AST 122 MATERIAL SCIENCE

Lesson 3

Cement. Concrete and Asphalt

Learning Outcomes:

• Differentiate between the terms cement and concrete

• Discuss the major components, uses and properties of the different types of
Portland cement
• Calculate the yield, cement factor, and quantities of the various materials used
in concrete
• List the types and uses of asphalt and asphalt concrete products
• Explain the uses of reinforcing materials and prestressing to increase the
strength of concrete
• List and describe the uses of concrete additives
• Describe the tests performed prior to mixing, after mixing, and in the laboratory
to determine the quality of the concrete and its materials .

Time Frame: 3 hrs

Introduction
In this lesson, you will be encountering activity and analysis where you have to
answer. An abstraction or brief inputs will be shared to you and lastly, the
application should be considered.

• Activity (Let’s Get Started!)

MENTCE LANTDROP

CETERNOC TWARE

THALPAS KLINCER

What are these words?

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• Analysis :

1. Why is concrete so prevalent as an engineering material?

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2. Why is entrained air necessary in concrete?

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3. Often used interchangeably and incorrectly, explain the difference

between the terms cement and concrete.
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• Abstraction

INTRODUCTION

The terms cement and concrete are often confused or incorrectly used interchangeably.
Cements, as in organic rubber cements or inorganic Portland cements, are adhesive materials
that coat and bind the aggregate (bulk or filler material). Concrete has been defined as the
product of bonding any aggregate together with a cementing agent that hardens into a solid
mass. There are many types of cement available, but rock and stone are generally used for the
aggregate or bulk of material used in concrete. Concretes of various types have been used for
ages, but recorded evidence since the second century BCE documents the Romans using a
volcanic ash found near the town of Pozzuoli, Italy, called pozzolans. When mixed with lime or
Portland cement, this pozzuolana made a cementing agent, which when blended with stones,
glass and clay bricks, produced concrete for building structures. Today’s cement is primarily of
the Portland type, which is based on early mixtures of limestone and pozzolans during the mid-
eighteenth century. The term, Portland, refers to the resemblance of the product to the stone
quarried on the Isle of Portland, England. Asphalt is a petroleum product used as a bonding
agent in asphaltic concrete, which is used in the paving roads, driveways, and parking lots.
Aggregates are also bonded together with special epoxies and polymeric adhesives to produce

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various exotic concrete combinations. This chapter introduces types and properties of various
cement and concrete products and their uses.
Hydraulic cements, such as Portland cements, set and harden by taking up water in a
complex chemical reaction called hydration. Given an adequate source of water, Portland
cement may continue to harden for months. However, the design strength for concrete has been
standardized to its strength after 28 days. As the four molecules of cement react with water,
they all give off heat. This is known as the heat of hydration. When mixed with water, the four
molecules react with the water to form a gelatinous mass, which is actually composed of
microscopic fibers. These fibers attach to the aggregate to form a matrix that bind the mass
together. The mass sets in a matter of hour but will continue to harden, or cure, for months. The
finer the cement powder is ground, the more surface area is exposed to water and the faster
the concrete will set.

Manufacture of Portland Cement

When the use of pozzolans declined after the fall of the Roman Empire, hydraulic lime
cement went into a dormant period until the middle of the nineteenth century. Earlier (1756),
John Smeaton had performed some experiments with various limestones. Smeaton found that
when limestone was heated in the presence of natural gas, an intense white light (limelight) was
produced. In addition, he found that some limestone, when crushed and mixed with water,
produced a solid mass upon drying. Not all limestone produced this effect and only the quarries
around the English Isle of Portland seemed to work. Therefore, cement from this area became
known as Portland cement. The popular use of Portland cement occurred overseas during the
middle of the nineteenth century and was brought to the United States in 1871. Portland cement
is the foundation ingredient of many concrete, mortar, stucco, grout and plaster materials. The
introduction of Portland cement was important to the building trades because it made possible
the types of construction of which contractors were not previously economically capable.
The cement used in common construction practices is Portland cement with the addition
of supplemental cementitious materials, including pozzolans or blast furnace slag, which make
them more economical and environmentally friendly. This cement is hydraulic silicate cement
produced in several types. Corrosion-resistant concretes often use calcium-alumina-based
cement made from bauxite ore and limestone called Lumnite cement. Lumnite cement is more
expensive and is reserved for applications where its properties are essential, such as plugging
drill holes, sealing cracks and cavities, and sealing structures where its quick-setting nature (full
service strength within 24 hours) and resistance to acids and heat are important qualities.

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Portland cement is made by blending the raw materials (limestone and clay along with other
materials found in both) in a kiln to a calcining temperature of 1115 F (600C) and then to the
fusion temperature of approximately 2640 F (1450C). This procedure drives all the water from
the mixture, fusing the material into a solid mass. The approximate percentages of the mixture
by weight are:
CaO – 42%
CO2 – 35%
SiO2 – 16%
Al2O3 – 2.5%
MgO – 2.5%
Fe2O3 – 2%

Aluminum, iron and magnesium oxides present act as a flux, allowing the calcium
silicates to form at the lower calcining temperature. This mass is drawn from the kiln in the form
of a black slag called clinker. The clinker must be cooled rapidly to prevent it from reabsorbing
moisture. To aid in the setup rate of the cement, 2 to 4% gypsum or anhydrite is added to the
clinker during production; without the gypsum, the concrete would set up too quickly. The clinker
is then crushed approximately 200 grit (it will pass through a screen with 200 openings per
linear inch) in a cement mill, which grinds it into an irregular powder. It is then bagged or stored
in cement silos for future use. Portland cements are made up of four compounds:
• Tricalcium silicate (3 CaO SiO2)
• Dicalcium silicate (2 CaO SiO2)
• Tricalcium aluminate (3 CaO Al2O3)
• Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (4 CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3)

The strength of the cement depends on the content of the two silicates, which make up 70%
of the cement product. The Portland Cement Association has labeled these four molecules C3S,
C2S, C3A and C4AF as a shorthand method of identification.
There are five major types of Portland cement. These types vary according to the
percentages of the four molecules and their additives. The compositions of the five types are
given in Table 8-1. The five types are labeled as follows:
• Type I: Normal. Used in general-purpose construction work.

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• Type II: Modified. It generates heat of hydration slower than Type I. This is important in
larger pours, where the large volume and smaller surface area reduce the cooling ability
of the pour. It also has better sulfate resistance than Type I.
• Type III: High early strength. Used when high strength is required soon after pouring,
such as when forms must be removed as soon as possible or in cold weather to reduce
the need to protect the concrete from freezing. Type III cement has just slightly less
strength than other types where long-term strength is sacrificed for faster curing times.
• Type IV: Low heat. Due to its composition, this type allows the heat of hydration to
develop at a reduced rate over a longer amount of time. This type is used in very massive
pours, such as dams and retaining walls, where there is a low surface to volume ratio.
Although it takes longer to develop its strength, once cured it tends to be stronger than
other types after it is fully cured. As a note, Type IV has largely been replaced with
Portland-pozzolan-type cements and granulated slag additives that offer the same
results with lower cost and greater reliability.
• Type V: Sulfate resistant. Sulfates found in soils and groundwater, specifically in the
western United States, will attack the cement and produce cracks. Therefore, Type V
cements were formulated to reduce these effects. As with Type IV, specifically
formulated cements and ground slag additives have largely replaced Type V.
The constituents in Portland cement take up water at different rates and in different amounts
during the setting and curing period of the cement. By adjusting the relative percentages of
these components, the properties of the cement can be altered significantly. The setting rate
for the silicates is slow, whereas tricalcium aluminate sets very rapidly. Gypsum is added to
prevent the tricalcium aluminate from setting too quickly, but it also generates heat.

Concrete
There are many variations of concrete that are formulated for specific use and
application. Among these types there are commonalities that vary in composition and
proportion. However, a common terminology exists.
Aggregates are the coarse and fine pieces of gravel, rock, stone, slag and clays, which
along with sand, constitute the bulk of the concrete mix. The larger pieces contribute strength
and bulk, whereas the finer particles fill the voids between the larger pieces. In a standard
concrete mix, up to 75% by volume may be taken up by aggregates. Aggregates add
strength and reduce the cost of the concrete, because cement is typically the most
expensive component of concrete. If there is not enough binder to completely cover the
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aggregate, the concrete will lose strength proportionately. In order to produce concrete,
water is added to the powdered concrete mix containing the cement and aggregates, which
produces a semiviscous mass that can be poured into forms and worked into final shape
where the chemical process of hydration or curing solidifies the mass, creating a stone-like
final product. Different chemical admixtures and reinforcements may be added to the
concrete mix to produce differing properties and visual effects.
A primary factor in the strength of concrete is the water-to-cement ratio, measured in
gallons per sack of cement (gal/sack). It takes a minimum of roughly 4 gallons of water per
sack of cement to hydrate the concrete completely. The 4-gal/sack ratio is very strong and
less aggregate is required. A 6-gal/sack ratio requires more aggregate but produces more
concrete per batch. This mixture is weaker than the 4-gal/sack mixture. The hardened
concrete normally weighs about 150 lb/ft3 (2,403 kg/m3) and has a minimum compressive
strength of 2,000 to 6,000 lb/in2 (14 to 24 MPa). The compressive strength is the maximum
load in compression (being squeezed) that the concrete will withstand without failure. A ratio
of water to cement of approximately 0.42 is required for complete hydration. Higher ratios of
0.45 to 0.60 are often used to provide for greater flow and to make the mix easier to work.
Water in excess of that required for complete hydration evaporates, leaving voids in the
concrete.
Once the desired water/cement ratio is determined, the aggregate weights that will
provide the proper slump are determined. Slump is determined through a slump test. A
standard slump test cone is filled with concrete, rammed to remove air and settle the
concrete being tested, and then removed, leaving a standing cone of concrete, which will
tend to fall and spread out. The difference between the top of the concrete while in the cone
and the top of the concrete once it has fallen, or slumped, is the slump value for that batch
of concrete. The slump test for concrete is quick and easy and can be performed at the pour
site. There are times when engineers will specify higher or lower slumps, depending on
desired conditions. The higher the slump value, the thinner the mixture. Details and
equipment for the slump test are provided in a later chapter.
The specifications of a typical concrete batch include the following:
• Water/cement ratio
• Slump in inches
• Desired compressive strength
• Desired additives
• Aggregate size and proportion
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• Cured specifications
• Delivery conditions
During mixing, air pockets and voids are produced in the concrete mix. A portion of this
air results from water, in excess of that needed for complete hydration, evaporating and leaving
voids. Water present in groundwater and environmental conditions will fill these voids. In the
winter, during freeze-thaw cycles, this water freezes and expands, which tends to heave and
crack the concrete, leading to chunks of the concrete breaking off and creating pot holes and
fissures in the concrete. These cracks and fissures allow more water to enter, which will then
freeze and break off larger piece of the concrete. Reinforcement such as rebar (steel rods
within the concrete to provide strength) is susceptible to the freeze-thaw cycle as well. Once
voids are opened up and allow water to corrode or rust the rebar, it separates from the concrete
and becomes ineffectual as reinforcement and eventually rusts away. These are typical failures
of concrete in application.
Porosity is sometimes intentional. The intentional creation of tiny air bubbles in a
concrete mix is termed air entrainment. Adding entrained air in the mix through a chemical
admixture increases the flow of the concrete during application and the durability of the finished
product. These micro-bubbles are closely spaced and act to absorb vibration and freeze
stresses. As stated previously, larger voids create problems while tiny voids may be desirable.
The amount of entrained air can be determined by placing a known amount of concrete in a
sealed, pressurized container and observing the amount by which the concrete can be
compressed. The air in the concrete is compressed by the pressure in the container. The
amount of entrained air is a common test conducted on concrete batches in the laboratory and
the procedure is provided later in this text.
Two additional terms are often used in specifying concrete, yield and cement factor. The
yield of a concrete batch is the number of cubic feet of concrete produced from a particular mix
design. The cement factor is the number of bags of cement (94 lb [43 kg] per bag, typically) it
takes per cubic yard (m3) of concrete. For example, what are the yield and cement factor for a
concrete batch having 150 lb (68 kg) of aggregate, 30 lb (14 kg) of cement and 2 gal (7.6 L) of
water? If the water weighs 128 oz/gal (34 oz/L) and the density of the concrete is 150 lb/ft3
(2,403 kg/m3), then

Total weight = 150 lb + 30 lb + (2.128 oz)/ (16 oz/lb) = 196 lb

Volume of concrete = 196 lb/ (150 lb/ft3) = 1.31 ft3
Volume per bag = (1.31 ft3 x 94 lb/bag)/ 30 lb = 4.10 ft3/bag (yield)
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Cement factor = (27 ft3/yd3)/ (4.09 ft3/bag) = 6.60 bags/yd3

The cement, fine and coarse aggregates, and water are all mixed at the concrete plant
and loaded into a 6 to 9 yd3 concrete truck. These trucks have a rotating drum, which keeps
turning on the way to the job site. This mixing keeps the coarse aggregate from settling to the
bottom and the cement from rising to the surface. Once at the job site, the concrete is poured
into forms within a minimum of handling. This may require pumping rather than pouring the
concrete our using large crane buckets. For smaller jobs, the concrete can be hauled in
wheelbarrows.
Once the concrete is at the job site, many state and local agencies require tests to be
made on the concrete batch. At a minimum, a slump test is performed on each batch, and three
to six cylinders, each measuring 6 x 12 in, are taken. The cylinders are then taken to the
laboratory, allowed to cure, and used for compression testing to determine if the batch meets
the required strength.
The aggregates used for concrete should not be of all the same size. To fill in more
volume and thus be more effective, aggregates of various sizes, from a large size (roughly 1 in
in diameter) down to sand, are mixed into the concrete. Aggregate sizes should vary so that the
pieces fit together better. This fills in more area and provides greater strength. As aggregates
take up to 75% of the volume of the concrete, the remaining volume should be the cement and
additives. If aggregates of all the same size were used, larger gaps would exist to be filled with
concrete or by voids. Because the cement provides a binder for the aggregate filler, the result
would be a low-yield, high-shrinkage, relatively weak concrete batch. Properly graded
aggregate allows a smooth, troweled surface on the concrete, takes less cement because more
volume is taken up by aggregate, and provides greater strength because the concrete relies on
the aggregate filler for strength.
To determine the size of the aggregate, a standard sieve analysis is performed. This test
includes weighing an amount of dry aggregate and placing the test aggregate amount on the
screen of a standard Tyler sieve series. This series has seven screens: no.4, no.8, no.16, no.30,
no.50, no. 100, and a pan for the remainder. These screens are stacked in a cylinder form, from
coarse to fine. The no. 4 screen has four openings per linear inch and the no. 100 has 100
openings per linear inch. In order to perform a sieve analysis, a screen system is vibrated for 3
minutes, allowing adequate time for the smallest material to filter to the bottom of the system.
After the sample has been sifted through, each screen is weighed, and the percentage of the
total weight for each is calculated.

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In addition to size tests, three other tests are made on aggregates. A silt test is made by
filling a clear container with approximately 2 in of aggregate. The container is filled about three-
quarters full with water and shaken vigorously for 1 min. The mixture is then allowed to sit on a
level surface for about an hour. If a layer of silt more than 1/8 in settles on the aggregate, the
aggregate is rejected or washed prior to using it in the concrete.
A 500-mL clear container is filled about two-thirds full with a 3% lye solution for the
calorimetric test. This test is conducted to check for organic matter in the aggregate. Lye is
sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The mixture is shaken for approximately 1 min and is allowed to sit
for 24 hours. The lye above the aggregate at the end of 24 hr should be clear or a light yellow.
The darker the color, the more organic matter the aggregate contains. Organic materials,
usually sugars, prevent the concrete from setting up. The aggregate should be washed or the
batch rejected if there is excessive organic matter in the aggregate.
The third test checks the amount of water in the aggregate. Water in the aggregate is not
accounted for in the mixture calculations. For example, if a person added 6 gal of water per bag
of cement and the aggregate contained another gallon water, the resulting concrete batch would
end up having 7 gal of water per bag. The water in the aggregate is trapped and weakens the
concrete by leaving voids when the water evaporates. The ideal aggregate would neither soak
up water from the mixture nor supply it with excessive water. A rudimentary test can be
conducted by grabbing a handful of aggregate and packing it in the hand. A dry, crumbly mixture
or one that leaves the hand wet is undesirable. The aggregate is saturated and suitable for use
if it just crumbles after being packed in the hand but leaves the hand relatively dry. A more
accurate test involves using a moisture probe. This is a meter that measures the electrical
resistance between two points. The more water in the aggregate, the lower the resistance and
the higher the reading. There are other methods of testing the moisture content of aggregates
(such as comparing wet and dry weights after heating), but these are two of the more common.
Once the percent moisture content of the aggregate is known, it is added in the mixture
calculations for the concrete.
The water in concrete does not dry out. The water must remain in the concrete for the
concrete to cure completely. If the water evaporates too quickly, the curing process stops, and
the concrete only partially hydrates or cures. The curing process is difficult to restart once it has
stopped. Great care must be taken to keep the concrete damp to ensure proper curing. This is
done in several ways. Highway and road crews typically cover the fresh concrete with straw or
plastic. Smaller jobs can usually be kept wet by misting the concrete with a spray hose.
When all of the necessary ingredients are available, clean, and tested, calculations are

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made to determine the proper amounts of aggregates, cement and water to produce the desired
quantity of concrete. These are estimated values based on conditions and experience. Factors
such as the amount of water that evaporates from the concrete, the volume of aggregates, and
the volume of voids in the concrete influence the mixture calculations. As a rule of thumb, the
arbitrary ratios of components are 1 part cement, 2 parts fine aggregate, and 3 parts coarse
aggregate. Water is added to provide the desired slump. This is a general recipe for the
average, general-purpose batch. Reinforced concrete (discussed later) uses a 1:2:4 ratio,
whereas larger pours may require up to 1:3:5 ratios.
Although rule-of-thumb batches are good for small household jobs, more complex
calculations are required for larger, more involved jobs. For example, if a particular job calls for
a cement-sand-gravel mixture with proportions 1:2:4 and a water-to-cement ratio of 0.577 (6.5
gal of water per bag cement), the ingredients required would be as follows.
The bulk densities of the ingredients are:
• Cement 94 lb/ft3
• Sand 105 lb/ft3
• Gravel 96 lb/ft3
• Water 8.345 lb/gal
The specific gravities of the ingredients are:
• Cement 3.10
• Sand 2.65
• Gravel 2.65
• Water 1.0
The unit volume of concrete is the sum of the absolute volumes of the constituents. These
values are calculated by dividing the bulk weight by the solid weight. The bulk weight of each is
calculated by multiplying its volume by its bulk density. For example,
• 1.0 ft3 x 94 lb/ft3 = 94.0 lb cement
• 2.0 ft3 x 105 lb/ft3 = 210.0 lb cement
• 4.0 ft3 x 96 lb/ft3 = 384.0 lb gravel
• 6.5 gal x 8.345 lb/gal = 54.2 lb water

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Note: A bag weighing 94 lb yields 1 ft3 of cement. The solid volumes of the ingredients can then
be found by dividing the bulk weights by the solid weights:

• Bulk Weight/Solid Weight = Solid Volume

• 94 lb/ (3.10 x 62.4 lb/ft3) = 0.486 ft3 cement
• 210 lb/ (2.65 x 62.4 lb/ft3) = 1.270 ft3 sand
• 384 lb/ (2.65 x 62.4 lb/ft3) = 2.320 ft3 gravel
• 54.2 lb/ (1.00 x 62.4 lb/ft3) = 0.870 ft3 water
Summing the solid volumes, we get a total of 4.946 ft3. The ingredients required per cubic foot
are:
• Solid Volume/ Sum of Solid Volumes = Solid Volume/ ft3
• 0.486 ft3/ 4.946 ft 3 = 0.098 ft3 cement
• 1.270 ft3/ 4.946 ft3 = 0.257 ft3 sand
• 2.320 ft3/ 4.946 ft3 = 0.469 ft3 gravel
• 0.870 ft3/ 4.946 ft3 = 0.176 ft3 water
The weights of ingredients per cubic yard are:
• Solid Volume x Solid Weight x 27 ft3/yd3 = Solid Weight/yd3
• 0.098 x (3.10 x 62.4 lb/ft3) x 27ft3/yd3 = 511.8 lb cement
• 0.257 x (2.65 x 62.4 lb/ft3) x 27 ft3/yd3 = 1,147,4 lb sand
• 0.469 x (2.65 x 62.4 lb/ft3) x 27 ft3/yd3 = 2, 094.0 lb gravel
• 0.176 x (1.00 x 62.4 lb/ft3) x 27 ft3/ yd3 = 296.5 lb water
The total weight in pounds for the mixture would be 4,049.7 lb. If there were 4% voids in the
concrete, the overall weight would increase to 4,049.7 x 1.04 = 4, 211.7 lb.
These are some of the calculations performed to determine the amounts of materials to
be used in concrete mixtures. Concrete is usually ordered in cubic yards, and aggregates are
ordered in tons. These calculations assume ideal conditions and are given as a demonstration
of common calculations performed in estimating materials for concrete mixtures.

Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete

Concrete has a very low tensile strength; in other words, it fails quickly when pulled apart
under a tensile load. It is very strong in compression, i.e., the tendency to be squeezed together.
Steel has a high tensile strength. Therefore, it makes sense to add steel to concrete where the
concrete must withstand forces other than compression and place the concrete where the
compressive forces are expected. This idea is the principle behind reinforced concrete. If you
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have ever witnessed the pouring of road sections, you can see the reinforcing bars (rebar) of
steel laid out in a grid within the concrete. Steel wire or fencing is used in smaller jobs.
Placement of the reinforcement is critical. The purpose of the reinforcement is to absorb the
stresses in the concrete. When a floor section, such as a garage floor, is poured, a skeleton of
rebar is constructed. Then the concrete is poured around it. When a slab is poured, the rebar
is laid out, and the concrete is poured over it. The rebar is lifted to the approximate center of
the slab, where it provides the maximum strength.
Typical rebar sizes are in 1/8 in (3mm) where a number 4 reinforcing steel bar is 1/8 x 4
or ½ in (13mm) in diameter. Rebar or reinforcing wire mesh is typically uncoated tempered
steel. However, polymer bars may be used in highly corrosive environments, as well as epoxy-
coated, galvanized, or stainless steels at much greater expense, but greater serviceability over
the life of the project.
To overcome the weaknesses of concrete in tension, it makes sense to avoid allowing
the concrete to go into tension at all. This principle is the basis for prestressed concrete. In
prestressing, the concrete is kept in compression. One method of prestressing concrete
requires placing steel rods or cable under tension in position as the concrete is poured over
them. After the concrete has set up, the tension on the rods is released. This places the concrete
in continuous compression. The tensile stress in the prestressed rods in the concrete exerts a
compressive force on the concrete. For the concrete to fail in tension, the tensile load on the
concrete must exceed the compressive force exerted by the tension in the rods. Prestressed
concrete beams have several times the strength of simple reinforced beams.

Concrete Additives
Concrete additives include chemical admixtures such as accelerators and retarders that
advance or delay the initial set of a concrete. An accelerator can be used in cold weather for
early removal of forms or to protect the concrete. Calcium chloride in amounts up to 2% is often
used. Retarders are frequently used in hot weather to allow sufficient time to work the concrete.
The retarder delays hydration of the cement, retaining water for workability. Starch or sugar in
amounts up to 0.05% is also used to retard hydration for up to 4 hours. Hardeners and colorizing
agents may also be used in concrete for aesthetic purposes or to match existing architecture.
Colorizing agents are used to produce various patterns in the concrete. Hardeners are used in
concrete floors to provide better abrasion and wear resistance. They may be added to the
original mixture or worked into the surface. These are some of the more common concrete
additives or admixtures.

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Fly ash is the most widely used admixture in concrete. Fly ash and silica fume, collected
from fumes from boilers in coal-burning steelmaking furnaces, are primarily silicon dioxide,
aluminum oxide, and calcium oxide, although the amounts of these oxides vary depending on
the process used to produce them. Products such as fly ash are used to reduce the overall cost
of the concrete product and reduce waste disposal costs for the industries that produce them.
Silica fume, also referred to as microsilica or condensed silica fume is another chemical
admixture. This grey, powdery product is the result of the reduction of high-purity quartz with
coal when producing silicon or ferrosilicon alloys in an electric arc furnace. Silica fume rises as
a vapor when the temperature rises above 3630 F (1979 C). The vapor cools, condenses and
is captured in huge cloth bags. The condensed fume is further processed to remove impurities
and to control particle size. Condensed silica fume is primarily silicon dioxide in spherical shape.
Ground, granulated blast-furnace slag made from iron blast-furnace slag is a nonmetallic
material that consists primarily of silicates and aluminosilicates of calcium. The molten slag is
rapidly cooled from 2730 F (1484 C) with water to form a glassy, granulated material similar to
sand. These mixtures are three very common admixtures for cement and concrete.
Fly ash and slag are used to reduce the water requirements of concrete mixes. Typically,
they can reduce the water requirement from 1 to 10%, providing the same slump. Silica fume
increases the necessary water for the same slump. Fly ash and slag generally increase the
workability of a concrete mix and may be used to reduce the heat of hydration of the cement.
They also generally retard the setting time of the concrete. Fly ash may be used in quantities
up to 15 to 20% of the cement by weight. Slag is generally used in quantities of up to 40% of
the cement material in the concrete mixture. Silica fume is typically used in amounts between
5 and 10% of the cement by weight. Plasticizers, such as lignosulfonate (a by-product of the
paper industry) are used in amounts of 1 to 2% to increase the workability of the concrete while
reducing the amount of water required. Plasticizers are often used with fly ash to improve
strength. Carbon fibers have been used in concrete to increase its compressive strength, but
also to provide some electrical conductivity, which is helpful in monitoring the forces that affect
the concrete in different applications. Constant research into new additives and their effects
helps improve performance, lower the overall cost, and provides new applications for concrete.
Overall, additives generally reduce the amount of cement required, increase the strength
of the concrete, increase the aesthetic appearance of the concrete, and generally improve the
concrete’s resistance to environmental degradation. These advantages are in addition to
reducing the overall cost and amount of materials used and provide a safe alternative use for
what would otherwise be waste material.

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Asphalt and Asphaltic Concrete

Asphalts are organic materials composed of the residue or remainder in fractional
distillation after the lighter constituents of petroleum have been distilled off. In addition, there
are also some naturally occurring asphalt materials found in deposits. The terms bitumen and
bituminous are sometimes used to describe these materials. Coal tars are often include in this
category, although they are extracted from coal versus petroleum. These materials fall into the
generic category called pitch. Pitch is any natural or manufactured viscoelastic polymer derived
from coal, plants or petroleum. Although pitch derived from plants is often termed a resin and
products made from these extracts are termed rosin. These asphalt materials can generally be
dissolved in turpentine, petroleum solvents and carbon disulfide. These are used for
waterproofing membranes, roofing shingles, sealants and caulking, felt papers and related
applications such as bituminous paints. However, the primary application here is in combination
with aggregates where asphalt is used for surfacing roads, driveways and parking lots, for
example. Asphalt provides the necessary adhesive to bind aggregate materials together.
Hot asphalts are applied after heating where they soften, not melt at a temperature of
approximately 300 F (149 C). Asphalt concrete used in road construction makes up the majority
(~80%) of the total asphalt production in the United States. It is also used for paving parking
lots, driveways, roadways, and other similar applications. The asphalt is mixed with aggregate,
poured hot and then rolled to produce a smooth, hard surface. A typical composition for road
construction includes 5% asphalt and 95% aggregates of sand, stone, and gravel. This material
can be reclaimed and recycled during construction processes such as building new roads,
resurfacing roads and repairing runways. Asphalts may be used in various roofing projects to
form a waterproof barrier or as a sealant. Asphalts may be used in emulsions where small
droplets of asphalt are dispersed in a water or petroleum solvent base. They are used primarily
for waterproofing walls and painting surfaces. These emulsions may also be sprayed on the
roadway followed by a layer of crushed or chipped rock to resurface roads. Chip seal combines
one or more layers of asphalt with one or more layers of fine aggregate. This type of road
surfacing is often used in rural areas with low-volume traffic. Cold-mixed asphalt emulsions are
used for spot repairs and to seal cracks.
Asphalt and asphalt concrete have a variety of uses. In general, they are widely used to
provide waterproof coatings for walls, roofs and other building structures. They are used to pave
roads, which accounts for a majority of the asphalt produced in the United States. Asphalt in
the mix acts as a binder for the aggregates. Before it is mixed with the gravel, sand or crushed

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stone, the asphalt is heated or emulsified with water or petroleum solvent. The asphalt “cures”
by solidifying on cooling or by the evaporation of the solvent. The adhesiveness, durability and
waterproofing properties, along with the reasonable cost, of asphalt make it useful in road
construction and as a building material. Asphalt produces are used in flooring, roofing, shingles,
and insulation. Roofing products, such as shingles and roll roofing, are manufactured from
asphalt-soaked felt papers coated with additional asphalt and a crushed mineral aggregate, for
example.

SUMMARY

Cements are materials used to bind other materials together to form a solid mass. Concrete
is the product of cementing materials together with Portland cement. Portland cement is made
primarily from limestone and clays, with various oxides added as flux. It is available in five
common types, each of which ahs special properties and applications. Hydraulic cements, such
as Portland cement, dry and harden by hydration. Aggregates are added along with cement
and water to form concrete. The primary factor for strength in concrete, beyond chemical
composition, is the water-to-cement ratio. The yield of a concrete batch is the number of bags
of cement (94 lb/bag, typically) it takes per cubic yard of concrete. Various tests are performed
on concrete materials prior to mixture, during pouring, and later in the laboratory, including the
slump test, silt test, calorimetric test, and test for entrained air.
Concrete is weak in tensile strength. To overcome this, concrete is typically reinforced
or prestressed where reinforcing bars are added to boost the tensile strength of concrete or the
concrete is prestressed to avoid having it ever come under tension.
Various chemical additives are used in concrete to enhance its properties. Air-entraining
additives are used to reduce the efforts of the freeze-thaw cycle. Colorizing agents are used for
decorative effects. Accelerators and retarders are used to advance or delay the initial set of a
concrete. These products allow more or less time to work the concrete, depending largely on
environmental conditions. Hardeners are sometimes used to enhance abrasion and wear
resistance of concrete floors, for example.
Asphalts are organic materials composed of the residue after the lighter constituents of
petroleum have been distilled off. Asphalt concrete is commonly used in roadway and runway
construction.

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• Application

1. List five applications of concrete that you encounter in everyday life.

2. Asphalt is commonly used as roofing and paving material. What substitutes can you
recommend for these applications?

• Closure

Congratulations for a job well-done in completing lesson 3. You are now to proceed
to Lesson 4.

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