Module-4

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

Introduction:

Irrigation may be defined as the process of artificially supplying water to the soil for raising crops. It is a
science of planning and designing an efficient low cost irrigation system to suite the natural conditions. It
is the engineering of controlling and harnessing the various natural sources of water by the construction of
dams and reservoirs, canals and head works and finally distributing the water to the agricultural fields.
Irrigation engineering includes the study and design of works connected with river control, drainage of
water logged areas and generations of hydroelectric power.

Necessity or Importance of Irrigation:

India is basically an agricultural country and its resources on depend on the agricultural output. Prosperity
of our country depends mainly upon proper development of agriculture. Even after 60 years of
Independence, we have not succeeded in solving our food problems. The main reason for this miserable
state of affair is that we still continue to remain at the mercy of rain and practice age old methods of
cultivation.

Plants usually derive water from nature through rainfall. However, the total rainfall in a particular area
may be either insufficient or ill timed. In order to get the maximum yield, it is necessary to have a
systematic irrigation system for supplying optimum quantity of water at correct timing.

Importance of irrigation can be summarized under the following four aspects:

1. Area of less rainfall: Artificial supply of water is necessary when the total rainfall is less than the
water requirement of crops in such cases, irrigation works may be constructed at a place where
more water is available and conveyed to water deficit areas.
Eg: The Rajasthan canal supplies water from the river Yamuna to the arid regions of Rajasthan
where annual rainfall is less than 100 to 200 mm.
2. Non-Uniform rainfall: The rainfall in a particular area may not be uniform over the entire crop
period. Rainfall may be there during the early period of crops and may become scanty or
unavailable at the end resulting in lesser yield or total loss of the crop. Collection of water during

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periods of excess rainfall and supplying the stored water during periods of scarcity may prove
beneficial to the farmers. Most irrigation projects in India are based on this aspect.
3. Commercial crops with additional water: The rainfall in a particular area may be sufficient to raise
the usual crops but insufficient for raising commercial and cash crops such as sugarcane and cotton.
In such situations, utilizing stored water by irrigation facilities is advantageous.
4. Controlled Water Supply: Dams are normally meant for storing water during excess flow periods.
But in situations of heavy rainfall, flooding can be controlled by arresting the flow in the river and
excess water can be released during low flow conditions.

Benefits of Irrigation:

There are many direct and indirect benefits or advantages of irrigation which can be listed as follows.

1. Increase in food production: Crops need optimum quantity of water at required intervals assured
and timely supply of water helps in achieving good yield and also superior crops can be grown and
thus, the value of the crops increases.
2. Protection from famine: Irrigation works can be constructed during famine (drought). This helps in
employment generation and people also get protection from famine. After completion of such
works, continuous water supply may be available for crops and people.
3. Cultivation of Cash crops: With the availability of continuous water supply, cash crops such as
sugarcane, indigo, tobacco, cotton etc. can be grown.
4. Increase in prosperity of people: Due to assured water supply people can get good yield and
returned for their crops. Land value increases and this raises the standard of living of the people
and hence prosperity takes place.
5. Generation of hydroelectric power: Major river valley projects are designed to provide power
generation facilities also apart from irrigation needs.
6. Domestic and Industrial water supply: Water stored in reservoirs can also be used to serve other
purposes like domestic water supply to towns and cities and also for industrial use. Canals can also
be effectively used to serve these purposes.
7. Inland Navigation: In some cases, the canals are very large enough to be used as channels for
inland navigation as water ways are the cheapest means of transportation.

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8. Improvement in communication: Main canals in large irrigation projects are provided with
inspection roads all along the sides. These roads can be asphalted and used as a means of
communication.
9. Canal plantation: Due to continuous flow of water adjoining areas of a canal are always saturated
with water. In such places, trees can be planted which increases the timber wealth of the country.
10. Improvement in ground water storage: Due to constant percolation and seepage of irrigation water,
ground water table rises. The ground water may percolate and may be beneficial to other areas.
11. Aid in civilization: Due to introduction of river valley projects, tribal people can adopt agriculture
as their profession which helps in improving the standards of living.
12. General development of a country: By assured water supply, farmers can expect good yield. By
exporting surplus goods, Government can get revenue. The government can then come forward to
improve communications facilities such as roads and railways and also social development by
providing schools, hospitals etc.,

Ill-effects of Irrigation:

If water is used in a controlled and careful manner, there would be no ill effects of irrigation. Excess and
unscientific use of irrigation of water, givers raise to the following ill effects.

1. Water logging: Excess water applied to the fields allows water to percolate below and ground water
table rise. The ground water table may rise saturating the root zone of the crop and cutting of air
supply to the roots of the crops. Such a phenomenon is called water logging.
Under such conditions fertility of land reduced and also reduction of crop yield.
2. Breeding placed for mosquitoes: Excess application of water for irrigation leads to water logging
and formation of stagnant water fools, which become breeding places for mosquitoes, thus helping
spreading of malaria.
3. Unhealthy Climate: Due to intense irrigation the climate becomes damp during summer due to
humidity, the climate is sultry and in winter it becomes excessively cold. The resistance of the body
to diseases is reduced. In addition to the above, careless use of water leads to wastage of useful
irrigation water for which any government will have incurred huge amounts.

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Types or Systems of Irrigation:

Lift Irrigation: It is that system of irrigation in which irrigation water is available at a level lower than
that of the land to be irrigated and hence water is lifted by pumps or other mechanism (Hydraulic ram and
siphon action) and then conveyed to agriculture fields by gravity flow. Irrigation through wells is an
example of lift irrigation. Water from canals or any other source can also be lifted when the level of water
is lower than that of the area to be irrigated.

Inundation Irrigation: It is that system of irrigation in which large quantity of water flowing in a river is
allowed to flood or inundate the fields to be cultivated. The land becomes thoroughly saturated. Excess
water is drained off and the land is prepared for cultivation. Moisture stored in the soil is sufficient to bring
the crop to maturity. Inundation irrigation is commonly practiced in delta region of rivers. Canals may be
also employed to inundate the fields when water is available in plenty.

Perennial Irrigation: It is that system of irrigation in which irrigation water is supplied as per the crop
requirements at regular intervals throughout the crop period. The source of irrigation water may be a
perennial river, stored water in reservoirs or ground water drawn from open wells or bore wells. This is the
most commonly adopted irrigation system.

Direct Irrigation:

It is a type of flow irrigation in which water from rivers and streams are conveyed directly to agricultural
fields through a network of canals, without making any attempt to store water this is practiced in areas
where the rivers and streams are perennial. Small diversion dams or barrages may be constructed areas the
rivers to raise the water level and then divert the water into canals.

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Storage Irrigation:

Dams are constructed across rivers which are non- perennial. The discharge in such rivers may be very
high during rainy season and may become less during dry stream. By constructing dams across such rivers
water can be stored as reservoir during excess flow and can be utilized or diverted to agriculture fields
through canals as and when required. Such a system is known as storage irrigation.

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Bandhara Irrigation: It is a special irrigation scheme adopted across small perennial rivers. This system
lies somewhere between inundation type and permanent type of irrigation. A Bandhara is a low masonry
weir (obstruction) of height 1.2m to 4.5m constructed across the stream to divert water into a small canal.
The canal usually takes off from one side and the flow into the canal is controlled by a head regulator.

The length of the main canal is usually restricted to about 8km. A series of Bandharas may be constructed
one below the other on the same stream so that water spilling over from one Bandhara is checked by another
Bandhara. The irrigation capacity of each Bandhara is may be about 400 hectares. Bandharas are adopted
across small streams having isolated catchments which are considered to be non feasible or uneconomical
to be included under a large irrigation scheme.

This method of irrigation is followed in Central Maharashtra and is commonly known there as the `Phad‘
system.

Advantages of Bandharas:

1. Small quantity of flow in streams can be fully utilized or otherwise might have gone as a waste.
2. As the length of the canal is short, seepage and evaporation losses are less.
3. Intensive irrigation with high duty may be achieved and the area to be irrigated is close to the
source.

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4. The initial investment and maintenance cost of the system islow.

Disadvantages of Bandharas:

1. The supply of water is unreliable when the flow in streams becomes lesser.
2. Excess water available cannot be utilized as area for cultivation below each Bandhara is fixed.
3. In dry seasons, people living on the downstream side of Bandharas may be deprived of water for
domestic made also.

Methods of Irrigation:

i)

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Irrigation water may be applied to the crops by three basic methods, viz.

a. Surface irrigation methods

b. Subsurface irrigation methods
c. Sprinkler irrigation

Good irrigation methods result in increased yield, conservation of soil productivity and economic
utilization of water. Over irrigation results in soil erosion, water logging, salt accumulation, nutrient
leeching etc. The overall objective of an irrigation method is to see that the required amount of moisture is
available in the root zone of the crops.

The objectives or reasons for adopting any irrigation method for applying water to fields are as follows.

1. For light irrigation uniform water distribution with a small depth of application, as small as 6
cm should be possible
2. For heavy irrigation uniform water depth application of 15 to 20 cm should be possible.
3. Large concentrated flow should be possible for reducing conveyance losses and labour costs.
4. Mechanical farming should be facilitated.

a. Surface irrigation method: In this method the irrigation water is applied by spreading water as a
sheet or as a small stream on the land to be irrigated.

Various surface irrigation methods that are practiced are listed as follows.

1. Wild flooding: In this method water is applied by spreading water over the land to be irrigated without
any preparation. There is no restriction for the movement of water. It follows the natural slope of the land.
The water may be applied to the land directly from a natural stream during season of high flow as in
inundation irrigation. This method is suitable for flat and smooth land but involves wastage of water and
hence it can be practiced where water is abundant and inexpensive.

2. Controlled flooding: In this method water is applied by spreading it over the land to be irrigated with
proper control over the flow of water and as well as the quantity of water to be applied. In such methods
prior land preparation is essential.

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Various controlled flooding methods are as follows.

Free flooding: This method is also known as irrigation by plots. Here the field is divided into a number of
small sized plots which are practically level. Water is admitted at the higher end of the plots and the water
supply is cut off as soon as the water reaches the lower end of the plots.

ii) Border strip method: In this method the land to be irrigated is divided into a series of long narrow
strips separated from each other by levees (Earthen bunds) or borders. The width of the strips varies
between 10 to 20 m and the length of the strip varies between 60 to 300 m depending upon the nature of
the soil and rate of water supply.

The strip of the land has no cross slope and has uniform gentle slope in the longitudinal direction. This
method is suitable for forage crops requiring least labour. Mechanized farming can be adopted in this
method.

iii) Checks or Levees: In this method a comparatively large stream of water discharged into a relatively
level plot surrounded by check or levees or low rise bunds. The checks are usually 30 cm high. The checks
may be temporary for a single crop season or semi permanent for repeated used as in case of paddy fields.
The size of the plots depends upon the discharge of water and porosity of the soil. The usual size of the
plot varies between 0.04 hectares to 0.05 hectares.

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iv) Basin flooding: This method of irrigation is adopted for irrigating orchards (enclosures of fruit trees).
For each tree, a separate basin which is circular usually is made. However, in some cases basins are made
large to include two or more trees in each basin. Water is supplied through a separate field channel, but in
some cases the basins are inter connected.

v) Zigzag flooding: This is a special method of flooding where the water takes a circuitous route before
reaching the dead end of each plot. Each plot is subdivided with help of low bunds. This method is adopted
in loose soils to prevent erosion at the higher ends.

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vi) Furrow method: In this method water is applied to the land to be irrigated by a series of long narrow
field channels called furrows. A furrow is a narrow ditch 75 to 125 mm deep excavated between rows of
plants to carry irrigation water. The spacing of furrows depends upon the spacing of the plants. The length
of a furrow is usually 200metres. In this method only one fifth to one half of the surface is wetted. The
evaporation losses are very much reduced.

vii) Contour farming:

Contour farming is practiced in hilly regions where, the land to be irrigated has a steep slope. Here the land
is divided into a series of strips usually known as terraces or benches which are aligned to follow the
contour of the sloping area. This method also helps in controlling soil erosion.

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b. Sub Surface Irrigation: This method consists of supplying water directly to the route zone through
ditches at a slow rate which are 0.5 m to 1 m deep and 25 to 50 cm wide. The ditches are spaced 50 to 100
m apart. Water seeps into the ground and is available to the crop in the form of a capillary fringe. Proper
drainage of excess water is permitted either naturally or providing suitable drainage works, thereby
preventing water logging in fields. The favourable conditions to practice subsurface conditions are,

1. Availability of imperious subsoil at a reasonable depth (2 to 3m).

2. Water table is present at shallow depth.
3. Availability of moderate slope.
4. Availability of good quality irrigation water.

With the above favourable conditions and necessary precautions it is possible to achieve higher yields at
low cost.

c. Sprinkler Irrigation: This method consists of applying water in the form of a fine spray as similar to
rain fall. Stationary over head perforated pipes or fixed nozzle pipes installations were earlier used.
However, with the introduction of light weight pipes and quick couplers, portable sprinkler systems with
rotating nozzle have been developed and hence these have become popular. A pump usually lifts water
from the source and supplies it through the distribution system and then through the sprinkler nozzle or
sprinkler head mounted on the riser pipes. About, 80 % irrigation efficiency is possible with sprinkler
irrigation, particularly in humid regions. The efficiency of this system decreases by 5 % for every 7.5
km/hour of increase in wind velocity.

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Sprinkler irrigation method is adopted in regions where, surface irrigation methods cannot be used due to
the following reasons.

1. The soil is too pervious or impervious.

2. The nature of the soil is too erosive.
3. The topography is not uniform or very steep.
4. The land is not suitable for surface irrigation method.

Advantages:

1. Soil erosion is well controlled by adjusting the discharge through the nozzle.
2. Uniform water application is possible.
3. In case of seedlings and young plants, light irrigation is possible easily.
4. Much land preparation is not essential and hence labour cost is reduced.
5. More land for cropping is available since borders and ditches are not required.
6. Small amounts of irrigation water in water scarcity regions can be effectively utilized.

Disadvantages:

1. Wind will distort the sprinkling pattern.

2. Constant water supply under pressure is required for economic use of equipment.
3. Irrigation water must be free from silt, sand and impurities.
4. Initial investment is high.
5. Energy requirement for pumping water is high.
6. Heavy soil with poor infiltration (clayey soil) cannot be irrigated efficiently.

Drip or trickle irrigation: This is the latest irrigation method, which is becoming popular in water scarcity
areas and water with salt problems. In this method, small diameter plastic or PVC pipes with drip nozzles
commonly called emitters or drippers are adopted to deliver water to the land surface near the base of the
plant. Water can be applied at a rate varying between 2 to 10 liters per hour to keep the soil moisture within
the desired range for plant growth.

The main components of a drip irrigation system are a pumping unit, main pipelines, sub main pipe lines,
lateral pipelines, emitters, pressure gauges etc.,

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Advantages of this method are,

1. Excellent control over water application and efficiency as high as up to 95% can be achieved.
2. Evaporation losses from land surface are minimum.
3. Losses due to deep percolation can be avoided.
4. Saline waters can be applied effectively.
5. Water soluble fertilizers can be applied through drip irrigation.

The draw backs of this system are,

1. It involves large investment.

2. Frequent blocking of nozzles takes place.
3. Tilling operation may be obstructed.

Supplemental Irrigation

Rain-fed agriculture accounts for about 80% of the world‘s farmland and two thirds of global food
production. Agriculture in these areas is limited by a number of factors including water scarcity, drought
and land degradation.

Shortage of soil moisture often occurs during the most sensitive stages of crop growth, i.e. flowering and
grain filling. This can severely affect plant growth and yield. Supplemental irrigation – the application of
limited amounts of water during critical crop growth stages – can substantially increase yield and water
productivity.

Supplemental irrigation may be defined as the addition of limited amounts of water to essentially rain-fed
crops, in order to improve and stabilize yields during times when rainfall fails to provide sufficient moisture
for normal plant growth.

Supplemental irrigation in rain-fed areas is based on the following three basic aspects

1. Water is applied to a rain-fed crop that would normally produce some yield without irrigation

2. Since rainfall is the principal source of water for rain fed crops, supplemental irrigation is only applied
when the rainfall fails to provide essential moisture for improved and stable production

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3. The amount and timing of supplemental irrigations are optimally scheduled not to provide moisture
stress-free conditions throughout the growing season, but rather to ensure that a minimum amount of water
is available during the critical stages of crop growth that would permit optimal yield.

Amounts of water to be applied and time depends on crop water requirements and the water available in
the root zone after the rainy season. However, 100-200 mm of supplemental irrigation may be enough in
most of the areas and years.

Sewage Irrigation

Sewage is a water-carried waste, in solution or suspension, that is intended to be removed from a

community. Also known as waste water, it is more than 99% water.

In agriculture untreated wastewater is increasingly being used for irrigation . Cities provide lucrative
markets for fresh produce and are also beneficial to farmers. However, because agriculture is increasingly
facing scarcity of water and competence for water resources with industry and municipal users, there is
often no alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste, including sewage, directly to
water their crops.

There can be significant health hazards related to using water loaded with pathogens in this way, especially
if people eat raw vegetables that have been irrigated with the polluted water.

Infiltration Galleries

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Infiltration galleries are horizontal tunnels (with holes on sides) constructed of masonry walls
with roof slabs to tap ground water flowing towards rivers or lakes. These are constructed at
shallow depths (3-5m) along the banks of river either axially along or across ground water flow.
If large ground water quantity exists, porous drain pipes are provided and they are surrounded
by gravel and broken stone. The yield from infiltration galleries may be 15,000 L/day / Meter
length. A collecting well at shore end of gallery serves as sump from where water can pumped
out to required destination.

DEFINITIONS
a) Duty of Water:
Duty represents the irrigating capacity of a unit of water.
It is usually defined as the area of land in hectares which can be irrigated to grow a crop of the
cumec of water is continuously supplied for the entire period of the crop.
Duty is expresses as Hectares/cumec
Eg: If 1hectare land. How much depth quantity of water is required to raise crop is delta?

b) Delta (cm/mm):
It is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire crop period and is denoted as
‘Δ’. Delta is stated with reference to a place at which it is measured, that is delta at farm, delta
at outlet, delta at distributary head, delta at the head of the main canal.
Eg: If canal discharges 1m3/sec of water and if 100mm depth of water is required then we can
calculate the area of land

c) Cumec: The total quantity of water flowing continuously for one day at the rate of one
cumec is known as cumec-day.
1cumec day=1* 24*60*60=8.64*104 metre3 = 8.64Hectare-metres.

d) Crop period:
The time period that elapses between sowing and harvesting of crop

e) Base period:
The time gap between first watering and last watering. Time between first watering (after sowing
of seed) to last watering (before harvesting)

f) KOR depth:
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The depth of water applied in the beginning as KOR depth. It is part of Delta (‘Δ’)

g) KOR period:
It a portion of base period (B) in which KOR watering s done is known as KOR period (b).

h) Rabi crops:

Rabi crops or Rabi harvest are agricultural crops that are sown in winter and harvested in the
spring in India [. They are sown in month of October to March and harvested in the month of
March or April.

Examples: Wheat,Oats,Grams,Barley,Peas,Mustard,Potato,Tobacco,Broccoli,Linseed

i) Kharif corps:
Kharif crops, monsoon crops or autumn crops are domesticated plants like rice that are cultivated and
harvested in India, They are sown in Rainy season. Rainy season in India is from June to September. These
crops requires a substantial amount of water for their growth. They are harvested at the end of the monsoon
season during September or October. These crops are also called as Paddy crops.

Examples: Rice,Maize,Jowar,Pulses,Groundnuts,Paddy,Corn,Cotton.

j) Gross Command area (GCA)

Total area which can be irrigated by a canal system if unlimited quantity of water is supplied.

k)Cultural Command area (GCA)

It is the portion of GCA which is culturable or cultivable
CCA=GCA-Uncultivated area

l)Cultural Cultivated area (CCA)

The portion of CCA which is actually cultivated during a crop season.

m)Crop Rotation
• The process of changing type of crop to be grown in the same field is known as crop rotation.
It has been found that if same crop is grown in the same land every year, fertility of the land gets
diminished and crop production is reduced. The necessary salt required by the same crop for
growth is exhausted. If crop rotation is adopted, fertility of soil is restored.

n)Intensity of Irrigation
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Intensity of irrigation means the ratio of area under cultivation to the total culturable area. If this
intensity is more, more area is under cultivation, hence water requirement is more.

Relationship between Duty, Delta and Base Period

Let D=Duty of water in hectare/cumec

B=Base period of the crp in days
Δ=Delta of water in metres.
We know that 1 Hectare=100m *100m=10,000 sqm
In general if “D” hectare of land is there then above equation will be =(D*10,000) sqm
Now if a canal discharges 1m3/sec for “B”days then volume of water supplied to land will be
called as follows
Volume of water in m3= (“B” days * 24hrs* 60min* 60sec)
Therefore volume of water per unit area= (B* 24* 60* 60)/ (D* 10,000)
Volume of water per unit area (Delta) =8.64B/D
Where B=Base period of the crop in (DAYS),
D=Duty of water unit in (Hectares/cumec)
Δ =Depth of water in metres (m)

Factors Affecting duty of Irrigation water

a) Soil characteristics
b) Climate conditions
c) Rainfall
d) Type of crop
e) Crop period
f) Preparation of fields
g) Use of irrigation water
h) Chemical composition of water

a.Soil characteristics

The duty of water directly depends on the soil characteristics, if the soil is pervious and coarse
grained, losses are more which results in reduction in duty.

b. Climate conditions

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Evaporation of water will be high when the temperature is high and the humidity (concentration
of water vapour in air) is less this results in severe reduction of the duty of water.

c. Rainfall

If the irrigated area receives sufficient rainfall at the right time then the quantity of irrigation
supplied reduces thereby the duty will be more.

d. Type of crop

It is a fact that different crops require different amounts of water and hence the duty value will
be different for different crops. i.e A crop require more water would have less duty and vive
versa

e. Crop period

The crop period varies from crop to crop. This means that a crop with longer base period the
amount of water required is high, hence duty will be low and vice versa

f. Preparation of fields
Properly deep ploughed fields require overall less quantity of water hence the duty will be
more.

g. Use of irrigation water

When the irrigation water is assessed volumetrically water will be more economically used
that the duty will be more/

h. Chemical composition of water

If water quality is good then lesser quantity of water is required for irrigation compared with
water having chemicals. Hence duty for good quality water will be high.

Factors affecting crop water requirements

The water requirements of crops are affected by the following parameters
a) Depth of the ground water table
b) Slope of the ground surface
c) Climatic conditions of the region
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 d) Intensity of irrigation
e) Texture and structure of soil
f) Moisture storage capacity of the soil
g) Type and quantity of manure applied to the fields.

Methods of improving duty

1. By properly ploughing and levelling of the field before sowing the crop and also giving
good cultivation duty of water can be increased.
2. By frequent cultivation of the land moisture loss is reduced, thereby duty can be
increased.
3. By lining the network of canals, percolation and evaporation losses are reduced and
hence duty can be increase.
4. By practice the rotation of crops, duty can be increased.
Avoid canal route through sandy or porous reaches, losses can be minimised thereby
duty can be increased.
5. By properly training farmers to use water economically duty can be increased.
6. By establishing research stations to study the soil and conservation of moisture duty can
be increased.

Frequency of Irrigation
Irrigation frequency refers to the number of days between irrigation during periods without
rainfall. It depends on consumptive used of rate of a crop and on the amount of available
moisture in the crop root zone. It is function of crop, soil and climate. Sandy soils, must be
irrigated more often than fine texture deep soils.

In general irrigation should start when about 50 % and not over 60% of the available moisture
has been used from the root zone in which most of the roots are concentrated. The stage of crop
growth with reference to critical periods of growth is also kept in view while designing irrigation
frequency.

Irrigation interval= Allowable soil moisture deletion/Daily water

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SOIL – WATER - CROP RELATIONSHIPS

Introduction

The aim of the irrigation practice is to ensure that the plants have an adequate supply of water in their root
zone for achieving optimum yield of crops without damaging the quality of the soil. This necessitates a
clear understanding of the interaction among the soil, water and plants in the root zone of the plants. The
soil provides the structural base to the plants and allows the root system t get firmly embedded in the soil.
Further the soil also provides water as well as the nutrients required by the plants for their growth.

Water is required by plants in small quantities for metabolism and transportation of plant nutrients, and in
much larger quantities in the physiological process of transpiration which protects the plants against the
injurious effects of high temperature. In addition to water, air must also be present in the root zone for the
respiration of the microorganisms to occur and to provide a favorable environment for root development
and the absorption of nutrients. As such the excess water must be drained out from the soil to enable free
circulation of air in the root zone.

For proper growth of the plants requisite quantities of water, air and nutrients must be available in the soil.
Therefore while practicing irrigation it must be ensured that there quantities are available in correct
proportions.

Composition of Soil, soil texture.

A soil is usually classified according to the size of its particles. The material having particles of diameter
between 20 mm and 2 mm is called gravel, while that having particles smaller than 2 mm in diameter is
called fine earth. The term soil in general refers to fine earth, which has three components sand, silt and
clay. According to International Soil classification the range of diameters of particles of each or these
components of the soil are as indicated below.

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Type of soil Range of particle diameter in millimetre

Coarse sand 2 to 0.2

Fine sand 0.2 to 0.02

Silt 0.02 to 0.002

Clay Less than 0.002

Soil Texture.

Soil texture refers to the composition of the soil and it is reflected by the particle size, hape and gradation.
Generally the soils occurring in nature are a combination of sand, silt and clay. The relative proportions of sand,
silt and clay in a soil mass determines the soil texture. According to textural g radations the soils may be broadly
classified as (1) 'open' or 'light' textured soils, (2') 'medium' textured SOILS, and (Hi) 'tight' or 'heavy' textured
soils. The 'open' or 'light' textured soils contain very low content of silt and clay, and hence these soils are coarse
or sandy. The 'medium' textured soils contain sand, silt and clay in sizable proportions. In general loam is a soil
which has all the three major size actions in sizable proportions, and hence the loams are medium textured soils.
The 'tight' or 'heavy' textured soil contains high content of clay. Thus clayey soils are tight or heavy textured
soil Fig 3.1represents the textural classification chart for 12 main textural classes of soils which is given by
united states department of agriculture ,(USDA)

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Soil groups in India

The Indian soils may be divided into four major groups viz., (i) alluvial soils, (ii) black soils, (iii) red soils, and
(iv) laterite soils. In addition to these four groups there exist another group of soils which includes forest
soils, desert soils, and saline and alkali soils.

Alluvial soils

Alluvial soils are formed by successive deposition of silt transported by rivers during floods, in the
flood plains and along the coastal belts. The silt is formed from the weathering of the rocks by river water
in the hilly terrain through which it flows. These soils form the largest and the most important group of
soil in India. The alluvial soils occur in the Indo-Gangetic plains and Brahamputra plains in north India
and also in the plains of various rivers in other parts of the country. These are in general deep soils that is
having more that 1 metre depth above a hard stratum, but the properties of these soils occurring in different
parts of the country vary mainly because the parent material from which they have been derived are
different. These soils vary from clayey loam to sandy loam. The values of pH for these soils usual range
between 7.0 and 9.0, and hence these soils may be neutral or alkaline in character. The water holding
capacity of these soils is fairly good and they give good response to irrigation.

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Black Soils

Black soils have evolved from the weathering of rocks such as basalts, traps, granites and gneisse.
These soils occur chiefly in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra and Karnataka. The colour of these soils ranges from dark brown to black. Furth< irrespective
of the nature of the parent rock from which black soils have developed, they do not differ much in general
physical and chemical properties. These soils are highly argillaceous and very fine grained. Thus these are
heavy textured soils and their clay content varies from 40 to 60 percent. The values of pH for these soils
vary from 8.0 to 9.0 or higher in different states, and hence these soils are alkaline in character. A special
feature of the black soils is that they are plastic and sticky when wet, an very hard when dry. These soils
possess a high water holding capacity but poor drainage. Black soils ai sub-divided as (i) shallow black
soils which have a depth of 0.3 metre or less, (ii) medium black soil which are 0.3 metre to 1.0 metre in
depth, and (Hi) deep soils which are over 1 metre deep. Deep black soils are also referred to as black
cotton soils since cotton is the most important crop in these soils.

Red Soils

Red soils are formed by the weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks comprising gneisses an schists.
These soils mostly occur in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and
Orissa. They also occur in Bihar, West Bengal and some parts of Uttar Pradesh. These soil are in general light
textured loams, but the properties of these soils vary from place to place. These are in general deep soils with
values of pH ranging between 5.0 and 8.0, and hence in most of the cases these soils are acidic in character.
The red soils have low water holding capacity. These soils react well to the application of irrigation water and
on account of low water holding capacity they are well drained.

Laterite Soils

Laterite soils are derived from the weathering of the laterite rocks. These soils occur mostly ii
Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, the Eastern Ghat region, Orissa, Maharashtra, Malabar and in some
parts of Assam. These soils are reddish or yellowish-red in colour. The laterite soils have values of pH
between 5.0 and 6.0 and hence these soils are acidic in character. These soils have low clay content and
hence possess good drainage characteristics.

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Forest Soils

Forest soils are formed by the deposition of organic matter derived from forest growth.

Desert Soils

These soils are found in the arid areas in the north-western region in the states of Rajasthan, Haryana
and Punjab and are lying between the Indus river on the west and the range of Aravali Hills on the east.
These soils are blown in from the coastal region and Indus valley, and are also derived from disintegration
of rocks in the adjacent areas. These are light textured sandy soils of depth extending beyond 0.5 metre
and react well to the application of irrigation water. However, these soils have a fairly high values of pH,
and some of these soils contain a high percentage of soluble salts.

Saline and Alkali Soils

These are the soils which have appreciable concentration of soluble salts and exchangeable sodium
content. These salts usually appear in the form of a white efflorescent crust on the surface of the soil.
These soils are formed due to inadequate drainage of the irrigated lands, and hence these are found among
the groups of alluvial, black and red soils. These soils are not suitable for cultivation, unless these are
reclaimed by adopting suitable methods.

Functions of Irrigation Water:

Water and nutrients are the most important requirements of plants. Following are the main functions of
irrigation water

1. Water dissolves the nutrients, forms a solution of the nutrients and which are absorbed by the
roots and thus water acts as a nutrient carrier.
2. The irrigation water supplies moisture which is essential for the life of bacteria which are
beneficial to plant growth.
3. Irrigation water supplied moisture which is essential for the metabolism within the plant leading
to plant growth.
4. Some essential salts present in soil react in presence of water to produce nourishing food
products.
5. Water cools the soil and atmosphere, thus creating a healthy environment for plant growth.
6. It softens the tillage pans (area to be irrigated).

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Suitability of water for irrigation:

In order to perform the required functions, for optimum growth of plants, the water may be turned as
unfit if,

1. Sediment concentration is excessive

2. Total concentration of salts of sodium (Na), calcium, magnesium and potassium is excessive.
3. Percentage of sodium ions to that of other ions is excessive.
4. Percentage of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium becomes excessive.
5. Bacteria harmful to plant growth are present.
6. Contains chemicals toxic to plants, animals and humans.

Consumptive use of water:

It is defined as the total quantity of water used by plants in transpiration; tissues build up, evaporation
from adjacent or exposed soil in an area at any specific time.

Transportation is the process by which plants dissipate the water absorbed from the soil through the
roots into the atmosphere through the surface of leaves, stalks and trunk.

Evaporation is the process by which soil loses water in the form of vapours.

Consumptive use also includes water consumed by accompanying could growth, water deposited by
dew or rainfall and subsequently evaporation without entering the plant systems.

The following factors affect the consumptive use of water,

1. Direct evaporation from soil

2. Relative humidity of air
3. Wind velocity
4. Temperature
5. Precipitation
6. Hours of the day
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 Hydrology and Irrigation Engineering 17CV73

7. Intensity of sunlight
8. Soil and topography
9. Type of crop
10. Cropping pattern
11. Method of irrigation
12. Nature of plant leaves
13. Cropping reason

Water Requirement of crops

Water requirement of a crop is the total quantity of water required by the crop from the time it is sown
to the time it is harvested. Different crops require different amounts of water. It is essential to maintain
the quantity of water (readily available moisture) in soil by supplying water more or less at fixed
intervals throughout the plant growth. The growth of crops is retarded, if the moisture content becomes,
excessive or deficient. Excessive soil moisture results in filling the pore spaces and there by drawing
out the air in root zone, which is also essential for plant growth. In case of moisture deficiency, plants
require extra energy to extract the moisture in soil.

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As seen from the above graph, in a soil there exists a moisture content known as optimum
moisture content at which plants grow most rapidly. OMC is usually lesser than field
capacity for all crops in any soil. Hence, it is required to maintain OMC by supplying
water at regular intervals.

Depth and frequency of irrigation:

The amount of irrigation water applied should be such that the moisture content is raised
to the field capacity. The moisture content in soil reduces due to consumptive use by
plants. However, the moisture content should not be allowed to fall below lower limit of
readily available moisture. When the moisture content reaches the lower limit of readily
available moisture, water should be supplied by irrigation method to rise it to the field
capacity or optimum moisture content.

CROP ROTATION

The term rotation of crops is somewhat self-explanatory. It implies that nature of the crop
sown in a particular field is changed year after year.

Necessity for rotation

The necessity for rotation arises from the fact that soil gradually losses its fertility if the
same crop is sown every year and the field has to be allowed to lie fallow in order to regain
its fertility. The effect of fallow is obtained by rotation of crops.

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All crops require similar type of nutrients for their growth but all of them do not take in the
same quantities or proportions; some crop favours certain plant nutrients and take them
more than the others. Thus if a particular crop is grown year after year, the soil gets deficient
in the plant food favored by that crop. If different crops are to be raised there would
certainly be more balanced flooding and soil deficient in one particular type of nutrient is
allowed to recoupled.

Crop diseases and insect pests will multiply at an alarming rate, if the same crop is to be
grown continuously. Rotation will check this disease.

A leguminous crop (such as gram) if introduced in rotation will increase nitrogen content of
the soil thus increasing its fertility

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