rain.
 Absorbs infrared radiation, contributing to the greenhouse effect and
climate change.
 Used in fire extinguishers due to its non-flammability.
Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂):
 Physical Properties:
 Colorless gas with a pungent odor, often described as a rotten egg
smell.
 Easily liquefies and highly soluble in water.
 Denser than air.
 Melting point: -72.7°C, Boiling point: -10°C.
 Chemical Properties:
 Dissolves in water to form sulfurous acid (H₂SO₃), a weak acid.
 Contributes to acid rain and air pollution.
 Acts as a reducing agent in various chemical processes.
 Used in industrial processes like paper making and food preservation.

WHAT ARE HYDRIDES

The term hydride is commonly named after binary compounds that hydrogen forms
with other elements of the periodic table. Hydride compounds in general form with
almost any element, except a few noble gases. The trends and properties vary
according to the type of intermolecular force that bonds the elements together, the
temperature, its molecular masses, and other components. Hydrides are classified
into three major groups, depending on what elements the hydrogen bonds to. The
three major groups are covalent, ionic, and metallic hydrides. Formally, hydride is
known as the negative ion of a hydrogen, H-, also called a hydride ion. Because of
this negative charge, hydrides have reducing, or basic properties.
TYPES OF HYDRIDES
Hydrides are mainly divided into three major types or groups. The categories are
based on what elements the hydrogen forms bonds with or simply on the basis
of chemical bonding. The three types of hydrides are ionic, covalent, and metallic
hydrides.
Covalent Hydrides
The first major group is covalent hydrides, which is when a hydrogen atom and
one or more non-metals form compounds. This occurs when hydrogen covalently
bonds to a more electropositive element by sharing electron pairs. These hydrides
can be volatile or non-volatile. Volatile simply means being readily able to be
vaporized at low temperatures. One such example of a covalent hydride is when
hydrogen bonds with chlorine and forms hydrochloric acid (HCl). Examples are
listed below:
H2(g)+Cl2(g)⟶2HCl(g) (1)
3H2(g)+N2(g)⟶2NH3(g) (2)
The hydrides of nonmetals on the periodic table become more electronegative as
you move from group 13 to 17. This means that they are less capable of donating
an electron, and want to keep them because their electron orbital becomes fuller.
Instead of donating a H−, they would instead donate a H+ because they are more
acidic.

Ionic Hydrides
The second category of hydrides are ionic hydrides (also known as saline
hydrides or pseudohalides). These compounds form between hydrogen and the
most active metals, especially with the alkali and alkaline-earth metals of group
one and two elements. In this group, the hydrogen acts as the hydride ion (H−).
They bond with more electropositive metal atoms. Ionic hydrides are usually
binary compounds (i.e., only two elements in the compound) and are also insoluble
in solutions.
A(s)+H2(g)⟶2AH(s)
with A as any group 1 metal.
A(s)+H2(g)⟶AH2(s)
with A as any group 2 metal.

For example, when an alkali metal reacts with hydrogen gas under heat, an ionic
hydride is produced. Alkali metal hydrides also react with water to produce
hydrogen gas and a hydroxide salt:

M(s)+H2(g)⟶2MH(s)
MH(s)+H2O(l)⟶MOH(aq)+H2(g)
Ionic hydrides combine vigorously with water to produce hydrogen gas.

Metallic Hydrides
The third category of hydrides are metallic hydrides, also known as interstitial
hydrides. Hydrogen bonds with transition metals. One interesting and unique
characteristic of these hydrides are that they can be nonstoichiometric, meaning
basically that the fraction of H atoms to the metals are not fixed.
Nonstoichiometric compounds have a variable composition. The idea and basis for
this is that with metal and hydrogen bonding there is a crystal lattice that H atoms
can and may fill in between the lattice while some might, and is not a definite
ordered filling. Thus it is not a fixed ratio of H atoms to the metals. Even so,
metallic hydrides consist of more basic stoichiometric compounds as well.

WHAT IS HALID
Halides are binary compounds made up of any other element and a halogen.
Halides are also formed when a halogen atom is substituted for a hydrogen atom in
a molecule, such as in the formation of alkyl halides from alkanes. Most of the
salts are halides. Various halide compounds are tested using a silver nitrate
solution. When halogen reacts with silver nitrate solution, precipitation will be
formed, and it varies in colour depending upon the type of halides. Fluorides do
not form precipitates. Chlorides give white precipitate, bromides give pale yellow
precipitate and iodides give a dark yellow precipitate with silver nitrate. Some of
the halide salts include Kl, KBr, and KCl.
A halogen Atom with a negative charge is termed the halide ion. Halide minerals
includes halide anions. Fluorite and halite are two important halide minerals.
Fluorite is the main source of hydrogen fluoride. Halite is a primary source
of Sodium Chloride. Bischofite forms a primary source of magnesium. Many of
the halides are present in marine evaporite deposits. A few of the halide anions
include iodide, bromide, chloride, and fluoride.
Metal Halides are the compounds formed between a halogen and metal. Some are
covalently bound, and some are ionic. Covalently bonded metal ions may form
polymeric structures. Metal Halides are formed when all halogens react with metal.
The reaction between a metal and halogen can be represented as
2M+nX2→2MXn
where M is a metal, X is a halogen, such as (F, Cl, Br or I) and MXn is the metal
halide

WHAT IS SULPHIDE
Sulphide, also sometimes called sulfide, is sulphur’s inorganic anion. Sulphide is
basically a compound that contains one or more S2− ions. The chemical formula of
sulphide is also S2−. Many metallic elements, including sulphides, are usually
found to occur naturally as minerals. For example, pyrite, which is a sulphide of
iron with the formula FeS2, is one of the most abundant sulphur minerals. In
addition, mercury, copper, silver, zinc, cadmium and many other elements tend to
occur as sulphides in nature.
Classes of Sulphides
In general, there are three classes of sulphides which include organic sulphides
(also known as thioethers), inorganic sulphides and phosphine sulphides.
Inorganic Sulphides
Inorganic sulphides are usually ionic compounds. They contain negatively charged
sulphide ions, S2−. In other words, we can say that these compounds are basically
salts of a very weak acid – hydrogen sulphide.
Organic Sulphides
In organic sulphides, the sulphur atom forms a covalent bond with two organic
groups. These sulphides are also sometimes called thioethers.
Phosphine Sulphides
Lastly, phosphine sulphides are sulphides that are formed when organic phosphines
react with sulphur. Here, the sulphur atom, which is bonded to phosphorus, has
both ionic and covalent properties.

SYNTHESIS /PREPARATION OF SULPHIDE

Sulphides can be prepared in the following ways:
1. When elements combine directly (i.e When elements react directly).
Fe(s) + S(s) → FeS(s)
2. By the reduction of sulphate (i.e By lowering the concentration of a
sulphate).
MgSO4(s) + 4C(s) → MgS(s) + 4CO(g)
3. By precipitating an insoluble sulphide.
 M2+ + H2S(g) → MS(s) + 2H+(aq)

COMMON SULFIDES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

i. Lithium sulfide (Li₂S) is integral to lithium-sulfur (Li-S) battery technology,
an emerging energy storage solution with high theoretical energy density.
ii. Molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) is perhaps one of the most versatile sulfides,
finding applications as both a solid lubricant and a catalyst
iii. Iron sulfides, including iron (II) sulfide (FeS) and iron disulfide (FeS₂,
commonly known as pyrite or “fool’s gold”), are used extensively in metal
processing, chemical synthesis, and even in photovoltaic applications.
iv. Zinc sulfide (ZnS) is widely utilized in optics and display technologies due
to its transparency in the infrared range and its ability to emit light when
excited.
v. Cadmium sulfide (CdS) is another significant semiconductor material,
primarily used in photovoltaic cells and various electronic applications.
vi. Nickel sulfide (NiS) plays a vital role as a catalyst in chemical processes,
particularly in the hydrogenation of organic compounds.
vii. Copper(I) sulfide (Cu₂S) is used in the electronics industry as a conductive
material in thin films.

APPLICATIONS OF PHOSPHATE BUFFERED SALINE (PBS)

In Biological Research and Cell Culture:
 Diluting and Washing: PBS is used to dilute reagents, wash cell
suspensions, and rinse labware containing cells.
 Cell Rinsing and Preparation: It's used to rinse cells free from growth
media before further processing, like cell dissociation.
 Cell Suspension: PBS is used to resuspend cells after dissociation or for
preparing cell suspensions.
 As a Buffer: PBS provides a stable pH environment, essential for many
biochemical and cellular assays, enzyme reactions, and protein stability.
  In Cell Culture: It's used as an additive to cell culture media and in cell
culture manufacturing.
 Forensic Science: PBS can be used to extract spermatozoa and cells from
swabs, aiding in forensic investigations.
 DNA Profiling: PBS does not interfere with subsequent DNA profiling after
extraction of cells and spermatozoa
 Diluent for Dried Biomolecules: PBS can be used as a diluent in methods
to dry biomolecules, preventing denaturation or conformational changes.
 Reference Spectrum in Ellipsometry: PBS can be used as a reference
spectrum when measuring protein adsorption in ellipsometry.
WHY PBS IS PREFERRED OVER SALINE:
PBS provides a constant pH, which is crucial for maintaining cell viability and
preventing cell damage, making it a better choice than ordinary saline.