Section F (BM, BT,FP) Autumn 2024-25

Environment and Safety Engineering

(CH1400)
Unit 2: Water Pollution: Fundamentals & Control Strategies

by
Dr. Raviteja Kurapati
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
NIT Rourkela, Odisha, India
Water Pollutants and their sources
Water Pollutants
 Oxygen Demanding Material: oxidizable compounds such as organic matter
 Excessive Nutrients: Nitrogen and Phosphorus
 Pathogenic Organisms: disease causing microorganisms
 Suspended Solids: organic and inorganic particles, colloidal particles
 Salts: total dissolved salts, salinity
 Toxic Chemicals: Pesticides, Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products
 Toxic Metals: Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, Nickel, Lead, Mercury
Sources of Pollutants
 Point Sources: Single point of discharge - Domestic sewage, Industrial waste water
 Non-point Sources: Multiple discharge points - Urban and agricultural runoff
Water Quality Parameters or Characteristics
 Physical – appearance and quality of water
 Chemical – concentration of chemical compounds
 Microbiological – measure of microbial agents
Physical Characteristics of Water
Parameter Source/Cause Measurement
Suspended Solids  Surface water – inorganic (soil based) and Total Solids Test, Suspended
organic (biological) Solids Test
 Ground water – seldom
 Domestic wastewater – organic
 Industrial – organic or inorganic
Turbidity  Suspended solids in natural water bodies Turbidimeter
and potable water bodies
Color  Yellowish-brown – organic debris Standard Color Materials
 Reddish – iron oxides
 Brown/Black – manganese oxides
Taste and Odor  Inorganic (taste) – Alkaline (bitter), Threshold Odor Number Test
Metallic salts (salty or bitter)
 Organic (taste and odor) - Petroleum
based, decomposed organics
Temperature  Heated water from industries Thermometer
 Deforestation and Irrigation return flow
Suspended Solids
 Total Solids Test:
 Quantify all the solids in the water
 Evaporate sample to dryness (104󠇡°C/180°C) and weight the residue (mg/L)
 Suspended Solids Test: Filter the water (gives suspended fraction), dry (at 104°C) and
weight the residue in filter (mg/L)
 Suspended solids is approximated as nonfilterable residues
 Total Solids – Suspended Solids = Dissolved Solids
 Organic and Inorganic content: Heat the residues from above two tests at 600°C for 1hr -
residue is inorganic content and difference is organic
 Turbidity: Percentage of light of given intensity that is either absorbed or scattered
 Jackson Turbidity Unit: 1mg SiO2 in 1L of distilled water
 Formazin Turbidity Unit
 Nephelometry Turbidity Unit (scattering principle)
 Suspended solids provide adsorption sites for chemical and biological agents
Color, Taste, Odor and Temperature
 Color is measured by comparing with standard color material – Color Comparison Tubes
 True Color Unit – Color produced by 1mg/L of Pt in the form of chlorplatinate ions
 Threshold Odor Number – Maximum amount of odorous water whose 200 mL mixture
with distilled water (odor-free) gives barely detectable sense of smell for 5-10 noses
 Taste can be tested similar to TON or rate qualitatively about acceptability
𝐴 + 𝐵 200𝑚𝐿
𝑇𝑂𝑁 = =
𝐴 𝐴
A = volume of odorous water (mL)
B = volume of odor-free water required to produce a 200 mL mixture
 Flavor threshold test (FTT), Flavor rating assessment (FRA), Flavor profile analysis (FPA) –
a panel of members were asked to presence, rate favorability or score intensity
 Temperature changes affects the reaction rates and solubility levels of chemicals
 High temperature, increased metabolic activity, few organisms survive ⇒ wider
biodiversity at low temp
Chemical Characteristics of Water
Parameter Source/Cause Measurement
Total Dissolved  Inorganic- minerals, metals, gases Total Dissolved Solids,
Solids  Organic- decay of bio matter, waste water Specific Conductance
pH pH meter
Alkalinity  Dissolution of minerals from soil and atmosphere Titration with acid
 Phosphates from detergents and fertilizers
 Microbial decomposition of organic matter
Hardness  Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Sr, Al Titration, Spectrophotometry
Fluoride  Ground water associated with certain rocks SPADNS colorimetry
Metals  Dissolution from natural deposits Atomic absorption
 Domestic, industrial or agricultural wastewater spectrophotometry
discharges
Organics  Decay of organic solids BOD, COD, TOC
 Domestic or agricultural waste water
Nutrients  Carbon, Nitrogen and Phosphorus cycles Test based on form
Expression of Concentration and Solubility of Impurities
 Equivalent – amount of substance that react or supply 1 mole of H+ or electrons
 1 mole or gram molecular mass contain valence number of equivalents
 Equal no. of equivalents of two different substances react or supply same amount of H+
or electrons ⇒ chemically equivalent
 Concentration of a substance A can be expressed on equivalent concentration of
substrate B (commonly CaCO3) 𝒈
𝑨 𝒈 𝒈
𝑳 × 𝑩= 𝒐𝒇 𝑨 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝑩
𝒈 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗 𝑳
𝑨
𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗
 Solubility Product (Ksp):
dissolution 𝐴𝑚+ 𝑥 𝐵𝑛− 𝑦
𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 ⇌ 𝑥𝐴𝑚+ + 𝑦𝐵𝑛− 𝐾=
precipitation 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦
𝐾𝑠𝑝 = 𝐾 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐴𝑚+ 𝑥 𝐵𝑛− 𝑦

 Ion balance and electroneutrality: no. of equivalents of anions and cations are equal
Numerical Problems
1. Equivalents How many grams of calcium will be required to combine with 90 g of carbonate
to form calcium carbonate? [60 g]
2. Equivalent Weight Find the equivalent weight of Mg2+ ions and CaCO3. If the concentration
of Mg2+ is 10 mg/L, express it as mg/L CaCO3. [12.15 g/equiv, 50 g/equiv, 41.15 mg/L]
3. Equivalent Concentrations What is the equivalent calcium carbonate concentration of (a)
117 mg/L of NaCl and (b) 2x10-3 mol of NaCl. [(a) 100 mg/L as CaCO3 (b) 100 mg/L as CaCO3]
4. Equilibrium Concentration The solubility product for dissociation of Mg(OH)2 is 9x10-12.
Determine the concentration of Mg2+ and OH- at equilibrium, expressed as mg/L of CaCO3.
[13 mg/L as CaCO3, 13 mg/L as CaCO3]
5. Ion balance Test for common ions are run on a sample of water and the results are shown
below. If a 10% error in the balance is acceptable, calculate the percentage error and check
whether the analysis is acceptable. Ion mg/L Ion mg/L
[8%, acceptable] Ca2+ 55 HCO3- 250
Mg2+ 18 SO42- 60
Na+ 98 Cl- 89
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
 Total dissolved solids: evaporate filtered sample of water to dryness and weight the residue
 Conductivity: Specific conductance (mS/m) - approximate analysis of TDS
 Only ions contribute, depend on valence and mobility of ions
 Common ions in natural waters
 Major constituents (1-1000 mg/L) : Na, Ca, Mg, HCO3, SO4, Cl
 Secondary constituents (0.01-10 mg/L): Fe3+, Sr2+, K+, CO32-, NO3-, F-, B3+, SiO44-
 Important constituents of dissolved solids
 Alkalinity, Hardness, Fluoride, Metals, Organics, Nutrients
Type TDS (in ppm) TDS levels for Drinking Water
Drinking Water < 500 TDS (in ppm) < 500
Fresh Water < 1000 150-250 Good
Brackish Water 1000-10000 250-300 Fair
Saline Water 10000-100000 300-500 Poor
Brine > 100000 > 500 Unacceptible
Hardness
 Hardness – concentration of multivalent metallic cations
 Impact: soaps react with metallic cations and precipitate, fouling of water heaters and
hot-water pipes
 Titration: If 0.01M EDTA is used, 1mL of titrant measures 1mg of hardness as CaCO3
𝐸𝐵𝑇(𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟) + 𝑀2+ ⟶ 𝑬𝑩𝑻 − 𝑴 (𝑟𝑒𝑑 )
𝐸𝐵𝑇 − 𝑀 + 𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴 ⟶ 𝑬𝑫𝑻𝑨 − 𝑴 (𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒)
 Temporary and Permanent Hardness
 Temporary or Carbonate if carbonates and bicarbonates of Ca2+ and Mg2+
 Permanent or Non-Carbonate if non-carbonates of Ca2+ and Mg2+ such as SO42-,Cl-
 Total Hardness = sum of concentration of cations in mg/L as CaCO3
 Predominantly due to Ca2+ and Mg2+ so total hardness = calcium hardness +
magnesium hardness
 Total Hardness = Carbonate Hardness + Non-Carbonate Hardness
 Based on mg/L as CaCO3: Soft (<50), Moderate (50-150), Hard (150-300), Very Hard (>300)
Fluoride and Metals
Fluoride
 Seldom found in surface water
 Appears in ground water in few geographical regions
 Associated with few sedimentary and igneous rocks
 Toxic to humans and animals (> 2 mg/L) – discoloration of teeth, bone fluorosis
Metals
 Excessive amounts of any metal cause health hazards
 Non-toxic metals: Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, Mn, Al, Cu, Zn
 Iron and manganese cause color problems
 Oxidized iron and manganese compounds are insoluble so mainly present in
ground water
 Ferrous (Fe2+) oxidize to ferric (Fe3+) in presence of oxygen
 Toxic metals: Arsenic, Barium, Cadmium, Lead, Mercury, Silver
 Toxic metals are concentrated by the food chain
pH and Alkalinity
 Alkalinity – measure of ability of water to neutralize acids
 Amount of acid (mg/L) required to titrate a sample to about pH 4.5
 If 0.02N H2SO4 is used, then 1mL of acid will neutralize 1mg of alkalinity as CaCO3
 Constituents of Alkalinity – CO32-, HCO3-, OH-, HSiO3-, H2BO3-, HPO42-, H2PO4-, HS-, NH3
 Based on common constituents, alkalinity = [HCO3-]+[CO32-]+[OH-]-[H+]
 Usually [OH-] and [H+] are negligible
𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ⇋ 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3
𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 ⇌ 𝐻 + + 𝐻𝐶𝑂3−
𝐻𝐶𝑂3− ⇌ 𝐻+ + 𝐶𝑂32−
𝐶𝑂32− + 𝐻2 𝑂 ⇌ 𝐻𝐶𝑂3− + 𝑂𝐻 −
 Neutralization sequence:
OH- > CO32- > HCO3-
 At pH 8.3, all OH- and half CO32- consumed
Organic Materials and Nutrients
 Biodegradable organics: starch, fat, protein, alcohol, acids, aldehydes, esters
 Can be utilized for food by naturally occurring organisms
 Aerobic or anaerobic oxidation by microbes – Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
 Non-biodegradable organics: degrade very slowly
 Tannic or ligninic acids, cellulose, phenols
 Rings in molecular structure – benzene, petroleum based, pesticides
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) or Total Organic Carbon (TOC) analysis
 Nitrogen: from organic matter and fertilizers
 Nitrogen in biochemical (proteins, chlorophyll) → Bacterial decomposition →
decay to Ammonia (NH3) → Nitrite (NO2-) → Nitrate(NO3-)
 Nitrite is poisonous – replace oxygen in blood complex, not significant in natural
waters due to oxidation to nitrates
 Analysis for ammonia, nitrate, organic nitrogen in mg/L
 Phosphorus:
 Constituent of soil, fertilizer, animal waste, municipal wastewater
 Not toxic but indirect threat - rapid growth of plants
Dissolved Oxygen and Oxygen Demand
 Theoretical Oxygen Demand: amount of O2 required to oxidize a substance to CO2 and H2O
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): Amount of oxygen consumed during microbial
utilization of organics
 Oxygen consumed by sample placed in dark, air-tight container and in controlled
environment for preselected period of time – at 20°C for 5days
 BOD (mg/L) = Initial Dissolved Oxygen – Final Dissolved Oxygen
 Total BOD (L0) can be calculated if the kinetics is known:
𝑑𝐿𝑡
k is function of T
= −𝑘𝐿𝑡 ⇒ 𝐵𝑂𝐷 = 𝐿0 − 𝐿𝑡 = 𝐿0 (1 − 𝑒 ) −𝑘𝑡
𝒌𝑻 = 𝒌𝟐𝟎 𝜽 𝑻−𝟐𝟎
𝑑𝑡
L is the ultimate BOD θ= 1.047
0

 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): Amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize both
biodegradable and non-biodegradable compounds in matter
 Water sample is treated with known amount of potassium dichromate in the
presence of sulfuric acid and consumed oxidant is calculated from left out
2𝐶𝑟2 𝑂72− + 3𝐻𝐶𝑂𝐻 + 16𝐻+ ⟶ 3𝐶𝑂2 + 11𝐻2 𝑂 + 4𝐶𝑟 3+
Biological Characteristics
 Pathogens: Organisms capable of infecting or transmitting diseases
 Bacteria (cholera), Virus (polio), Protozoa (amebiasis), Helminthes or worms
 Specific organism test and indicator organism test
 Coliform group: Escherichia coli – indicate contact of water with soil, decaying
vegetation or fecal matter
 Membrane-filter technique: gives count of coliform bacteria
 Filter by membrane with pore < 45µm, retained bacteria
 Incubate membrane and media for 24hrs, count no. of organisms/100mL of water
 Multiple Tube Fermentation method
 Coliform organism ferment lactose and produce gas
 Development of gas from lactose broth mixed with water is tested with multiple
samples (10mL, 1mL and 0.1mL) and multiple times
 Most probable number (MPN) of coliform bacteria in 100 mL of sample depending
on number of positives using MPN index table
Numerical Problems
1. Hardness A water has an alkalinity of 200 mg/L as CaCO3. The Ca2+ concentration is 160 mg/L
as the ion, and the Mg2+ concentration is 40 mg/L as the ion. The pH is 8.1. Find the total,
carbonate and non-carbonate hardness.
2. Alkalinity A 200 mL sample of water has an initial pH of 10. Thirty milliliters of 0.02 N H2SO is
required to titrate the sample to pH 4.5. What is the total alkalinity of the water in mg/L of
CaCO3?. If the pH of 8.3 is reached at 11 mL of acid, determine the quantities of each
species of alkalinity (OH-, CO32- and HCO3-). [150 mg/L, 5mg/L, 100mg/L, 45 mg/L]
3. OD Compute the theoretical oxygen demand (ThOD) of 108.75 mg/L of glucose (C6H12O6).
[116 mg/L]
4. BOD If the 3-day BOD (BOD3) of a waste is 75 mg/L and the BOD decay constant, k, is 0.345
day-1, what is the ultimate BOD? [116 mg/L]
5. BOD The BOD5 of a wastewater is determined to be 150 mg/L at 20°C. The k value is known
to be 0.23 per day. What would be the BOD8 if the test were run at 15°C. [168 mg/L]
Standards for Water Quality
 Based on type of water
 Potable-water standards: drinking water
 In-stream standards: natural water systems, surface water
 Waste water effluent standards: municipal waste water, industrial waste water
 Primary – legally enforceable, stringent
Secondary – guidelines, recommended
Organizations
 World Health Organization (WHO) – drinking water
 Internal Organizations for Standardization (ISO) – industrial and waste water
 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) – drinking water
 Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) – surface water and effluent water
 Central Water Commission
 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) – Drinking water, Surface Water and Waste water
https://cpcb.nic.in/wqstandards/
Physical Water Purification Processes in Natural Systems
 Dilution: waste water mixed with normal water stream stream mixed stream
 C, Q are concentration and volumetric flow rate Cs,Qs Cm,Qm
 Mass balance: 𝐶𝑠 𝑄𝑠 + 𝐶𝑤 𝑄𝑤 = 𝐶𝑚 𝑄𝑚
 Sedimentation and Resuspension: Cw,Qw
 Settling of suspended particles Waste water
 Resuspension in times of flooding or heavy runoff
 Filtration: debris caught by pebbles or rocks
 Gas Transfer: transfer of gases into and out of water
 Solubility: mole fraction of dissolved gas at 1 atm, 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑝𝑖ൗ𝐻(𝑇)
pi= partial pressure of gas and H(T) is Henry’s constant
𝑑𝐶
 Transfer Rate: Rate of change of concentration of gas, = 𝑘 𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
 C and Cs are instantaneous and saturated concentration of gas
 k is rate constant, depends on temperature, interfacial area and
system
Physical Water Purification Processes in Natural Systems (cont.)
 Heat Transfer
 Streams heated over large
area (solar radiation) heat
and cool gradually
 Streams receiving heat load
at single discharge
(industrial effluent) raise
heat and cool rapidly
 Reservoirs and lakes:
 Max water density at 4󠇡˚C
 Thermal stratification
Chemical and Biochemical Purification Processes in Natural Systems
Chemical Processes
 Oxidation-Reduction and Dissolution-Precipitation
 Solubilizing essential nutrients (N, P) and micro nutrients (Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Co)
 Stabilize pH of water bodies
Biochemical Processes: catalyzed by enzymes
 Metabolism: processes by which living organisms assimilate and use food
 Catabolism: breakdown food to release energy need for growth
 Anabolism: build molecules need for growth using the energy
 Based on energy and material source of organism
 Phototrophs: energy from light and material from inorganic sources
 Autotrophs: both energy and material from inorganic sources
 Heterotrophs: both energy and material from organic sources
 Aerobic (in presence of O2), Anaerobic (in absence of O2), facultative (switch based
on availability of O2) ⟹ influence dissolved oxygen
 Bacteria utilize organics and inorganics as food
 Protozoa ingest bacteria and colloidal organics
Water Purification Systems for Surface and Ground Water
1. Coagulation Plants
for surface waters

2. Softening Plants
for ground water

3. Limited treatment plants for high quality water

Water Purification Systems for Surface and Ground Water
1. Coagulation Plants
for surface waters

2. Softening Plants
for ground water

3. Limited treatment plants for high quality water

Water Treatment Processes for Ground and Surface Water
1. Aeration: removal of undesirable gases and oxidation of iron and manganese
o Fountains, Cascade Towers, Tray Towers
2. Settling: removal of suspended solids
o Long-rectangular Basins, Circular Basins, Solids-Contact Basins
3. Mixing and Coagulation: removes turbidity of colloidal particles
o Rapid mixing tanks + flocculation
4. Softening: removes calcium and magnesium hardness
5. Filtration: removes remained turbidity and hardness
o Gravity flow filter, Pressure filter
6. Adsorption: remove dissolved organics using activated carbon
7. Disinfection: destroys pathogens
8. Storage
Aeration
 Often used for treating ground water
 Degasification – to remove undesirable gases dissolved in water – CO2, H2S
 Oxidation – add oxygen to water to convert undesirables to manageable forms
 Soluble Fe2+ and Mn2+ become insoluble on oxidation
 Gas-Liquid Contact Systems
 Dispersion of water into air – better for degasification
 Fountains
 Height of spray (contact time)
 Pressure, nozzle spacing, flow rate
 Cascade towers - series of waterfalls
 head loss, contact time
 Tray towers - series of solid trays or packed trays
 Dispersion of air into water – better for oxidation
 Injection of air at bottom using blowers through spargers
 Variations: enclosed tank with positive pressure on top,
impeller near point of injection
Settling/Sedimentation/Clarification
 Characteristics of suspended particles
 Discrete Particles: size, shape and density NOT change
 Flocculating Particles: size, shape or density change due to aggregation or coalescing
 Types of Settling
 Type-1: Discrete Settling
Particles settle independently, with minimal interaction
between them, at low conc. of suspensions
 Type-2: Flocculent Settling
Particles clump together due to flocculation, form
larger masses that settle faster
 Type-3: Hindered Settling
Particles settle as zones for intermediate conc. of
flocculating particles
 Type-4: Compression Settling
Type IV
Settling at high conc. requires compression to squeeze
out trapped water
Type-1 Settling (Dilute suspension of discrete particles)
 Gravitational force – Buoyancy force = Drag force due to viscous friction
𝑣𝑡2
𝜌𝑝 𝑔𝑉𝑝 − 𝜌𝑤 𝑔𝑉𝑝 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑝 𝜌𝑤
2
𝜙𝜌 𝑣 𝑑
CD = drag coefficient, depends on 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑤 𝑡
𝜇
𝐶𝐷 = 24Τ𝑅𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟, 𝑅𝑒 < 1
𝐶𝐷 = 0.4 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑅𝑒 > 104 Vp = volume of particle
 For spherical particles ρp, ρw = density of particle and water
2
4 𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑤 𝑑 Ap = cross section area perpendicular to flow
𝑣𝑡 = 𝑔
3 𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑤 vt = terminal settling velocity
 For spherical particles in laminar flow, d = diameter of particle
𝑔(𝜌𝑝− 𝜌𝑤 )𝑑2 φ = shape factor
𝑣𝑡 = Stokes equation µ = viscosity of water
18𝜇
 Direct application of above equations seldom possible in water treatment due to
variation in size and shape of particles
Analysis of Type-1 Suspension
 A particle at position P settle in time t if its velocity is
equal to vp = Zp/t O
 Let no. of particles with velocity vp below height Zp is
np and in entire volume is Np
𝑁𝑝 𝑛𝑝
 Uniform mixing, concentration = =
𝐴𝑍0 𝐴𝑍𝑝
 Fraction of particles with velocity vp Zo
𝑛𝑝 𝑍𝑝 𝑍𝑝 Τ𝑡 𝑣𝑝
= = =
𝑁𝑝 𝑍𝑜 𝑍𝑜 Τ𝑡 𝑣𝑜 P
 If Co is the initial concentration and Ct is
Zp
concentration at time t,
𝐶𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡 Sampling
𝑥= =
𝐶𝑜 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 Port
𝑍𝑜ൗ
= 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑡
Settling Efficiency of Type-1 Suspension
 If settling velocity > vo (= Zo/t), that
particle settle in time t irrespective of
height and its fraction is 1-xo
 Among the fraction xo which do not
settle from height Zo, settling depend
on its initial height distribution which
is equivalent to settling velocity
distribution
𝑥0
𝑣𝑖
𝑋 = 1 − 𝑥𝑜 + න 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑣𝑜
Type-2 Settling
 Dilute Suspension of flocculating particles
 Settling column sampled at several depths
 Mass fraction in % removed at ith depth
and jth interval is
𝐶𝑖𝑗
𝑥𝑖𝑗 = 1 − × 100%
𝐶0
 Slope of isoremoval line at any point is
instantaneous velocity of that fraction
 At time to, ro % settle from the top and
those settle from other depth depend
on the height distribution
∆𝑟𝑖 𝑍𝑖
𝑅 = 𝑟𝑜 + ෍
𝑍𝑜
Long-Rectangular Basins
 Four functional zones
 Inlet zone:
baffles spread the flow
 Outlet zone
 Sludge zone
 Settling zone
 Retention time (t0)
𝑉 𝐿𝑍0 𝑊 𝑍0
𝑡0 = = =
𝑄 𝑄 𝑣0
𝑄 𝑄
 Overflow rate, 𝑞0 = =
𝐿𝑊 𝐴𝑠

 Velocity components of particles falling in settling zone

Z0
Flow 𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑝 𝑑𝑝2 𝑄
𝑣𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑣ℎ =
18𝜇 𝐴
W
L
Circular Basins
Solids-Contact Basins
Coagulation
 For particles in colloidal size range (1μm-1nm), surface phenomena dominate over mass
phenomena
 Surface acquire charge – bound (stern) layer and diffused layer form
 Energy barrier for collision due to surface charges: stable colloids
 Brownian movement and Mechanical agitation are too slow to cross energy barrier
 Goal of coagulation is to change the surface charge on the particles so they can stick
together to form larger particles (flocs) that will settle by gravity
 Mechanism of coagulation:
 Adsorption and charge neutralization
 Ionic layer compression: compress
diffuse layer
 Sweep coagulation due to entrapment
of colloid in Al(OH)3 floc
 Inter-particle bridging
Chemical Coagulation
 Addition of trivalent metallic salts such as alum Al2(SO4)3, Ferric chloride FeCl3 or
synthetic polymers
𝐴𝑙3+ + 3𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 +3𝐻 +
 1mg/L as CaCO3 of alum neutralize 0.5 mg/L of alkalinity as CaCO3
𝐴𝑙2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 . 14𝐻2 𝑂 + 6𝐻𝐶𝑂3− ⇋ 2𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 ↓ +6𝐶𝑂2 + 14𝐻2 𝑂 + 3𝑆𝑂42−
 Alkalinity preferred and accomplished by addition of Ca(OH)2 or Na2CO3
 Optimum pH: 5-7.5 for alum, 4.5-7.5 for FeCl3
 Categories of surface water in view of coagulation
 High turbidity-low alkalinity: small dose of coagulant, charge neutralization
 High turbidity-high alkalinity: high dosage of coagulant, sweep coagulation
 Low turbidity-high alkalinity: moderate dosage of coagulant, sweep coagulation
 Low turbidity-low alkalinity: add turbidity or alkalinity to convert to above
Coagulation Operations
 Operations in Coagulation Process
 Rapid mixing: coagulant addition and agitation of mixture
 Mixing time (t), ~ 2min, Velocity gradient (G), ~ 700-1000s-1
 Flocculation: stirring to promote collisions by turbulence and entrapment
 Gt ~ 104-105 with t in range 10-30min
 Settling: removal of flocculated solids in settling basin

1ൗ G = velocity gradient, s-1

𝑃 2
P = power input, W
𝐺=
𝑉𝜇 V = Volume of basin, m3
μ = viscosity, Ns/m2
𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑝 𝜌𝑣𝑝3 ρ = density of water, kg/m3
𝐺= CD = drag coefficient on paddles
2𝑉𝜇
Ap = area of paddle blades, m2
vp = velocity of paddles, m/s
Softening
 Chemical Precipitation: convert to precipitable CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2
 Precipitation requires pH: 9-9.5 for CaCO3, 11 for Mg(OH)2 so excess lime/NaOH added
 Incomplete removal : 40mg/L of CaCO3, 10mg/L of Mg(OH)2 remain
 Convert to soluble HCO3- to avoid gradual precipitation
 Stabilization: using sulfuric acid
 Recarbonation: using CO2
 Two methods
 Addition of Lime (CaO) and Soda ash (Na2CO3)
 Addition of Caustic Soda (NaOH)
 Ion Exchange
 Exchange of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions with Na+
at solid interface
 Zeolites, resins
 Breakthrough – all exchange sites utilized
 Regeneration using NaCl solution
Chemistry of Softening
 Lime precipitates all forms of carbonate hardness and magnesium noncarbonate hardness
𝐶𝑎2+ + 2(𝐻𝐶𝑂3 ) − +𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 ↓ +2𝐻2 𝑂
𝑀𝑔2+ + 2(𝐻𝐶𝑂3 ) − +𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 ↓ + 𝑀𝑔2+ + 𝐶𝑂32−
𝑀𝑔2+ + 𝐶𝑂3 2− + 𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 ↓ +𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2 ↓
𝑀𝑔2+ + 𝑆𝑂42− 2𝐶𝑙 − 2𝑁𝑂3− + 𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎2+ + 𝑆𝑂42− 2𝐶𝑙 − 2𝑁𝑂3− + 𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2 ↓

 Calcium noncarbonated hardness is removed by soda ash (Na2CO3)

𝐶𝑎2+ + 𝑆𝑂42− 2𝐶𝑙 − 2𝑁𝑂3− + 2𝑁𝑎+ + 𝐶𝑂32− → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 ↓ + 𝑆𝑂42− 2𝐶𝑙 − 2𝑁𝑂3− + 2𝑁𝑎+
 Caustic soda precipitates all forms of hardness
𝐶𝑎2+ + 2(𝐻𝐶𝑂3 ) − + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 ↓ +2𝑁𝑎+ + 𝐶𝑂3 2− + 2𝐻2 𝑂
𝑀𝑔2+ + 2(𝐻𝐶𝑂3 ) − +4𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2 ↓ +2𝑁𝑎+ + 2𝐶𝑂32− + 2𝐻2 𝑂
𝑀𝑔2+ + 𝑆𝑂4 2− + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2 ↓ +2𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑆𝑂42−
 Removal of CO2 in water is need in case of CaO
𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑎𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 2𝑁𝑎+ + 𝐶𝑂32− + 𝐻2 𝑂
Excess Lime Treatment Operation
 Since precipitation of Mg(OH)2 required pH = 11, addition of excess lime is needed to
make the mixture basic and remove Mg(OH)2
 Two stage process: Lime, Soda-Ash
 Stage-1:
 Removal of Carbonate Hardness of Ca2+
 Removal of Carbonate Hardness and
non-carbonate Hardness of Mg2+
 Recarbonation: pH 11 to 10.3
 Stage-2:
 Removal of Non-carbonate
Hardness of Ca2+
 Existed in water
 Created during stage-1
 Recarbonation: pH 10.3 to 9.5-8.5
Selective Calcium Removal
 When Mg2+ hardness is < 40 mg/L as CaCO3, then only Ca2+ hardness is removed
 Since Mg2+ removal not required, excess lime to maintain pH 11 is not required
 Single stage
 Lime to remove Carbonate Hardness of Ca2+
 Soda Ash to removed Non-carbonate Hardness of Ca2+ (originally in water)
Split Treatment
 Raw water stream split into two: one is treated with excess lime and other is by-passed
 Excess lime in treated stream from first stage is used to treat calcium hardness of bypassed
water in second stage
 No magnesium is removed in bypassed water but finished water should have Mg2+ hardness
in allowable limits (40-50 mg/L as CaCO3)

𝑀𝑔𝑓 − 𝑀𝑔1
𝑄𝑥 =
𝑀𝑔𝑟 − 𝑀𝑔1
Qx=fraction of total flow bypassed
Mgf = Mg conc. in finished water
Mgr = Mg conc. in the raw water
Mg1 = Mg conc. in treated water
pH 11 pH 10.3
(limit of > 10 mg/L as CaCO3)
Filtration
 Process of retaining the suspended solids by passing water through a stationary bed of
granular medium
 Depending on the driving force required for water flow
 Gravity Filters: Natural force of gravity to pull down water
 Slow sand filters, Rapid sand filters
 Pressure Filters: External pressure to drive water through filter
 Removal of particles or flocs in filter bed depends on
 Transport of solids through water to surface of filter grain
 Retention of solids once contact has occurred
 When storage capacity of filter exhaust due to filling of pores by particles, filter is cleaned
by backwashing
 Loading rate is rate at which filter accumulates particles per unit area. It is equal to velocity
of water approaching the filter media (face velocity) 𝑣𝑎 = 𝑄ൗ𝐴𝑠
 Filter Hydraulics of Gravity Filters
 Filtration ⇒ flow through a packed bed: downward flow under gravity
 Backwashing ⇒ flow in a fluidized bed: upward flow through media
 Flow through packed bed and fluidized bed
 Head loss due to flow through bed of particles, e = porosity of bed
𝑓 ′ 1 − 𝑒 𝐿𝑉𝑠2 L= depth of the filter, m
ℎ𝑓 = Vs = filtering velocity of fluid (Q/A), m/s2
𝑒 3 𝑔𝑑𝑝
g = acceleration due to gravity
(1 − 𝑒)
′
𝑓 = 150 + 1.75 dp = diameter of filter media grains, m
𝑅𝑒
f‘ = fraction factor due to drag on particles
𝜙𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑠 𝑑𝑝 ρw, μ – density and viscosity of fluid
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
 Head loss required to initiate expansion in fluidized bed
(hfb) = buoyant weight of particles ρm = density of packing medium
𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌𝑤
ℎ𝑓𝑏 = 𝐿(1 − 𝑒)
𝜌
L, Lfb = Length of packed and fluidized bed
𝑤
 Buoyant weight is same for packed and fluidized beds
𝐿𝑓𝑏 1 − 𝑒𝑓𝑏 = 𝐿(1 − 𝑒) efb = porosity of fluidized bed
 Stratification due to backwashing: smaller particles accumulate on top
 Gravity Flow Filters
 Components
 Filter Box: containment structure
 Underdrain system: collect and removed filtered water,
disperse the backwashed water
 Filter media: Silica sand, anthracite coal, garnet sand
 Size: small are efficient but more head loss
 Size distribution: stratification
 Density
 Designs
 Slow sand filter: fine sand with effective size 0.2 mm, scraped rather than backwash
 Rapid sand filters: silica sand with effective size 0.45 to 0.55 mm, backwash
 Dual-media filters: silica sand (0.5-0.55 mm) and anthracite coal (0.9-1.0mm)
 Mixed-media filters: 60% anthracite, 30% silica sand and 10% garnet sand
 Operation
 Constant head-variable flow: water level constant, flow rate drops as filter gets clogged
 Constant flow-variable head: flow rate constant, water level raise as filter gets clogged
Slow Sand Filters

Following relationship is commonly used in water

supply and distribution planning to ensure that the
system can handle peak demands
Maximum daily water demand = 1.8 x average daily
water demand
Pressure Filters
 Rapid sand or media filter enclosed in a chamber
and water is passed under external pressure

Horizontal Pressure Filter Vertical Pressure Filter

Numerical Problems
1. Coagulation. A water treatment plant with an average flow of Q = 0.044 m3/s treats its water
with alum (Al2(SO4)3⋅14H2O) at a dose of 25 mg/L. Alum coagulation is used to remove
particulate matter, reduce the concentration of organic matter, and reduce the alkalinity of
the water. If the organic matter concentration is reduced from 8 mg/L to 3 mg/L. Determine
the total mass of alkalinity consumed and the total mass of dry solids removed per day. [58.5
kg/day, 61.2 kg/day]
2. Settling. Find the terminal settling velocity of a spherical discrete particle with diameter 0.5
mm and specific gravity of 2.65 settling through water at 20°C with laminar flow condition.
Density of water = 1000 kg/m3. Viscosity of water = 0.001 Ns/m2. [0.22 m/s]
3. Filtration. A new treatment plant installed rapid sand filters after their sedimentation tanks.
The design loading rate to the filter is 200 m3/day.m2. How much filter surface area should
be provided for their design flow rate of 0.5 m3/s? If the surface area per filter box is to be
limited to 50 m2, how many filter boxes are required? [216 m2, 5]
Disinfection
 Kill or make pathogenic organisms harmless using disinfectants
 Rate of killing is often first order 𝑑𝑁
= −𝑘𝑁 𝑁𝑡 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
𝑑𝑡
 Methods
 Boiling: most bacterial destroy ~80°C
 Excess lime treatment: pH of 9.5 kill 99.9 % bacteria
 Iodine and bromine treatment: limited to small water supplies
 Silver treatment:
 Colloidal silver preserve water quality
 Metallic silver used as filter media
 Chlorination – gaseous Cl2, hypochlorites (Ca(OCl)2, NaOCl)
 Ozonation
 UV treatment
 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs): decompose organic matter using hydroxyl
radicals generated from disinfectants
Chlorination
 Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is responsible for killing and 𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙 ⇋ 𝐻 + + 𝑂𝐶𝑙 −
it dissociate to hypochlorite ion (OCl-) depending on 𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ⟶ 𝐻 + + 𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙
pH so low pH is desirable
𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐶𝑙) 2 ⟶ 𝐶𝑎2+ + 2𝑂𝐶𝑙 −
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐶𝑙 ⟶ 𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑂𝐶𝑙 −
 Factors effecting chlorination
 Forms of chlorine: HOCl is more effective than OCl- and Cl2 is strong oxidant than
hypochlorites
 pH: more dosage required at high pH
1
 Contact time (tp) and concentration (C), 𝑡𝑝 ∝ 𝑛
𝐶
 Type of organism
 Temperature
 Being strong oxidant, chlorine react with those in reduced state: Fe2+, Mn2+, H2S and
organics. So it is desirable
 To prevent formation of undesirables by forming chloramines using NH3
 To remove undesirables by adsorption onto activated carbon
Ozone and Chlorine dioxide
Ozone
 More effective than chlorine in inactivating bacteria and viruses
 Must be produced on-site because it is unstable
 It is generated by discharge electrode so costly
 Forms oxygenated compounds on oxidation which are environmentally acceptable
Chlorine dioxide (ClO2)
 Particularly effective in oxidizing phenolic compounds
 Form neither chloroforms nor chloramines
 Produced by combining chlorine and sodium chlorite
 Must be generated onsite because contact with air or presence of light result in loss
 Reacts with water to form chlorite and chlorate which are toxic to human
Typical Waste Water Treatment Systems - I
Typical Waste Water Treatment Systems - II
Primary Treatment System
Secondary Treatment System

Activated Sludge System

Suspended Culture System

Trickling Filter System

Attached Culture System
Sludge Treatment System
Wastewater Treatment Processes
Preliminary and Primary Treatment – physical processes
 Screening and Grinding: Removes rags, stics and other debris; protect pumping
equipment
 Degritting: Removes settlable inorganic grit
 Flow metering and Sampling
 Primary Sedimentation and Floatation: Removes settable organic and inorganic
particles and floating debris such as fats, oils and greases
Secondary Treatment – biological processes
 Biological treatment: Removes dissolved and non-settlable organic mater
 Secondary Sedimentation: Separates biomass and chemical precipitates from treated
waste water
Tertiary (Advanced) Treatment
 Nutrient Removal: Removal of nitrogen and phosphorus
Sludge Treatment and Disposal
Preliminary Treatment Processes
Screening
 To remove coarse solids such as rags, sticks from waste water
 Protects pump and other mechanical equipment and prevent
clogging of valves
 Coarse and fine screen sizes
Comminuting/Grinding
 Shred coarse solids Screen
 Screen and cutting teeth

Degritting
 To remove inorganic solids such as pebbles, sand,
glass and metal fragments
 Consist of enlarged channel area where reduced
flow velocities allow grit to settle out
Flow Measurement
Primary Sedimentation
 To concentrate and remove suspended organic solids from waste water
 Mostly particles are sticky so type-2 settling without coagulants
 Sludge should be removed before anaerobic conditions develops else solid particles are
lifted by gas bubbles of decomposition
Biological Treatment
 Microorganisms use organics in waste water as food and convert to biomass
 Utilization as food and biomass growth occur in 4 phases – lag phase, log-growth
phase, stationary phase, endogenous phase
 Temperature, pH, toxins, salt concentration and oxidants influence growth
 Degradation of organic material by microorganisms is controlled in carefully
engineered reactors to optimize rate and completeness of removal
 Ponds and lagoons
 Reactor types
 Suspended cultures: microorganisms are suspended in wastewater either as single
cells or cluster of cells called flocs
 Without sludge recycle: completely mixed reactors
 Activated sludge process: completely mixed rectors, plug-flow reactors
 Requires aeration due to excess oxygen utilization rate
 Attached cultures: masses of organisms adhered to inert surfaces with wastewater
passing over the microbial film
Ponds and Lagoons
 Wastewater pond - a large, shallow earthen basin in which wastewater in retained long
enough for natural purification processes to provide an acceptable effluent
 also known as stabilization pond, oxidation pond, sewage lagoon
 Assumed as suspended culture systems without sludge recycle
 Ponds based on availability of oxygen
 Aerobic ponds/polishing ponds: shallow ponds in which dissolved oxygen is present
at all depths
 Anaerobic ponds: deep ponds in which oxygen is absent except for thin surface layer
 Facultative ponds: both aerobic and anaerobic zones exist
 Lagoons based on degree of mechanical mixing
 Aerobic ponds: all contents including solids are mixed and aerated
 Facultative lagoon: only liquid portions mix, solids settle and degrade anaerobically
Suspended Culture Systems: Activated Sludge Process
Attached Culture Systems
Trickling Filter
 Randomly packed solid forms provide
surface area for biofilm growth
 Specific surface area and porosity
 Dispersion of wastewater over packed
medium – rotating distributor
Bio-tower
 Modular media – corrugated and flat PVC
sheets welded in alternating pattern
 Light weight, low head loss
 Rotating distributor
Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC)
 Media is disk rotated through waste water tank
 Disks are submerged about 40% of diameter
 Microorganisms grow on medium surface removing food
from waste water and oxygen from air
Secondary Sedimentation/Clarification
 To remove biological solids from suspended and attached culture systems
Activated-sludge system clarifiers
 Must produced effluent meeting discharge standards
 Must concentrate biological solids to minimize quantity of sludge to be handled
 Biological solids settle as type-2 suspension up to 1000 mg/L and zone settling beyond
Attached-culture system clarifiers
 Clarification function to produced effluent within standards is important
 Sludge thickening is not important because quantity of generated solids is less due to
endogenous nature of biomass near media
 Settling approach those of type-1 suspension for discrete particles
Advanced wastewater treatment: Nutrient Removal
Nitrogen Removal
 Raw water contains nitrogen as organic nitrogen (proteins, urea) or ammonia (NH4+, NH3)
 Air stripping: transfer of ammonia from wastewater to air
 removal of ammonia is needed from raw water for efficient use of oxygen
 Organic nitrogen is converted to ammonia biologically by nitrification-denitrification
Nitrification: Aerobic decomposition of Denitrification: Nitrate is reduced to
ammonia to nitrate by Nitrobacter and nitrogen gas by facultative bacteria such as
Nitrosomonas Psuedomonas in anerobic conditions and
3 carbon supply (methanol)
𝑁𝐻4+ + 𝑂2 → 𝑁𝑂2− + 2𝐻 + + 𝐻2 𝑂
2 5 1 5 7
1 𝑁𝑂3− + 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 → 𝑁2 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂𝐻 −
𝑁𝑂2 + 𝑂2 ⟶ 𝑁𝑂3−
− 6 2 6 6
2
Phosphorous Removal
𝐴𝑙 3+ + (𝐻𝑛 𝑃𝑂4 )(3−𝑛) ⟶ 𝐴𝑙𝑃𝑂4 ↓ +𝑛𝐻 +
 Limited uptake by microorganisms
 Chemical precipitation by Al3+,Fe3+ or lime 𝐹𝑒 3+ + (𝐻𝑛 𝑃𝑂4 )(3−𝑛) ⟶ 𝐹𝑒𝑃𝑂4 ↓ +𝑛𝐻 +

5𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 +3(𝐻𝑛 𝑃𝑂4 )(3−𝑛) ⟶ 𝐶𝑎5 𝑂𝐻 𝑃𝑂4 3 ↓ +𝑛𝐻2 𝑂 + (9 − 𝑛)𝑂𝐻−

Advanced wastewater treatment: Solids Removal
 Suspended solids removal
 Sand filters (Granular-media filtration) are common
 Other options: centrifugation, air floatation, mechanical microscreening
 Dissolved solids removal
 Activated carbon adsorption
 Ion exchange
 Microporous membrane filtration
 Chemical oxidation
Wastewater disposal
 Dilution in surface waters
 Evaporation systems: oxidation ponds with purpose of evaporation
 Ocean disposal
 Land application of waste water
 Irrigation: discharge to surface water
 wastewater applied to land surfaces to provide both water and nutrients to
enhance plant growth
 Sprinkling, flooding, ridge-and-furrow techniques
 Rapid filtration: discharge to ground water bodies
 spreading wastewater in shallow, unlined earthen basins and allow liquid to
pass through the porous bottom and percolate towards the ground water
Sludge Treatment: Thickening
 Sludge disposal facilities cost 40-60% of total cost of wastewater treatment plants
 Primary sludge
 Contains inorganic solids and coarser organic solids
 Granular in nature
 Secondary sludge
 Composed primarily of biological solids
 Solids from attached-growth reactors are particulate and consolidate better than
light flocculent solids from suspended culture systems
 Cost of sludge-disposal ∝ volume of sludge ∝ 1/solids content
 Sludge thickening: volume reduction by removing liquids
 Mechanical methods:
 Before sludge incineration
 Gravity thickening:
 When further biological treatment is intended
 Similar to secondary clarifiers used in suspend-culture systems
Sludge Treatment: Digestion
 Sludge digestion or stabilization: rendering wastewater sludge inert to environment and
pathogen-free by converting biomass to noncellular end products, commonly by
biological degradation
Anaeorbic Digestion
 For dealing with primary sludge which contains organics
 Decompose sludge producing little residual biomass
 Organics induce biomass growth on aeration so avoided
 Anaerobic decomposers
 Reactor: closed tank with airtight covers
Aerobic Digestion
 For secondary sludge from extended aeration system
 Endogenous respiration of organism: forced to metabolize own protoplasm due to
absence of external food
Lime Stabilization
 Kill pathogens by raising pH above 11 but effect is temporary
Sludge Disposal
Dewatering
 Mechanical methods: centrifugation, vacuum filtration, filter pressing
 Air drying: evaporate water to air and remove dried sludge as cake
 Sludge ponds: settling basins with long retention time
 Sand beds
 Belt filters

Ultimate disposal of wastewater sludge

 Incineration
 Placement in a sanitary landfill
 Incorporation into soils as fertilizers
Numerical Problems
1. Sedimentation Tank Design. Design a rectangular sedimentation tank to treat 2.4 million
litres of raw water per day. Assume the detention period to be 3 hrs, depth of tank as 3m
and the length to be thrice of width. [Volume of tank = 300 m3, Over flowrate = 24
m3/day/m2 ]
2. If a rectangular sedimentation tank is treating 2.5 million litres/day. The size of the tank is
17.5 x 5.5 x 3.5 m. If 80 ppm suspended solids are present in the water, assuming 75%
removal in the basin and the average specific gravity as 2.0. Determine the following: (i)
average velocity of flow of water through the tank (ii) detention time (iii) amount of solids
deposited in the tank (iv) overflow rate. [0.015 m/s, 3.23 hr, 300 kg, 1082 L/h/m2]
3. Slow sand filter bed. Design five slow sand filter beds from the following data for the water
works of a town of population 75,000; per capita demand as 135 litres/capita/day. Rate of
filtrations as 150 litres/hour/m2. Out of five units, one unit is to be kept as standby. Assume
length to be thrice of width. [Area = 1266 m2/unit, length= 61.5 m, breadth = 20.5 m]
Numerical Problems
4. A coagulation treatment plant with a maximum flow of 1.5 m3/s is dosing alum at 25 mg/l.
Concentration of suspended solid in raw water is 37 mg/L. The effluent suspended solid
concentration is 13 mg/L. The sludge content is 1 % and specific gravity of sludge solids is 3.
What volume of sludge must be disposed of each day? [386.41 m3/day]
𝐴𝑙(𝑆𝑂4 )3 . 18𝐻2 𝑂 + 3𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 → 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 ↓ +18𝐻2 𝑂
𝐴𝑙(𝑆𝑂4 )3 . 18𝐻2 𝑂 + 3𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 3𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 2 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 ↓ +3𝐶𝑂2 + 15𝐻2 𝑂
5. Design a grit chamber for maximum waste water flow of 0.160 m3/sec with the horizontal
velocity as 0.2 m/sec, depth as 1.0 m and detention time period as one minute. Provide
25% additional length to accommodate inlet and outlet zones, 0.3 m free board and 0.25 m
grit accumulation zone depth. [ length = 15 m, width = 1 m and depth = 1.35 m]