Chapter 4:

Electrostatic Problems

Lecturer: Nana Liu

Summer 2023
Summer 2025

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Many slides courtesy of Sung-Liang Chen
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 4-1 Introduction

• Electrostatic problems: E, V, r
• r(r) known exactly everywhere è E(r), V(r)

• In practical problems, r(r) is not known

everywhere (e.g., only partial r(r) known). We
need techniques:
– Method of images
– Boundary-value problems

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 4-2 Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equations
Maxwell’s 1st and 2nd equations

In a linear medium

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 Poisson’s Equations

In a homogeneous medium
e is a constant over space

Poisson’s equation

Laplacian operator: Ñ2 = Ñ•Ñ

Poisson’s equation:
r may be a function of space coordinates
e must be a constant over space

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Poisson’s Equation in Cartesian Coordinate

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Ñ2 in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates

• Cylindrical:

• Spherical:

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 Laplace’s Equation

• In a simple medium where there is no free

charge, r=0
Laplace’s Equation

• Example to use Laplace’s equation: a set of

conductors at different potentials
Solve V by Laplace’s equation è E=-ÑV è rs=eEn
(see example 4-1)

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 4-3 Uniqueness of Electrostatic Solutions

• Uniqueness theorem: a solution of Poisson’s

equation that satisfies the given boundary
conditions is a unique solution.

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 Proof of Uniqueness Theorem

So: outer surface enclosing the volume t

S1, S2, …, Sn: surfaces of conducting bodies

• Volume t is bounded (enclosed) by a surface So

and surfaces S1, S2, … Sn
• Inside So, many charged conducting bodies with
surfaces S1, S2,…, Sn at specified potentials.

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 So
t

S1

S1: Surface of a conducting body

t: Volume bounded by So and S1

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 Proof of Uniqueness Theorem

• Uniqueness theorem: there is only one

solution of potential V in t
• To prove uniqueness theorem, we assume two
solutions V1 and V2 in t:

Also assume that V1 and V2 satisfy the same

boundary conditions on S1, S2, … Sn and So
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 Proof of Uniqueness Theorem

• (i) Define a potential difference Vd:

- in t

(ii) On conducting boundaries, the potentials are specified è Vd=0

Uniqueness theorem: a solution of Poisson’s
equation that satisfies the given boundary
conditions (= potentials are specified on surfaces
of conducting bodies) is a unique solution.

(i) In t, Ñ2Vd=0
(ii) On conducting boundaries, Vd=0 26
Proof of Uniqueness Theorem

Integration over t in t

S: S1,S2,…Sn, and So

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 Proof of Uniqueness Theorem

1. For S1, S2, … Sn , Vd=0

2. For So
Consider the surface of a sphere with radius R à ¥
Vd ~ 1/R
ÑVd ~ 1/R2
s ~ R2
Thus, the integrand ~ 1/R
As R à ¥, Left side à 0

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 Proof of Uniqueness Theorem

everywhere in t

Vd is a constant everywhere in t
(Thus, “Vd in t” = “Vd on surfaces”)
We know Vd=0 on surfaces S1, S2,… Sn

Vd = 0 everywhere in t
That is, V1 = V2 everywhere in t, and there is only one possible solution!

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 Two Cases for the Uniqueness Theorem

• Known potentials of conducting bodies, which

is just proved.
• Known charge distributions of conducting
bodies:

rS is known on conducting bodies

on conducting body surfaces

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Substitute on S1,S2,…Sn into

=0 over S1, S2,… Sn. LHS à 0

Also, =0 as Rà¥
S0

.
.
.

The same conclusion can be obtained! 31

 4-4 Methods of Images

• Methods of images: replacing boundaries by

appropriate image charges in lieu of a formal
solution of Poisson’s or Laplace’s equation
– Condition on boundaries unchanged
– V(R) can be determined easily

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Case: Point Charge and Grounded Plane
Conductor

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 Case: Point Charge and Grounded Plane
Conductor
• Solved by Laplace eq.:

Hold for y>0 except at the point charge

• 4 Conditions should be satisfied:
1.
2. for points very close to Q

Difficult to solve…
3. Và0 for points very far from Q

4. Even functions w.r.t. x and z coordinates

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 Case: Point Charge and Grounded Plane
Conductor
• +Q à induce rs on conducting plane

rs(x,z)

– rs(x,z) not easy to determine

– 2nd term is difficult to evaluate

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4-4.1 Point Charge and Conducting Planes

• Image methods:
– Remove the conductor
– Replace with an image point charge -Q at y=-d

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 Solution

• By direct substitution, we can verify:

– Laplace’s Eq. is satisfied
– 4 conditions are satisfied
• In view of uniqueness theorem, the solution is
the only solution.
Uniqueness theorem: a solution of Poisson’s equation that
satisfies the given boundary conditions ( V(y=0)=0 in this case )
is a unique solution.

• E=-ÑV
Extremely simple!
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Break up into groups of 5 and spend 5-
10 minutes working out:

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 Notes of Image Methods

• The solution cannot be used to calculate V or

E in the y<0 region.
• For y<0 region, E=0, V=0.

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4-4.2 Line Charge and Parallel Conducting
Cylinder

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1. Cylinder surface is an equi-potential surface
à image must be a parallel line charge (ri)
inside the cylinder
2. By symmetry of line OP, ri should be on OP

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Solid line: equi-
potential surface

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 Assume (intelligent guess)

• Voltage due to rl

Reference point, V=0

Point of interest r02 r01

• Voltage due to rl and ri on cylindrical surface

1 2

Choosing the same reference point with equidistance from rl and ri so that ln r0 terms cancel.
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 • To make VM=constant

• To make M coincide with the cylindrical surface (OM=a), Pi should be

chosen to make the two triangles OMPi and OPM similar. (Otherwise,
ri/r=constant over the cylindrical surface cannot be satisfied.)

Pi is called the inverse point of P

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4-4.3 Point Charge and Conducting Sphere

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 Intelligent Guess

• By symmetry, Qi
– Negative
– Inside the sphere
– On line OQ
• Qi¹-Q, otherwise the equi-potential surface
(V=0) is a plane

• Thus, both Qi and di should be solved

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Qi is called the inverse point of Q
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4-4.4 Charged Sphere and Grounded Plane

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• Assume that a charge Q0 is at the center.
• The sphere and the plane must be equi-potential surfaces.
• Method of images: The charged sphere and grounded plane can be
replaced by charges

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Q0 at (-c,0) è the sphere is an equi-potential plane
To make yz plane equi-potential (V=0)

-Q0 at (c,0)
Destroy equi-potential of the sphere
To make the sphere surface equi-potential

Q1 inside the sphere

Destroy equi-potential of yz plane (V=0)
To make yz plane equi-potential

-Q1 1 3 2

.
.
.
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 d: from the charge to the sphere center

di1 di1
Q0 to Q1 è Q1=(a/d1)Q0 ; di1=a2/d1
d1=2c
Q1 to Q2 è Q2=(a/d2)Q1 ; di2=a2/d2
d2=d1-di1
Q2 to Q3 …
d3=d2-di2

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• Total charge on the sphere

• The V on the sphere

Pairs yield zero potential on the sphere
Only Q0 at the center yields nonzero V

• The C between the

sphere and the
conducting plane

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 4-5 Boundary-Value Problems in Cartesian
Coordinates
• Method of images: useful for the case with
isolated free charges
• Laplace’s equation: can be used to solve the
case w/o isolated free charges (Example 4-1:
charges on conductors)
– Known boundary values (potential or its normal
derivative specified), so called boundary-value
problems.

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 Three Types of Boundary Conditions

• Dirichlet: V is specified on boundaries

• Neumann: dV/dn is specified on boundaries

• Mixed: V specified on some boundaries; dV/dn

specified over the remaining boundaries.

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 Separation of Variables

Laplace’s equation

By separation of variables

´1

f(x) + f(y) + f(z) =0

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f(x)+f(y)+f(z)=0 to be satisfied for all values of x, y, z
f(x): function of x only
f(y): function of y only
f(z): function of z only

f(x), f(y), f(z) must be a constant

df(x)/dx=0, df(y)/dy=0, df(z)/dz=0

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 df(x)/dx=0

Integration on both sides

Integration constant

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k is real
f(x) + f(y) + f(z) =0
-kx2 -ky2 -kz2 =0

, which should be satisfied.

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k is real

A, B or C, D will be determined
by boundary conditions

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 4-6 Boundary-Value Problems in Cylindrical
Coordinates

Laplace’s equation
General solution: Bessel functions
Assuming z independent

By separation of variables

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To hold for all values of r and f

rewrite

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For circular cylindrical configurations, if f is
unrestricted, F(f) is periodic (same values at a
certain f)
• k must be an integer à n ejkf¹ejk(f+2p)
• sinh, cosh are not periodic! ejnf=ejn(f+2p)

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 kàn
Product rule

Solution:
(Verified by direct substitution)

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 Combine the two solutions

where An=ArAf; Bn=ArBf; A’n=BrAf; B’n=BrBf;

If region of interest (ROI) includes r=0, 2nd term cannot exist.

If region of interest (ROI) includes r=¥, 1st term cannot exist

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A Special Case: k=0

for k=0

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 4-7 Boundary-Value Problems in Spherical
Coordinates
Laplace’s equation

=0

Assuming f independent

By separation of variables

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To hold for all values of R and q

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Solution:
where
n=0,1,2… is a positive integer
(Verified by direct substitution)

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 Legendre’s equation

Solution: Legendre’s functions

if involving full range of q=[0,p]

For integer values of n,

The Legendre
polynomials are
orthogonal
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Break up into groups of 5 and spend 5-
10 minutes working out:

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