PROGRAM OUTLINE

PURPOSE FOR TRAINING

Build capacity of our staff to effectively perform their quality assurance

roles

There are growing concerns by the public of poor construction of

roads

Huge investments into road construction works

 TRAINING OBJECTIVES

Participants will understand the fundamental principles of road

construction materials

Participants will understand the principles of design

Participants will be equipped with the skills to design and analyze

pavement and pavement materials
PROPERTIES, DESIGN AND CONTROL OF CONCRETE

By:

Ing Dr. Michael A. Bekoe

July 2022
 AREAS TO COVER

Introduction to Concrete

Structure of Concrete

Production of Concrete

Strength of Concrete

Admixtures

Concrete Mix Design

Concrete Durability
 Introduction
Why is Concrete Widely Used?

Excellent resistance to water

Concrete can easily be formed into a variety of shapes and sizes

Relatively low cost

Readily available
 Introduction
Components of Concrete

Portland Cement

Coarse Aggregate – Larger than 4.75mm

Fine Aggregate – Smaller than 4.75mm

Admixture
 Introduction

Burj Khalifa. Tallest Building in the Petronas Tower (Malaysia). 88-floor Itaipu Dam located on the Parana river
world in Dubai. Estimated Volume of reinforced concrete structure in at the border of Brazil/Paraguay.
concrete used: 330,000m3 Malaysia. 160,000m3 of concrete used Volume of concrete: 12.3million m3
in its superstructure
 Introduction

Concrete Runway Prestressed concrete bridges Tema Motorway

 Introduction
Concrete Terminology

Mortar – Mixture of sand, cement and water

Grout – Mixture of cementitious material, fine aggregate and

sufficient water, which has a pouring consistency

Admixture – Material other than aggregate, cement and water,

which are added to the concrete immediate before or during mixing
 Introduction
Types of Concrete – By Strength

Low strength concrete – less than 20MPa

compressive strength

Moderate-strength concrete – (20MPa to 40MPa)

High strength concrete – more than 40MPa

compressive strength
 Introduction
Types of Concrete – By Weight

Normal-weight concrete – approx. 2400kg/m3

Lightweight concrete – less than 1800kg/m3

Heavyweight concrete – more than

3200kg/m3
 Introduction
Properties of Hardened Concrete and Significance
Strength – Amount of stress to fail a material

Toughness – Amount of energy to fail a material

Ductility – Maximum strain a material can take before failure occurs

Durability – Service life under a given environment

Creep – Increase in strain with time under a sustained stress

Drying Shrinkage – Decrease in length due to drying

Thermal Expansion or shrinkage – length change due to temperature change

 Introduction
Aggregates for Concrete - Functions

Economy – space filler

Strength

Reduction in shrinkage and expansion

 Introduction
Aggregates for Concrete – Desirable Characteristics

Hard, Strong & Durable – L.A. Abrasion Test

Free of organic impurities – Organic Impurities Test

Low alkali reactivity with cement – Mortar Bar Method

Proper gradation (for good workability and packing of voids)

 Introduction
Hydraulic and Non Hydraulic Cements

Hydraulic Cement – Hardens by reacting with water to form a water-resistant

product. The presence of air is not required for the hardening process.
Example: Portland cement

Non Hydraulic: Reacts with water to form a product which is not stable in
water. The hydration product may then react with air to form a water-resistant
product. Example: Quick Lime
 Introduction
Physical Properties of Portland Cement

Particle Size: Finer than No. 200 sieve (75μm)

Typical Specific Gravity: 3.15

Typical Unit Weight: ~1500

A commercial bag of Portland cement in Ghana weighs approx. 50Kg

 The Structure of Concrete
Three phases present in concrete:
• Aggregate Particles
• Hydrated Cement Paste
• Transition Zone, which is the interfacial region between the aggregates and the Hydrated Cement Paste
The amount, size, shape and distribution of these three phases constitute
the structure of concrete

Macrostructure – The structure visible to the human eyes

Microstructure – The microscopically magnified portion of a

macrostructure

The structure of concrete is highly heterogeneous and dynamic (changes with

time)
 The Aggregate Structure

The aggregate phase is predominantly responsible for the unit weight, elastic modulus
and thermal properties of concrete

The aggregate phase is usually stronger than the other two phases of concrete, and
does not affect the strength of the concrete, except in the case of weak aggregates
 The Hydrated Cement Paste (HCP) Structure
Capillary Voids: Space not filled by the solid components of
the HCP

Air Voids: Consists of entrapped air (during mixing) and

entrained air (air entraining admixture)

Capillary Water: Water present in the voids

Adsorbed Water: Water adsorbed onto the surface of

solids in the HCP

Interlayer Water
 Transition Zone in Concrete

The transition zone is the weakest phase, and thus is the strength-limiting phase in concrete

The transition zone explains why concrete fails at a considerably lower stress level than the
strength of either the aggregate or the hardened cement paste

The structure of the transition zone explains why the stiffness of concrete is less than either
that of the aggregate or the HCP

The existence of microcracks in the transition zone explains why the permeability of concrete is
higher than either the HCP or the aggregates

The w/c ratio in the transition zone affects the strength of the concrete. In general, the larger the
aggregate, the higher the local w/c ratio in the transition zone and the weaker the concrete
 Production of Concrete

Batching of Ingredients

Mixing

Fresh Concrete

Placing & Curing

Hardened Concrete
 Production of Concrete
Properties of Fresh Concrete

Consistency: Describes the ease of flow of the fresh concrete

Cohesiveness: Describes the water holding capacity (resistance to bleeding) and the
coarse aggregate holding capacity (resistance to segregation) of the fresh concrete

Workability: Describes the composite property of both consistency and cohesiveness of the
fresh concrete
 Production of Concrete
Slump Test – ASTM C 143

Fill the cone mold 1/3 full by volume. Rod 25 times uniformly

Fill cone 2/3 full by volume. Rod 25 times just

penetrating into the previous layer

Fill cone to overflowing. Rod just penetrating into the

second layer

Strike off the excess concrete with rod. Clean the

overflow away from the base of the cone mold.

Lift the cone mold up vertically in 5±2 seconds

Measure the slump

 Production of Concrete
Ball Penetration Test – ASTM C 360

It is related to the slump

2 x penetration ≅ slump height

 Production of Concrete
Factors Affecting Workability of Fresh Concrete
Water Content: The most important factor affecting the consistency of fresh concrete. The higher the
water content, the higher the slump

Cement Content: For a given water content, lowering the cement content tends to produce a
harsher mixture which is harder to finish. Increasing the cement content tends to give better
cohesiveness but higher stickiness.

Aggregate Size: For a given water content, increasing the maximum aggregate size increases the
slump of the fresh concrete

Aggregate angularity and roughness: Higher angularity and roughness produce stiffer fresh
concrete

Admixture: Water-reducing, air-entraining and fly ash admixtures increase the slump of the fresh
concrete
 Production of Concrete
Other Tests on Fresh Concrete

Temperature Measurement (ASTM C1064): Determines the temperature of the fresh concrete

Unit Weight Test (ASTM C138): It may be used in quality control and assurance of the production
of concrete

Air Content Test (ASTM C173/ASTM C231): Measures the total entrapped and entrained air
content in concrete. Pressure method and Volumetric Method

Time of Setting of Concrete by Penetration Resistance

 Production of Concrete
Batching

Concrete should be batched to ensure uniformity

Batching by weight gives better uniformity

Loss of fines should be minimized (especially the Portland Cement)

 Production of Concrete
Mixing

Mixing time should be adequate to obtain a uniform mix

Required Plant Mixing time: 1 to 3 minutes

 Production of Concrete
Ready Mixed Concrete

Central mixed concrete: mixed completely in a stationary mixer

Shrink-mixed concrete: Mixed partially in a stationary mixer: mixing completed in a truck mixer

Truck Mixed: Mixed completely in a truck mixer

 Production of Concrete
Ready Mixed Concrete/Transportation Modes
 Production of Concrete
Placement of Concrete

Avoid concrete hitting the form by using a hopper

Avoid concrete running down a slope

 Production of Concrete
Consolidation or Compaction

The process of molding concrete in order to

eliminate pockets of entrapped air

Methods:

• Hand rodding or tamping

• Internal vibrator

• External vibrator
 Production of Concrete
Curing of Concrete

Curing of concrete is done to keep the concrete moist

It is done to control the temperature of the concrete

Accelerate strength gain

 Production of Concrete
Curing Methods

Sprinkling – continuous sprinkling to keep the surface wet

Wet Covering – covering with moisture retaining fabrics

(such as burlap) and intermittent sprinkling

Ponding – Retaining a pond of water

Waterproof covers – Acts as water barrier

 Strength Tests on Concrete

Compressive Strength Test (ASTM C39)

Flexural Strength Test

Splitting Tensile Strength Test (ASTM C496)

 Compressive Strength Test

Apply a compressive axial load to a cylindrical/cubical specimen at a prescribed rate until failure
occurs

Calculate and report the compressive strength

Compressive strength = Maximum load/cross-sectional area of specimen

Specimens must be tested in a moist condition

Specimens can be molded from freshly mixed concrete, cored from the hardened concrete in the
field
Compressive Strength Test
 Factors Affecting Strength of Concrete
Effects of Porosity
Strength decreases as porosity increases
 Factors Affecting Strength of Concrete
Effects of Water/Cement Ratio
Strength increases as W/C decreases
 Factors Affecting Strength of Concrete
Effects of Air Entrainment
For a fixed w/c, strength decreases as air entrainment increases. The reduction in strength is more for
higher strength concrete than for lower strength concrete
 Factors Affecting Strength of Concrete
Effects of Aggregate Size
For high-strength concrete, strength decreases as the maximum size of aggregate increases. The
effect is less for lower-strength concrete
Factors Affecting Strength of Concrete
Effects of Curing Condition
 Factors Affecting Strength of Concrete
Effects of Using Sea Water
Strength of concrete may be lower at later ages

Increase the risk of corrosion of reinforcing steels

 Concrete Mix Design
Objectives
To determine the most economical and practical combination of available materials (i.e.
aggregates, cements, water, admixtures, etc.) to produce a concrete that will satisfy the
performance requirements
 Concrete Mix Design
Design Considerations
Acceptable workability of fresh concrete

Adequate durability and strength of hardened concrete

Uniform appearance of hardened concrete

Economy
 Concrete Mix Design
Design Considerations
Most important factor affecting workability: Water Content

Most important factor affecting strength: Water-Cement ratio

Most important factors affecting durability: water-cement ratio and cement content

Most important factor affecting appearance : Proportioning of fine and coarse aggregates
 Concrete Mix Design
Absolute Volume Method
Example – Design Criteria

Structure: Foundation

Exposure: Below ground, mild climate, no sulfates

Specified compressive strength: 3000psi @ 28 days

Slump of fresh concrete: 3-4 inches

 Concrete Mix Design
Absolute Volume Method
Example – Properties of Aggregates
 Concrete Mix Design
Absolute Volume Method
Design Procedure

(1) Determine Required Average Compressive Strength

When the standard deviation of the compressive strength is known, the required average
compressive strength, fcr is equal to the larger of the following two values: fcr=fc+1.34S or
fcr=fc+2.33S-500

If data is not available to establish the standard deviation of the compressive strength, use Table
9-11
 Concrete Mix Design
Absolute Volume Method
Design Procedure

(2) Determine Water Cement Ratio

Refer to Table 9-3. For exposure, use Table 9-1

0.55
 Concrete Mix Design
Absolute Volume Method
Design Procedure

(3) Determine Mixing Water Requirements & Air Content

Refer Table 9-5

300Ib/yd3 and 1%
 Concrete Mix Design
Absolute Volume Method
Design Procedure

(4) Calculate required cement content : 300/0.55 = 545Ib/yd3

Minimum cement content: Refer Table 9-7 =470Ib/yd3

 Concrete Mix Design
Absolute Volume Method
Design Procedure

(5) Determine coarse aggregate content

0.7*27*100=1917

Refer Table 9-4

0.71yd3/yd3

1yd3=27ft3
 Concrete Mix Design
Absolute Volume Method
Design Procedure
(6) Determine fine aggregate content

Find absolute volume for each of the ingredients

• Water: 300/62.4 =4.808

• Cement: 545/(3.15*62.4)=2.773

• C.A: 1917/(2.68*62.4)=11.463

• Air: 0.01*27 = 0.27

• Total=19.314

• Volume of sand = 27-19.314 =7.686

• Weight of sand = 7.6868*2.64*62.4=1266

 Concrete Mix Design
Absolute Volume Method
Design Procedure
(7) Adjustments for Aggregate Moisture

Coarse aggregate : 1917*1.02=1955

Fine aggregate: 1266*1.06=1342

Mixing water contributed by coarse aggregate: 1917*(0.02-0.005)=29

Mixing water contributed by Fine aggregate: 1266*(0.06-0.007)=67

Adjusted Mixing water = 300-96=204

 Concrete Mix Design
Absolute Volume Method
Design Procedure
Summary of Mix Ingredients for 1 yd3 of concrete

Water = 204Ib

Cement = 545Ib

Coarse Aggregate = 1955Ib

Fine Aggregate = 1342Ib

Unit Weight = 4046/27 =149.9pcf ~2401.1Kg/m3