AST 122 MATERIAL SCIENCE

Lesson 2

Ceramics and Glass

Learning Outcomes:
➢ Understand the compositions and applications of various ceramic materials
and products, including glass, stone, clay, cermet, brick, and refractory
materials.
➢ Describe the development of these materials as well as the various products
made from them.
➢ Explain the major types and uses of modern natural and synthetic abrasives.
➢ Examine the concept of crystallinity in ceramics and its effects on properties.
Time Frame: 3 hrs
In this lesson, you will be encountering activity and analysis where you have to
answer. An abstraction or brief inputs will be shared to you and lastly, the
application should be considered.

• Activity (Let’s Get Started!) What are

glasses?

What is a clay?
What are
ceramic
What are materials?
stones?

What is
Limestone?

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• Analysis:

1. Which glass offers the highest thermal resistance?

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2. Describe the difference between glass and ceramic.

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3. What happens when glass breaks?

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4. What are three basic types of rock?

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5. What are abrasives?

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• Abstraction

Introduction
Ceramic materials are inorganic solid compounds and solutions that contain
metallic, nonmetallic, and metalloid elements that are typically heated to
incandescence during processing or application. They are typically ionic or covalent
bonded, which makes them hard and brittle, and exhibit high strength, high melting
points, and low thermal and electrical conductivity. They are used in a wide variety of
applications, from pottery to brick, tile to glass, ovenware to magnets, and refractories
to cutting tools. Due to their high resistance to heat, ceramics are used to furnace
linings and tiles for the space shuttle. Ceramics also are used in some
superconductivity applications.

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Table 7.1 shows the Common ceramic materials and their uses.

Ceramics
Traditional ceramics are made from three basic components: clay, silica, and feldspar.
Structural clay products such as bricks, sewer pipes, drain tiles, and floor tiles are made from
natural clays, which contain all three of the basic components. Porcelain china, dental porcelain,
and sanitary wares are all examples of traditional ceramic products. In contrast to traditional
ceramics, which are based primarily on clays, are the technical ceramics. Technical ceramics
are mainly pure compounds or nearly pure compounds of primarily oxides, carbides, or nitrides.
Alumina (Al2O3), silicon nitride (Si3N4), silicon carbide (SiC), beryllia (BeO), and barium
titanate (BaTiO3) are all examples of technical ceramics. These are normally hot-pressed in
dry powder form into useful products.

Overall, ceramics are a diverse group of nonmetallic, inorganic solid compounds with a wide
variety of compositions and properties. They are typically crystalline compounds comprised of
metallic, nonmetallic, and metalloid elements whose properties differ from the constituents.
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The term ceramics comes from the Greek word, keramos, which means potter’s clay.
Ceramics are crystalline, like steel and have few free electrons at room temperature. Because
they have few free electrons, ceramics are generally poor electric conductors and exhibit low
thermal conductivity. Ceramics, in general, are hard, brittle, and stiff. They are generally higher
in compressive strength than tensile strength. They are totally elastic, meaning they exhibit no
plasticity when a load is applied, yielding little or no deformation prior to fracture. In general,
ceramics have the highest melting points of any materials.
Glass
Introduction
Glasses are traditionally described as noncrystalline, amorphous solids. The reason for
this description is that glasses do not behave like metals or polymers when they cool from
molten condition. Metals, as an example, exhibit a definite quantity of heat given off when they
cool from the molten state. This quantity of heat is called the heat of solidification. Polymers
exhibit changes in volume when heated, and the point of inflection on a graph of specific volume
versus temperature is known as the transition temperature. In general, glass is a transparent
silica product, which may form an amorphous or crystalline structure, depending on the process
used during production.

History and Development of Glassmaking

Glass is one of the oldest manufactured materials known. No one can say with absolute
certainty exactly when, where or how glass was discovered. Nature began producing different
forms of glass long before humans. Two styles of natural glass are obsidian and fulgurite.
Obsidian is a common natural glass product formed by intense volcanic heat and fulgurite is the
result of a lightning strike on sand, which produces a fused quartz. Obsidian is usually black,
but depending on the minerals and coloring agents present during the time it is formed, it may
be red, brown or green. Early peoples used obsidian to manufacture weapons, tools and
ornamental jewelry. Fulgurite properties depend on the soil, sand or rock struck by the lightning.
The first craftspeople who worked with glass were artisans and potters. Potters produced
glass, jars, bowls, dishes, cups and hollow vessels and artisans produced jewelry, fine threads,
and luxurious glass products for display.

Types of Glass and Glass Products

Glass is generally either transparent (you can see through it, as in eyeglasses) or
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translucent (the image is blurred, as in frosted glass). As light passes through glass, it is bent
or refracted, by the particles in the glass. The type of glass determines the degree of refraction.
Each type of glass has a unique index of refraction, or refractive index.

Glass Composition
Glass Composition
Aluminosilicate 59% silica, 20% alumina, 9% magnesia, 6% lime, 5% boron oxide,
1% sodium oxide
Borosilicate 80% silica, 13% boron trioxide, 2% alumina, 4% sodium oxide, 1%
potassium oxide
Flint glass 58% lead oxide, 35% silica, 7% potassium oxide
Fused silica 99% + pure silica
High-content 96.5% silica, 3% boron oxide, 0.5% aluminum oxide
silica
Lead glass 67% silica, 16% lead oxide, 10% potassium oxide, 7% sodium
oxide
Low-lead glass 57% silica, 29% lead oxide, 8% potassium oxide, 5% sodium oxide,
1% aluminum oxide
Phosphate 72% phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5), 18% alumina, 10% zinc oxide
Pyrex 81% silica, 12% boron oxide, 3% aluminum oxide, 4% sodium
oxide
Rare-earth 28% lanthanum oxide, 26% thorium oxide, 21% boron trioxide,
20% tantalum pentoxide, 3% barium oxide, 2% barium tungstate
Soda lime 70% silica, 15% soda or sodium oxide, 10% lime or calcium oxide

Manufacture of Glass
Stained glass manufactured during the Middle Ages consisted of colored glass pieces that were
joined using lead cames.

Figured glass is one type of patterned glass. It contains a repeating pattern, such as in shower
stalls.

Cathedral glass contains a regular, wavy pattern, which impedes visibility. This type of pattern
is sometimes found in reception areas, such as in a hospital.
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Opal glass is produced through the addition of fine crystals in the clear glass matrix. These
crystals provide a “frosted” effect. The greater the percentage of crystals added to the matrix,
the greater the opacity of the glass.

Patterns may also be introduced in glass by etching. Mechanical etching can be achieved
through sandblasting the glass using a stencil or specified pattern. Chemical etching involves
the use of acids that eat into the surface of the glass, removing part of the surface.

Safety glass has been produced in various forms, including wired glass, tempered glass and
laminated glass. Wire glass contains a fine wire mesh. The wire mesh does not add to the
strength of the glass, but weakens it due to the inclusions in the structure of the glass. When
broken, the glass tends to be held together by the mesh and doesn’t shatter as easily.

The tempering, or prestressing, of glass involves heating the glass until it is soft but doesn’t flow
or lose its shape. It is then sprayed with jets of cold air or quenched in oil. This cools the outside
layers of the glass rapidly, putting them in compression. The cooling of the glass stops before
penetrating the glass thoroughly. The interior of the glass is allowed to cool slowly. This process
is called thermal tempering.

In chemical tempering, the glass is toughened by immersing it in a bath of molten potassium

chloride. The potassium replaces the sodium atoms on the surface of the glass. The potassium
atoms are larger than the sodium atoms, so the surface atoms tend to be squeezed together
more tightly.

Tempered glass is tougher than normal glass due to the compression forces on the external
layers of the glass.

Laminated glass is produced by adding a polymer layer, typically polyvinyl butyryl or ethylene
vinyl acetate, between layers of glass.

Photochromatic glass darkens when it is exposed to ultraviolet radiation, such as sunlight or

heat, and lightens when the radiation is removed.

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Photosensitive glass changes from clear to opaque when it is exposed to ultraviolet radiation
or heat. The change is permanent. It acts like photographic film in that a pattern is produced on
the glass when it is “exposed.”

Polychromatic glass is a full color photosensitive glass generally treated with rare earth oxides
used in various applications such as windows and as a data-storage medium.

Applications and Properties of Glass

Glass has many applications, some of which have already been introduced. In addition,
fiberglass (glass fibers) is used in Construction materials as a lightweight, high-strength material
for acoustic and thermal insulation, as fillers in polymers, as reinforcement in plastic laminates,
and in fiber optic communications. Glass can also be used to shield or transmit radiation, such
as in thermal pane windows. Glass-lined tanks are used in industries to handle aggressive
chemicals or to protect the product from contamination, such as in the brewing industry, where
beer is processed in glass-lined tanks. This practice protects the product from picking up
unwanted tastes. One large use of glass is in windows for building construction. Through
technology, the glass used in modern buildings is able to withstand high wind loads, withstand
the environment, and filter out sunlight and, therefore, have not only an aesthetic but a practical
application. The applications of glass are numerous and continue to increase. As glass
technology increases, it will continue to find more and more applications and replace more
traditional materials in various applications.
Some general statements may be made concerning the properties of glass, glass fibers,
and glass products.
➢ Glass is harder than many metals.
➢ Tensile strength ranges from 4,000 to 10,000 psi.
➢ Glass is a brittle substance with low ductility when cooled.
➢ Glasses have lower coefficients of thermal expansion compared with many metals
and polymers.
➢ Glasses have a compressive strength of about 140,000 psi (945 MPa)
➢ Glasses are good electrical insulators.
➢ Glasses can be used at elevated temperatures. Glass fiber insulation can be used
at temperatures up to 900 F (480 C).
➢ Glasses are resistant to most acids, solvents, and harsh chemicals. However,
they are slowly fogged by some and attacked by alkaline solutions.
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➢ Glasses offer the finest optical properties for windows, lenses, and sight glasses.

Types and Properties of Stone

Introduction
Stone and wood are the oldest building materials known. In the strictest technical
definition, stone is not a ceramic material, because it is not heated to incandescence during
processing or application. However, it is related to ceramic materials and is include because of
its nature and use. Stone is commonly available in the forms of limestone, sandstone, shale,
slate, granite, and marble, to name but a few common varieties.

Types of Rock and Stone

Rock and stone are solid materials formed by the molten material that has been brought
to the surface from within the earth by volcanic eruptions through cracks or openings in the
earth’s crust. Rock formed in this manner is called igneous rock. Igneous stones may be dense
and glassy or very porous: granite, diorite, and basalt have igneous origins.
Igneous rock that has been broken down and as a result has moved into new layers and
reformed is known as sedimentary rock. Sedimentary stones are composed of small particles
cemented together. These particles are the eroded effects of wind and/or water that have been
deposited in layers to form new rock formation. Sedimentary stones can be split easily along
these formation layers. Limestone, sandstone, and shale are examples of stones with
sedimentary origins.
Metamorphic rocks are formations that have been subjected to heat and/or pressure after
formation. They are composed of the broken remains of igneous and sedimentary rocks. Slate
and marble are common forms of metamorphic rocks.

Properties of Stone
The properties of stone vary according to the chemical and physical structure of the
material. In addition, samples of stones taken from different quarries will vary in chemical and
physical characteristics. Three principal components affect the properties of stone: (1) silicon
dioxide, (2) silicates of alumina, and (3) calcium carbonate.
Silicon dioxide, or silica, is a very durable material, which is acid-resistant except for
hydrofluoric acid, which dissolves it. It is a major constituent of granite, sandstone and other
stones. Aluminosilicates, associated with other materials, are the basic components of shale,
slate and feldspar. Calcium carbonate and to some extent, magnesium carbonate are the
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principal ingredients of limestone, marble, and similar stones. These are soluble in dilute acid
solutions and will, therefore, disintegrate in chemically polluted environments.
Limestone is a sedimentary stone composed of calcium carbonate and magnesium
carbonate. Marble is a metamorphic stone that has a hard, crystalline structure capable of being
polished, such as in sculptured art forms and countertops. Granite is an igneous rock composed
primarily of quartz and feldspar. Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed of grains of silica
cemented together with hydrated silica, iron oxide, calcium carbonate or clay. Shale is
composed of fine grains of silica and alumina. It is formed under pressure into a usable form.
Slate is a metamorphic material formed from mud and clay deposits.

Types and Properties of Clay

Introduction
Clay is a mixture composed of fine particles, which result from the disintegration of
igneous rocks. When these fine particles are mixed with water, they become a plastic mass that
can be molded or formed into shapes. Once fired, these shapes become hard and brittle.

Types of Clay
Clay is composed of silica and alumina, usually in chemical combination as amorphous
aluminosilicate. Other ingredients or impurities may be present, such as ferric oxide, lime,
magnesia or carbon dioxide, in quantities up to 20%. One exception is firebrick, which may have
a silica content up to 98%. Various combinations of silica, alumina, impurities, and water
produce different properties and clay products.
Four general types of sedimentary clays are fireclays, glacial clays, residual clays, and
sedimentary clays.
Fireclays contain approximately 7 to 8% impurities and are very suitable for the
manufacture of clay products. Fireclays are separated into three general categories: low,
standard, and super-duty clays.
Glacial clays have been deposited over a long period by the movement of glaciers. As
the glaciers moved, they picked up sand, stone and gravel.
Residual clays are formed by the disintegration of rocks due to environmental conditions.
They contain many impurities, such as iron oxide and lime.
Sedimentary clays are transported by water flow and deposited by sedimentation.
Sedimentary clay deposits may be found near oceans, lakes and swamps.
Aluminous clay is composed of bauxite and diaspore.
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Ball clay is very plastic clay, which is used in the manufacture of electrical porcelain and
whiteware products.
Corundum is an aluminum oxide mined as a gemstone in its natural state.
Cristobalite is a quartz material that differs from quartz in crystal structure.
Feldspar is found in clay and is classified as a rock. It is often used as a flux material in
the production of ceramics and ceramic products.
Flint clays are somewhat rigid clays that are often used to reduce the plasticity of other
clay batches.
Kaolin is a common clay, which appears white in its pure form.
Mullite is a refractory material that may be retrieved from the mineral buckite or produced
by heating and fusing silica sand and bauxite.
Vermiculite is heated and ground to form an insulating material that may withstand up to
2000 F.

Processing of Clay Products

Vitrification involves using a glassy substance to hold ceramic substances together.
Slip casting uses between 12 and 50% water in relation to the weight of the clay mixture.
In this process, the mixture is called a slip and is poured into a plaster of Paris mold, which
absorbs the water and causes a solid shell to form.
Soft-mud processing is generally used in the manufacture of bricks and the stiff-mud
process is used specifically for firebrick. In both processes, the bricks are extruded through a
die in a continuous length, with the extrusion cut into final form by wires pulled through the
extrusion.
The dry-press process uses between 4 and 12% water where the clay mixture is formed
in stell molds.
Dehydration takes place between 400 and 1200 F.
Oxidation stage is where the impurities are burned off the clay product.
Vitrification is where the material is hardened so that it will retain its shape after cooling
Cooling is closely monitored to avoid cracking, flaws, or color changes which develop if
the material is allowed to cool too fast.

Types of Bricks
Brick or block are terms used to denote rectangular products used in construction. Bricks
are typically graded as common or face brick. Face brick is darker, denser, and stronger and is

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held to closer dimensional tolerances than is common brick. By increasing the firing
temperature, the brick becomes darker, the porosity in the brick decreases and the overall
strength of the brick increases. Common brick absorbs approximately 15% water by weight
compared to face brick, which absorbs only about 8% by weight. Face bricks are used on the
outer surfaces, or faces, of buildings. Common bricks are used in the basic building of
structures.
Other types of bricks and related products include glazed brick, paving brick, terra-cotta
and tile. Glazed bricks are coated with a hard, smooth, transparent coating to improve their
wear and appearance. Paving brick is made from shale and is pressed into final shape before
firing. Terra-cotta is a mixture of shale and clay. Terra cotta is a strong material often used in
drainage and tile applications. It has a fine texture and a low coefficient of thermal expansion.
It can be shaped by hand or carved, glazed and fired to make decorative shapes. Tile is a clay
material that doesn’t exceed 75% solids by volume. Clay tile is extruded using the stiff-mud
process. It is used as roofing, flooring, wall coverings, facings and fireproofing material.

Types and Properties of Refractory Materials

Introduction
Recall that bricks are made mainly from sand and clay or from sand and shale. Their
physical properties vary according to the types and proportion of materials used, the production
methods applied and the time and temperature used in their production. Refractory materials
are used in high-temperature applications such as linings for furnaces, heat shields, and
protective coverings. These materials include fireclays, high alumina, silica and insulating
firebrick.

Refractory Materials and Cermets

The term refractory denotes a substance capable of enduring heat. Refractory materials
must be able to withstand high stresses at elevated temperatures. For example, furnace linings
are used to contain molten meal. The term refractory as used in this section refers to those
materials suitable for use at high temperatures and stresses.

Abrasives
The majority of industrial abrasives, with the exception of diamond, are synthetic.
However, there are some natural abrasives, such as garnet, flint and emery, used in sanding
and polishing materials. An abrasive is a hard material used to wear away a softer material. The
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hardest of these materials are the ceramics. Diamond, natural, synthetic, or blended is the
hardest material known and is only the significant natural abrasive used. Typical applications
for diamond abrasives are in brick and concrete saws, drawing dies, diamond drills, and
machining cutters for hard materials.
After diamond, the next hardest abrasive is silicon carbide (SiC), a natural occurring rare
mineral called moissanite and also known by its trade name, carborundum. This versatile
refractory material is produced by mixing sand, coke and sawdust and an electric arc is passed
through the mixture, which reaches temperatures of about 4500 F. The sawdust is used to
produce porosity, which allows the gases produced to escape.
Aluminum oxide is also a synthetic abrasive; it can be distinguished by its lighter color.
It is produced from bauxite or aluminum ore. It is not as hard as silicon carbide, but it is more
impact resistant and is therefore preferred for grinding the harder materials because it wears
away faster than silicon carbide, exposing new cutting surfaces more frequently. Silicon carbide
abrasives are used for cast irons and the softer nonferrous metals. These two abrasives are
generally used for grinding wheels, where the grit is bonded together with a ceramic material
such as sodium silicate or an organic material such as rubber or plastic cement.

SUMMARY
Ceramic materials are complex compounds and solutions that contain metallic, nonmetallic,
and metalloid elements. They are typically hard and brittle and exhibit high strength, high
melting points, and low thermal and electrical conductivity. Ceramic materials include glass,
stone, clay, brick, and refractory materials. Each of these materials is unique in composition
and application. Ceramics may be pressed, rammed, or extruded into final shape. A large part
of the total cost of a ceramic product is the manufacturing cost. Many ceramics are made from
low-cost raw materials.

Glasses are products of the fusion of inorganic materials, mostly oxides. They are
amorphous solids that exhibit good mechanical properties and a wide range of thermal,
electrical, and optical properties. They offer a wide range of applications in various fields,
including communications, construction, and ornamentation.

Stone is one of the oldest building materials known. It offers a variety of properties based
on the three main components of stone, silicon dioxide, silicates of alumina, and calcium
carbonate. There are three basic types of rock---igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic-each
having its own properties and characteristics.

Clay is composed of fine particles that result from the disintegration of igneous rocks. When
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these fine particles are mixed with water, they become a plastic mass that can be molded or
formed into shapes. After the clay product is formed, it is dried, fired, and glazed. Once fired,
these shapes become hard and brittle. Glazing produces a smooth, impermeable surface.

Four general types of sedimentary clays are fireclays, glacial clays, residual clays, and
sedimentary clays. These clays are used to manufacture products through the slipcasting, soft-
mud, stiff-mud, and dry-press processes.

The term refractory means capable of resisting heat. Refractory materials must be able to
withstand high stresses at elevated temperatures. Refractories are used for furnace linings and
to contain molten metal. Refractory metals are those metals that have melting points above
3000 F (1650 C). Refractory materials include nitrides, carbides, oxides, borides, and graphite.

Most of the modern abrasive materials are synthetic, with the exception of diamond.
Aluminum oxide and silicon carbide are two examples of abrasives. Aluminum oxide is preferred
for harder materials, because it wears away faster, thus exposing new cutting surfaces more
frequently. Silicon carbide is used for cast irons and softer nonferrous metals.

• Application

1. List three applications where ceramics can be used to replace other materials.

2. List five applications of glass.

• Closure

Congratulations for a job well-done in completing lesson 2. You are now to proceed
to Lesson 3.

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