Lecture 11:

Central Nervous
System

Central Nervous System

• Overview of Central Nervous System
• Brain Regions
• Spinal Cord
• Review Sensory and Motor Pathways

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 The Nervous System
• The Nervous System is the master controlling and
communication system of the body, specialized to quickly
detect and respond to stimuli.
• It is composed of:
• Central Nervous System (brain, spinal cord)
– Integration
• Peripheral Nervous System (peripheral nerves and
receptors).
– Afferent Division (Sensory information IN)
– Efferent Division (Motor responses OUT)

Central nervous system (CNS)

Brain and
Input Output
spinal cord
to CNS from
from CNS to
periphery periphery

Peripheral nervous
system (PNS)

Afferent Efferent
division division

Stimuli in
Sensory Visceral Somatic Autonomic digestive
stimuli stimuli nervous system nervous system tract

Motor Sympathetic Parasympathetic Enteric nervous

neurons nervous system nervous system system

KEY

Central nervous system Smooth muscle Digestive

Skeletal
Peripheral nervous system Cardiac muscle organs only
muscles
Afferent division of PNS* Exocrine glands
Efferent division of PNS Some endocrine
Somatic nervous system glands
Autonomic nervous system
Enteric nervous system* Effector organs
(made up of muscle and gland tissue) Fig. 5-1, p. 136

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 Central Peripheral
nervous system nervous system
(spinal cord)

Cell
Axon body Afferent neuron
terminals

Central Peripheral axon

Sensory
axon (afferent fiber)
receptor

Interneuron

Efferent neuron*
Effector organ
(muscle or gland)
Axon
(efferent fiber) Axon
Cell
body terminals
* Efferent autonomic nerve pathways consist of a two-neuron chain between
the CNS and the effector organ. Fig. 5-2, p. 137

Protection of the CNS

• Central Nervous System tissue is easily damaged, so it
must be well protected from trauma and harmful
substances
• 3 main ways it is protected:
1. Skull & Meninges
2. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
3. Blood Brain Barrier

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 Bone & Meninges
• Bones of the skull – enclose the brain
• Vertebral Bones- enclose the spinal cord
• Meninges – three connective tissue membranes wrap
the brain and spinal cord: dura, arachnoid, pia mater.

Cerebrospinal Fluid
• Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) surrounds and
cushions the spinal cord and brain
– formed by choroid plexuses in
ventricles
– about 125-150mL replaced 3 times per
day
– Absorbs shock if sudden jarring
movements occur
– exchange of materials and fluids
between cells, neuroglia and interstitial
fluid
• low K+, high Na+, very few proteins
(vs. blood)
– limited exchange between CSF and
blood due to blood brain barrier

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 Blood Brain Barrier
• The Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) is a highly selective network of specialized
capillaries that prevent many substances from entering the brain from the
blood
• layer of capillaries that have tight junctions, surrounded by astrocytes and
ependymal cells
• protects the brain from blood-borne pathogens, certain hormones, toxins
– lipid soluble, O2, CO2, alcohol, and water can cross
– glucose, amino acids, ions transported in by highly selective membrane carriers

Metabolic Requirements of the CNS

• Neurons rely on a constant supply of oxygen and glucose
to produce ATP for active transport of ions and
neurotransmitters.
• Oxygen diffuses across the BBB
• Under normal circumstances glucose is the only energy
source for neurons
– Glucose is transported from the plasma into the
interstitial fluid by insulin independent membrane
transporters
– Hypoglycemia leads to confusion, unconsciousness and
death

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 Functions Of The Brain
• Homeostasis: regulation of
internal environment
• Emotion
• Movement Control
• Sensory Perception
• Memory
• Cognition (higher thought,
awareness, judgement)

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CNS Circuits
• No single area of the CNS is functional on its own. The
function of each area is dependant upon the connections
that form its input and output.
• We will look at each area individually, but its important to
remember that it is only one part of the many
CONNECTIONS that makeup the entire circuit of
information flow throughout the CNS.

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 Gray Matter & White Matter
• Gray Matter: cell bodies, synapses, dendrites, neuroglia
– nucleus: CNS gray matter
– ganglion: PNS gray matter
• White Matter: myelinated axons connecting different regions
– nerves: PNS
– white matter tracts: CNS

Gray matter

White matter

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Functional Brain Regions

• Functional Brain Regions are organized based on their adult
function. From the top down view, these regions are:
– Cerebral Cortex
– Basal Nuclei
– Thalamus
– Hypothalamus
– Cerebellum
– Brainstem
• Midbrain
• Pons
• Medulla

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 Cerebrum (the right Hypothalamus Thalamus Pineal gland
hemisphere, at the
longitudinal fissure
between it and the
left hemisphere)
Corpus
callosum
Optic
chiasm

Top
Midbrain
Brain
stem Pons
Medulla
Front
of
brain Cerebellum

(b) Brain, sagittal view Fig. 5-7b, p. 146

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Cerebral Cortex (Cerebrum)

• The Cerebral Cortex (cerebrum) is
the largest, outermost region of the
brain.
• Divided into 4 Lobes:
– Frontal
– Temporal
– Parietal
– Occipital
• Each Lobe can be further divided by
functional area

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 Frontal Central sulcus Parietal
lobe lobe

Occipital
lobe

Temporal
lobe Fig. 5-9, p. 147

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Primary Cortex Areas

• The lobes of the cerebrum contain many functional regions for
integration
• “Primary” regions for motor and sensory integration are
responsible for simple, direct and conscious processing of a single
type of sensory stimulus or motor command
• example: the primary visual cortex processing of lights ON and OFF
and simple patterns of light.

– Primary Motor Cortex: voluntary skeletal movement

– Primary Visual Cortex: response to light stimuli
– Primary Auditory Cortex: response to sound stimuli
– Primary Olfactory Cortex: response to smell
– Primary Somatosensory Cortex: response to touch stimuli

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Complex Cortical Association Areas

• Association Areas: regions next to or near the primary cortictal
areas that integrate multiple sensory stimuli, motor stimuli, and/or
memory and emotional stimuli.
• example: Visual Association Areas- processing of images, faces,
“grandmother”

– Visual Association Areas

– Auditory Association Areas
– Olfactory Association Areas
– Somatosensory Association Areas
– Pre-Motor Cortex: planning and decision making for skeletal movement
– Pre-Frontal Cortex: emotional and social processing
– Language Areas: facial and motor movements to speak, auditory and visual
stimuli to read and express speech.

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 Figure 16.17a The Cerebral
Hemispheres, Part II

Central sulcus
Frontal Lobe (retracted Parietal Lobe
to show insula) Prim ary som atosensory
Prim ary m otor cortex cortex
(precentral gyrus) (postcentral gyrus)
Somatic motor
association area Som atosensory
(premotor cortex) association area
Retractor

Occipital Lobe
Visual association area
Prefrontal cortex

Visual cortex

Insula
Temporal Lobe (retracted
Lateral sulcus to show olfactory cortex)
Auditory association area
a Major anatomical landmarks on the surface of Auditory cortex
the left cerebral hemisphere. To expose the Olfactory cortex
insula, the lateral sulcus has been pulled open.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Occipital Lobe: Primary Visual cortex

• Primary visual cortex – light, vision (“light”, shading)
– receives sensory input from the retina (light receptors in eye)
– Function: perception and processsing of light
• Visual association area – complex processing of visual information (“cat”
“grandma”)

Visual Association
Areas
Primary
Visual Cortex

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 Temporal Lobe: Primary Auditory Cortex
• Primary auditory – sound, hearing
– receives sensory input from the ear
– Function: perception and processing of sound
• Auditory association Area – interprets sound into context

Primary Auditory Cortex

Auditory Association Area

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Frontal Lobe: Primary Motor Cortex

• Primary motor cortex
– Function: voluntary control of skeletal muscles
– contralateral control (neurons cross over before heading down spinal cord)
• Supplementary Motor Area – movement sequences
• Pre-motor cortex – learned, planned movement

Supplementary Motor Area Primary Motor Cortex

Pre-motor Cortex

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 Parietal Lobe: Primary Somatosensory Cortex
• Primary somatosensory cortex – body sensations
– Receives impulses involved in touch, pain, pressure, stretch from contralateral
side of the body (axons cross in spinal cord before traveling up)
– Function: processing and perception of body sensations, proprioceptive input
from skin, joints, muscles
• Somatosensory association: complex processing of body sensations stimuli
– perception of complex patterns such as texture and shape of something you
are holding
Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Somatosensory
Association
Area

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Front

Left hemisphere Right hemisphere

Frontal lobe

Primary motor cortex

of left hemisphere

Somatosensory cortex Central sulcus

of left hemisphere

Parietal lobe

Back Occipital
(a) Top view of brain lobe
Fig. 5-11a, p. 149

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 Motor and Sensory Homunculus
• The motor and somatosensory cortices in the pre and post-central gyri are
anatomically mapped for regions of the body.
• Representation of the map looks like a “human” in the brain
• Regions that are more sensitive, or have more input/output are over-represented
on this internal brain map

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(a) Top view of brain

(b) Sensory homunculus Top

Left
hemisphere

Cross-sectional view

Temporal lobe

Fig. 5-11b, p. 149

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 Top
(c) Motor homunculus

Left
hemisphere

Cross-sectional view

Temporal lobe

Fig. 5-11c, p. 149

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Frontal Lobe: Prefrontal Cortex

• Prefrontal cortex – social and emotional planning and integration
• involved with intellect, reasoning, judgment, concern for others, personality traits,
and management of emotions
– Develops later in life and is impacted by social environment
– Linked to emotions, via The Limbic System

Prefrontal Cortex

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 Language Areas
• Language areas – speech production and understanding
• surrounds lateral sulcus in the LEFT hemisphere only
– Broca’s area (Left frontal lobe) – motor and pre-motor
association, controls muscles involved in speech production
– Wernicke’s area (Left temporal lobe) – auditory and visual
association area involved in speech processing, language
comprehension

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Language Wernicke’s area

(plans content of
Angular gyrus of
parietal-temporal-occipital

Processing spoken words) association cortex

(integrates sensory input)

Primary motor cortex

(commands facial and
tongue muscles
to speak words)
4 2
3
Broca’s area
(programs sound 1b
pattern of speech) 1a
Primary visual
cortex
(perceives sight)

Primary auditory cortex

(perceives sound)

Hear
words See
words

Fig. 5-12, p. 152

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 Areas of Cerebral Cortex
Primary motor cortex
Supplementary motor area (voluntary movement) Somatosensory cortex
(on inner surface—not visible; (somesthetic sensation
programming of complex movements) Central and proprioception)
sulcus
Posterior parietal cortex
Premotor cortex (coordination (integration of somatosensory
of complex movements) and visual input;
important for complex
Prefrontal association cortex movements)
(planning for voluntary
activity; decision making; Wernicke’s area
personality traits) (speech understanding)
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe
Parietal-temporal-occipital
Broca’s area association cortex
(speech formation) (integration of all
sensory input; important
Primary auditory cortex in language)
surrounded by higher-order
auditory cortex (hearing) Occipital lobe
Primary visual cortex
Limbic association cortex surrounded by higher-
(mostly on inner and bottom order visual cortex (sight)
surface of temporal lobe;
motivation and emotion; memory)
Temporal lobe

Fig. 5-10, p. 148

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Basal Nuclei
• Basal Nuclei - integration and fine tuning of motor, sensory and
emotional input/output
• gray matter deep in the cerebrum
– Adjust stopping, starting and intensity of movements after receiving
input from cerebral motor cortex
– Sensory and motor processing
– Emotional processing in the Amygdala
• Affected in Parkinson’s Disease

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 Cerebellum
• Cerebellum: balance, movement planning and movement execution
• highly folded, large region beneath the occipital lobe
• receives visual, somatic, cortical input
• Function: subconscious control of motor coordination

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Cerebellum
Motor cortex
Sends intended muscle
Movement to cerebellum

Adjustments made by
Cerebellum sent back to Cerebellum
Motor cortex Coordinate motor intent
with sensory input

Sensory input from proprioceptors,

visual and equilibrium pathways

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 Thalamus
• Thalamus – sensory relay station
• Function: filter, process, relay sensory information to cortex regions, i.e.
screens sensory impulses and decides if it should be passed onto the
cortex and where it should be sent

Thalamus

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Hypothalamus
• Hypothalamus – homeostasis
• Function: links the endocrine system, autonomic systems to directly
regulate internal body environment

Hypothalamus

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 Hypothalamus Functions
• Autonomic control center – controls ANS centers in the brain stem
and spinal cord
• Emotions –basic primitive drives such as fear, anger, pleasure
• Regulates body temperature – thermostat, initiates cooling or
heating mechanisms
• Sleep-wake cycles
• Hunger – responds to changes in levels of nutrients and hormones
• Water balance and thirst- detects concentrations of body fluids,
triggers thirst centers
• Secretes hormones – controls the release of hormones from the
pituitary

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Limbic System
• Limbic areas – emotional response
and processing
• A circuit of regions in Limbic
Association Cortex, Basal Nuclei
(Amygdala), Thalamus, Hypothalamus
• Motivation, basic emotion, social,
sexual behavioral patterns, basic
survival instinctual behaviors
– example: stimulate Amygdala- fear
sensations

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 Frontal lobe

Part of limbic
association
cortex

Thalamus

Hippocampus

Temporal lobe

Amygdala

Hypothalamus

Olfactory bulb

Fig. 5-16, p. 157

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Brainstem
• Brainstem: 3 regions that link spinal cord to higher brain
regions
– Midbrain
– Pons
– Medulla

Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata

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 Reticular Formation
• Reticular Activating System (RAS): interconnect regions of the
brainstem that receive and integrate sensory input
• Function: filter sensory input, attention, arousal of cerebral cortex,
some control of sleep/wake states

Reticular Formation

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Reticular
activating
system

Cerebral
cortex

Cerebellum

Visual
impulses
Reticular
Brain Auditory impulses
formation
stem Spinal cord
Ascending Descending motor
sensory tracts tracts Fig. 5-21, p. 171

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 Midbrain
• Midbrain – superior portion of the brain stem that contains:
– Corpora quadrigemina
• Superior colliculi - visual reflexes
• Inferior colliculi - auditory reflexes

Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata

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Pons
• Pons – bulging region between midbrain and medulla, anterior
to cerebellum
– Pneumotaxic respiratory center – works with medulla to
maintain rhythmic breathing

Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata

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 Medulla Oblongata
• Medulla Oblongata – base of brain stem, blends inferiorly with the spinal cord
– Pyramids – contains motor tracts that cross over (decussation) before they
continue down the spinal cord
– Olives – relay information to the cerebrum & cerebellum
• Autonomic Nuclei
– Cardiovascular center – adjusts heart rate and blood pressure
– Respiratory center – controls rate and depth of breathing, works with pons for
rhythm
– Vomiting, swallowing, coughing, sneezing, hiccups

Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata

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Cerebral cortex

Cerebral cortex

Basal nuclei
(lateral to Basal nuclei
thalamus)
Thalamus
Thalamus
(medial)

Hypothalamus

Cerebellum
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum

Midbrain Brain stem

Brain stem Pons

Spinal cord
Medulla

Table 5-2a, p. 144

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 Cerebral cortex

Basal nuclei

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Cerebellum

Brain stem

Table 5-2b, p. 145

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Plasticity of the Brain

• The architecture of the cortex is determined by
genetic and developmental processes but it can be
modified due to “use-dependent competition” for
cortical space
• Formation of new neural pathways and connections
between existing neurons
• Some cortical regions can be remodeled throughout
life while others for only a limited time

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 Spinal Cord
• Functions:
– Pathway between the body
and the brain
– Contains ascending and
descending nerve tracts of
the CNS, relaying
information to the brain
– Initiates basic reflexes
independent of the brain

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Spinal Cord
• Just like the brain, there are maps of information within
the spinal cord.
• A cross-section of the spinal cord contains many
functional areas including both afferent (ascending) and
efferent axons (descending)

Dorsal surface

Ventral surface

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 Somatosensory Thalamus Primary
area of motor cortex
cerebral Cerebral
cortex cortex

Midbrain

Cerebellum

Pons
Ventral
spinocerebellar
tract Medulla
Muscle stretch
receptor Dorsal Lateral Ventral
column corticospinal corticospinal
tract tract

Spinal cord

Spinal cord Pressure

receptor
in skin
Skeletal
muscle cell Spinal cord
Fig. 5-28, p. 178

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White matter Gray matter

Cell body of Interneuron

afferent neuron
Afferent fiber
Dorsal root
Cell body of
efferent neuron Dorsal root
ganglion

Efferent fiber

From receptors
To effectors
Ventral root
Spinal nerve

Fig. 5-26, p. 177

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 Dorsal horn (cell bodies of interneurons
on which afferent neurons terminate)
Lateral horn (cell bodies of autonomic
Central efferent nerve fibers)
canal
Ventral horn (cell bodies of somatic
efferent neurons)

Fig. 5-29, p. 179

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Dorsal columns Lateral corticospinal

(conscious muscle sense (crossed; voluntary control
Dorsal surface
concerned with awareness of skeletal muscles)
of body position; crossed
touch, pressure, vibration) Rubrospinal (crossed;
involuntary control
of skeletal muscle
Dorsal spinocerebellar
concerned with muscle
(uncrossed; unconscious
tone and posture)
muscle sense—important
in control of muscle tone Gray matter
Ventral corticospinal
and posture) (uncrossed down spinal
cord; crosses at level of
Ventral spinocerebellar termination in spinal cord;
(crossed; unconscious voluntary control
muscle sense) of skeletal muscles)
Lateral spinothalamic Vestibulospinal
(crossed; pain and Ventral surface (uncrossed; involuntary
temperature) control of muscle tone
to maintain balance
Ventral spinothalamic
and equilibrium)
(crossed; touch)

Fig. 5-27, p. 177

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 Spinal Nerves
Spinal nerves -exit through the
intervertebral foramen, between
vertebrae
• 31 pairs
• Numbering correlates with
vertebrae except count starts
above C1
– C1 – C8
– T1 – T12
– L1 – L5
– S1 –S5

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Cervical Cervical Vertebra

cord nerves

Thoracic Thoracic
cord nerves

Lumbar Lumbar
cord nerves
Cauda
equina

Sacral Sacral
nerves
cord
Coccygeal 1
nerve

(a) Posterior view of spinal cord (b) Lateral view of spinal cord Fig. 5-25, p. 176

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 C2 –C3

Dermatomes
NV

C2 –C3
C2
C3 C3
C4
• Dermatomes – specific C5
T1
T2
T3
T4
C4

T2
surface region of the body T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
C5

innervated by a spinal
T5 T8
T6 T9 T2
T2 T7 T10
T11
nerve T8
T9
T10
T12
L1
L2
C6

L4 L3 T1
– Important clinically
T11
C6 L5 C7
T12
L1

– damage of a spinal nerve or L2 S2

S4 S
3
C8
DRG will produce a specific C7
T1 L3 L1 S5
C8

S1L5
pattern of loss of sensation L4
L2 S2
in the skin
L5 L3

S1

L4

AN TERIO R PO STERIO R

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Cranial Nerves
• Connect directly to the brain rather than
through the spinal cord
• 12 pairs of cranial nerves
• Cranial nerves are numbered using Roman
numerals - I through XII
• Each cranial nerve attaches to the brain near
the associated sensory or motor nuclei

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 Review of Sensory & Motor Pathways
• Sensory pathway: sensory input into the spinal cord and brain
provides information on internal and external changes in stimuli
– Afferent & Ascending

• Motor pathway: motor response based on CNS decision (voluntary

or involuntary) to change activity in skeletal muscle, organ or gland
– Efferent & Descending

• Reflex – involuntary, rapid predictable motor response to a sensory

stimulus

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Sensory Pathway Example

• The same sensory stimulus also travels through a slower
traditional CNS pathway, the Lateral Spinothalamic Tract
– Stimulus: sharp thumbtack pierces skin
– Receptor – pain receptor in skin of hand
– Sensory neurons - from hand to spinal cord via Dorsal Root,
crosses over spinal cord to lateral white column and travels up
to Brain via Lateral Spinothalamic Tract. Synapses in the
thalamus, and then travels to Primary Somatosensory Cortex.
– Integration – in Primary Somatosensory Cortex
à Awareness of Pain in hand

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 Posterior White Columns
Figure 15.3a The
Posterior Column,
Spinothalamic, and
Spinocerebellar Sensory
Tracts

Dorsal root ganglion

Fine-touch, vibration, pressure, and proprioception

sensations from right side of body

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Motor Pathway Example

• Once a sensory stimulus is processed in the brain, a
motor response can then occur
àAwareness of Pain in hand from sensory pathway
– Integration – Primary Somatosensory Cortex to Motor Cortex,
to Broca’s Language Area
– Motor neuron – from Broca’s area to cranial nerve V
(trigeminal – mandibular branch), VII (facial) and X11
(hypoglossal)
– Effector – contract jaw, facial, tongue muscles
– Response – speak “Ouch!”

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 Figure 15.5 The
Corticospinal
Tracts

Corticobulbar tract

To skeletal
muscles

To skeletal
muscles

Lateral
corticospinal tract Anterior
corticospinal tract
To skeletal
muscles © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

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