1 :: What is the use of IGMP protocol?

Internet Group Management Protocol: - It allows internet hosts to participate in

multicasting. The IGMP messages are used to learn which hosts is part of which
multicast groups. The mechanism also allow a host to inform its local router, that
it wants to receive messages.

2 :: What are Ping and Tracert?

Ping and tracert are the commands used to send information to some remote computers
to receive some information. Information is sent and received by packets. Ping I
particularly used to check if the system is in network or not. It also gives packet
lost information. In windows ping command is written as ping ip_address Tracert is
called as trace route. It is used to track or trace the path the packet takes from
the computer where the command is given until the destination. In windows ping
command is written as tracert ip_address

3 :: Explain RSVP. How does it work?

Resource Reservation protocol is used to reserve resources across a network. It is
used for requesting a specific Quality of Service (QoS) from the network. This is
done by carrying the request (that needs a reservation of the resource) of the host
throughout the network. It visits each node in the network. RSVP used two local
modules for reservation of resources. Admission control module confirms if there
are sufficient available resources while policy module checks for the permission of
making a reservation. RSVP offers scalability. On a successful completion of both
checks RSVP uses the packet classifier and packet scheduler for the desired Qos
requested.

4 :: Explain the concept of DHCP.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol is used assigning IP addresses to computers in
a network. The IP addresses are assigned dynamically. Certainly, using DHCP, the
computer will have a different IP address every time it is connected to the
network. In some cases the IP address may change even when the computer is in
network. This means that DHCP leases out the IP address to the computer for
sometime. Clear advantage of DHCP is that the software can be used to manage IP
address rather than the administrator.

5 :: What are the differences between a domain and a workgroup?

In a domain, one or more computer can be a server to manage the network. On the
other hand in a workgroup all computers are peers having no control on each other.
In a domain, user doesn�t need an account to logon on a specific computer if an
account is available on the domain. In a work group user needs to have an account
for every computer.
In a domain, Computers can be on different local networks. In a work group all
computers needs to be a part of the same local network.

6 :: Explain how NAT works.

Network Address Translation translates and IP address used in a network to another
IP address known within another network. A NAT table is maintained for global to
local and local to mapping of IP�s. NAT can be statically defined or dynamically
translate from a pool of addresses. The NAT router is responsible for translating
traffic coming and leaving the network. NAT prevents malicious activity initiated
by outside hosts from reaching local hosts by being dependent on a machine on the
local network to initiate any connection to hosts on the other side of the router.

7 :: What is PPP protocol? Explain PPP packet format.

Point to Point protocol helps communication between 2 computers over a serial
cable, phone line or other fiber optic lines. E.g. Connection between an Internet
Service Provider and a host. PPP also provides authentication. PPP operates by
sending Request packets and waiting for Acknowledge packets that accept, reject or
try to change the request. The protocol is also used to negotiate on network
address or compression options between the nodes.

Packet format:-

Flag field: 1 byte: - Indicates frames beginning or end

Address field: 1 byte: - Used for broadcast address (destination address)
Control field: 1 byte: - Used as a control byte
Protocol field: - 1 or 2 bytes: - Setting of protocol in information field (of
datagram)
Information: - 0 or more bytes: - Datagram (whether it contains data or control
information)
Padding: - 0 or more bytes: - optional padding
FCS: - 2 or more bytes: - error check sum

8 :: What is IP Spoofing and how can it be prevented?

IP spoofing is a mechanism used by attackers to gain unauthorized access to a
system. Here, the intruder sends messages to a computer with an IP address
indicating that the message is coming from a trusted host. This is done by forging
the header so it contains a different address and make it appear that the packet
was sent by a different machine.

Prevention:-
Packet filtering: - to allow packets with recognized formats to enter the network
Using special routers and firewalls.
Encrypting the session

9 :: Explain IP datagram, Fragmentation and MTU.

IP datagram can be used to describe a portion of IP data. Each IP datagram has set
of fields arranged in an order. The order is specific which helps to decode and
read the stream easily. IP datagram has fields like Version, header length, Type of
service, Total length, checksum, flag, protocol, Time to live, Identification,
source and destination ip address, padding, options and payload.

MTU:- Maximum Transmission Unit is the size of the largest packet that a
communication protocol can pass. The size can be fixed by some standard or decided
at the time of connection

Fragmentation is a process of breaking the IP packets into smaller pieces.

Fragmentation is needed when the datagram is larger than the MTU. Each fragment
becomes a datagram in itself and transmitted independently from source. When
received by destination they are reassembled.

10 :: What is an application gateway?

An application gateway is an application program that runs on a firewall between
two networks. An application gateway is used for establishing connection between
client program and destination service. The client negotiates with the gateway to
communicate with the service of destination. Here, gateway can be called as a
proxy. Hence, two connections are made. One between client and proxy; other,
between proxy and destination service. Connections take place behind the firewall

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11 :: Explain Circuit Level Gateway.

A circuit level gateway is used to find if a session in TCP handshaking is
legitimate or not. It can be considered as a layer between application layer and
transport layer. They protect the information of the private network they protect.
Circuit level gateways do not filter packets.

12 :: What is "Gateway Of Last Resort"?

A Gateway of Last Resort or Default gateway is a route used by the router when no
other known route exists to transmit the IP packet. Known routes are present in the
routing table. Hence, any route not known by the routing table is forwarded to the
default route. Each router which receives this packet will treat the packet the
same way, if the route is known, packet will be forwarded to the known route.

13 :: What is LAN?
LAN is a computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most LANs are
confined to a single building or group of buildings. However, one LAN can be
connected to other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and radio waves. A
system of LANs connected in this way is called a wide-area network (WAN). Most LANs
connect workstations and personal computers. Each node (individual computer) in a
LAN has its own CPU with which it executes programs, but it also is able to access
data and devices anywhere on the LAN. This means that many users can share
expensive devices, such as laser printers, as well as data. Users can also use the
LAN to communicate with each other, by sending e-mail or engaging in chat sessions.

14 :: What is the difference Between an Intranet and the Internet?

There's one major distinction between an intranet and the Internet: The Internet is
an open, public space, while an intranet is designed to be a private space. An
intranet may be accessible from the Internet, but as a rule it's protected by a
password and accessible only to employees or other authorized users.

From within a company, an intranet server may respond much more quickly than a
typical Web site. This is because the public Internet is at the mercy of traffic
spikes, server breakdowns and other problems that may slow the network. Within a
company, however, users have much more bandwidth and network hardware may be more
reliable. This makes it easier to serve high-bandwidth content, such as audio and
video, over an intranet.

15 :: Define the term Protocol.

Protocol is a standard way of communicating across a network. A protocol is the
"language" of the network. It is a method by which two dissimilar systems can
communicate. TCP is a protocol which runs over a network.

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16 :: Define File Transfer Protocol.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP), a standard Internet protocol, is the simplest way to
exchange files between computers on the Internet. Like the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP), which transfers displayable Web pages and related files, and the
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), which transfers e-mail, FTP is an application
protocol that uses the Internet's TCP/IP protocols. FTP is commonly used to
transfer Web page files from their creator to the computer that acts as their
server for everyone on the Internet. It's also commonly used to download programs
and other files to your computer from other servers.

17 :: Explain the 7 Layers of OSI.

Layer 1: Physical layer
It represents all the electrical and physical specifications for devices.

Layer 2: Data link layer

It provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network
entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical
layer.

Layer 3: Network layer

The Network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring
variable length data sequences from a source to a destination via one or more
networks.

Layer 4: Transport layer

It provides transparent transfer of data between end users.

Layer 5: Session layer

It controls the sessions between computers. It connects, manages and terminates the
connections between the local and remote application.

Layer 6: Presentation layer

It transforms data to provide a standard interface for the Application layer.

Layer 7: Application layer

It provides a means for the user to access information on the network through an
application.

18 :: What is a network? What are the different kinds of network? Explain them.
A network is a group of computers or nodes connected together. They are connected
with each other by communication paths.

Types of Networks:

LAN � Local Area Network connects a group of nodes covering a small physical area.
LAN�s are most commonly seen in offices, building etc. LAN�s enable higher transfer
rate of data, smaller coverage of area and hence less wiring.

WAN � Wide Area Network connects a group of nodes covering a wide area. WAN
typically connects and allow communication between regions or national boundaries.
The most common example of WAN is internet.

VPN � Virtual Private Network connects or links nodes in some larger area by open
connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead
of by physical wires. It is used for secure communication through the public
internet. VPN alone may not support explicit security features, such as
authentication or content encryption.

Intranet � It is a set of networks under the control of a single administrative

person. It can be considered as an internal network of an organization. If it is
large, web servers are used to provide information to the users.

Extranet � It is a network that restricts itself within a single organization. It

can be categorized as WAN, MAN etc. however; it cannot have a single LAN. It must
have a connection (at least one) with external network.

19 :: What are network topologies? Explain Ring, Bus and Star topology.
A network topology describes the layout of a network. It describes how different
nodes and elements are connected to each other. Different types of topology:

a. Ring:-

* All nodes connected with another in a loop.

* Each device is connected to one or more another device on either side.

b. Bus

* All nodes connected to a central and a common cable called as a back bone.
* In bus topology, the server is at one end and the clients are connected at
different positions across the network.
* Easy to manage and install.
* If the backbone fails, the entire communication fails.

c. Star

* All nodes connected to a central hub.

* The communication between the nodes is through the hub.
* Relative requires more cables as compared to BUS. However if any node fails, it
wont affect the entire LAN.

20 :: Explain IP, TCP and UDP.

TCP � Transmission control Protocol is used to establish communication between
nodes or networks and exchange data packets. It guarantees delivery of data packets
in the order they were sent. Hence it is most commonly used in all applications
that require guaranteed delivery of data. It can handle both timeouts (if packets
were delayed) and retransmission (if packets were lost). The stream of data is
transmitted in segments. The segment header is 32 bit. it is a connectionless
communication protocol at the third level (network) of the OSI model.

IP � Internet protocol is used for transmission of data over the internet. IP uses
IP addresses to identity each machine uniquely. Message is sent using small
packets. The packet contains both the sender and receivers address. IP does not
guarantee the delivery in the same order as sent. This is because the packets are
sent via different routes. It is a connectionless communication protocol at the
third level (network) of the OSI model.

UDP � User Data Protocol is a communication protocol. It is normally used as an

alternative for TCP/IP. However there are a number of differences between them. UDP
does not divide data into packets. Also, UDP does not send data packets in
sequence. Hence, the application program must ensure the sequencing. UDP uses port
numbers to distinguish user requests. It also has a checksum capability to verify
the data.

21 :: Explain the different classes of addresses supported by IP addressing.

Computers using the TCP/IP for communication are uniquely identified by a 32 bit
address called as an IP address. The routers use the IP address information to
forward the packet to the destination computer.

IP addresses are categorized as:

Private address: these IP addresses are used exclusively within a private network
and not for public to see.

Public Address: these are registered IP addresses used for public.

Each IP address has a network address and a host address. IP addresses are
expressed in four sets of three numbers, separated with dots. Each set is called as
an octet because when converted to binary; it denotes eight binary

22 :: What is multicasting?
Multicasting allows a single message to be sent to a group of recipients. Emailing,
teleconferencing, are examples of multicasting. It uses the network infrastructure
and standards to send messages.

23 :: Explain the functionality of PING.

Ping Is particularly used to check if the system is in network or not. It also
gives packet lost information. In windows ping command is written as ping
ip_address. The output returns the data packets information. The number of packets
sent, received and lost is returned by PING.

24 :: Explain the core naming mechanism, Domain Name System (DNS).

A Domain Name system is used to convert the names of the website on the internet to
IP addresses. The domain names for each IP addresses are stored in a database that
is distributed across different servers. A domain name space consists of a tree of
domain names. The tree has zones. Zones consist of a collection of connected nodes.
These nodes are served by a name server. A domain name is usually in the form of
mydomain.com. Here, .com is the top level domain. Where as mydomain is the sub
domain or subdivision. A host name is a domain name that has one or more IP
addresses associated with it.

25 :: Describe Application layer.

The application layer is located at the top of the TCP/IP protocol layers. This one
contains the network applications which make it possible to communicate using the
lower layers. The software in this layer therefore communicates using one of the
two protocols of the layer below (the transport layer), i.e. TCP or UDP. In
computer networking, an application layer firewall is a firewall operating at the
application layer of a protocol stack.[1] Generally it is a host using various
forms of proxy servers to proxy traffic instead of routing it. As it works on the
application layer, it may inspect the contents of the traffic, blocking what the
firewall administrator views as inappropriate content, such as certain websites,
viruses, and attempts to exploit known logical flaws in client software, and so
forth. An application layer firewall does not route traffic on the network layer.
All traffic stops at the firewall which may initiate its own connections if the
traffic satisfies the rules

26 :: Define DNS
The DNS translates Internet domain and host names to IP addresses. DNS
automatically converts the names we type in our Web browser address bar to the IP
addresses of Web servers hosting those sites. DNS implements a distributed database
to store this name and address information for all public hosts on the Internet.

27 :: Define Telnet
Telnet is the main Internet protocol for creating a connection to a remote server.
28 :: Define SMTP
SMTP - Short for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, a protocol for sending e-mail
messages between servers.

29 :: What Is a MAC Address?

MAC (Media Access Control) addresses are globally unique addressed that are written
into hardware at the time of manufacture. The MAC address is a unique value
associated with a network adapter. MAC addresses are also known as hardware
addresses or physical addresses. They uniquely identify an adapter on a LAN. MAC
addresses are 12-digit hexadecimal numbers (48 bits in length).

30 :: MAC vs. IP Addressing

Whereas MAC addressing works at the data link layer, IP addressing functions at the
network layer (layer 3). It's a slight oversimplification, but one can think of IP
addressing as supporting the software implementation and MAC addresses as
supporting the hardware implementation of the network stack. The MAC address
generally remains fixed and follows the network device, but the IP address changes
as the network device moves from one network to another.

31 :: Define Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP)

Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP) as defined in the IEEE 802.1D is a link management
protocol that provides path redundancy while preventing undesirable loops in the
network. For an Ethernet network to function properly, only one active path can
exist between two stations. Loops occur in networks for a variety of reasons. The
most common reason you find loops in networks is the result of a deliberate attempt
to provide redundancy - in case one link or switch fails, another link or switch
can take over.

32 :: What is VPN?
A VPN is a service that offers secure, reliable connectivity over a shared public
network infrastructure such as the Internet. VPNs maintain the same security and
management policies as a private network. They are the most cost effective method
of establishing a virtual point-to-point connection between remote users and an
enterprise customer's network.

33 :: Define broadcast domain.

It is a logical area in a computer network where any computer connected to the
network can directly transmit to any other computer in the domain without having to
go through a routing device.

34 :: Bridge vs switch.
A bridge connects two different LAN networks. A switch is something like you can
connect many computers to a switch and then one computer can connect to another
through the switch. Switch is a unicast one to one connection

35 :: What is a Router?
A router is a device or sometimes a software in a computer which decides the next
network point to which a packet should be forwarded to reach its destination on
Internet. It is usually included as part of the network switch and is located at a
gateway, including each point-of-presence on the Internet. The router is connected
to at least two networks and determines which way to send each information packet
based on its understanding of the state of the networks it is connected to.

36 :: Define gateway.
A gateway is a network point that provides entrance into another network. On the
Internet, a node or stopping point can be either a gateway node or a host (end-
point) node. Both the computers of Internet users and the computers that serve
pages to users are host nodes. The computers that control traffic within your
company's network or at your local Internet service provider (ISP) are gateway
nodes.

37 :: What is firewall?
A firewall is a hardware or software installed to provide security to the private
networks connected to the internet. They can be implemented in both hardware and
software, or a combination of both. All data entering or leaving the Intranet
passes through the firewall which allows only the data meeting the administrators�
rules to pass through it.

38 :: What are the types of firewalls?

Packet Filtering Firewall:
This type of Firewall detects packets and block unnecessary packets and makes
network traffic release.

Screening Router Firewalls:

It's a software base firewall available in Router provides only light filtering.

Computer-based Firewall:
It's a firewall stored in server with an existing Operating System like Windows and
UNIX.

Hardware base Firewall:

Its device like box allows strong security from public network. Mostly used by big
networks.

Proxy Server:
Proxy server allows all clients to access Internet with different access limits.
Proxy server has its own firewall which filters the all packet from web server.

39 :: What is Data encryption?

Data encryption ensures data safety and very important for confidential or critical
data. It protect data from being read, altered or forged while transmission.

40 :: What is the Public Key Encryption?

Public key encryption use public and private key for encryption and decryption. In
this mechanism, public key is used to encrypt messages and only the corresponding
private key can be used to decrypt them. To encrypt a message, a sender has to know
recipient�s public key.

41 :: What is Digital Signatures?

Digital signature is an attachment to an electronic message used for security
purpose. It is used to verify the authenticity of the sender.

42 :: What is Ethernet technology?

Ethernet technology is a high speed broadcast bus technology. In this type, all the
station shares a single ether channel and receives every single transmitted signal.

43 :: Explain the use of network interface card, NIC.

NIC is used to connect computer to an Ethernet network.

44 :: Explain token ring technology.

In this technology, all the devices are arranged in a circle. A token moves around
the circular network. A device waits for the token before it sends its frame. Once
it receives token, it initiates transmission of its frame.

45 :: What is CSMA and CD concept?

In CSDA (carrier sense multiple access), presence of any digital signal in a
network is checked before transmission. Data transmission occurs only when no
signal is sensed.

CD, Collision detection is responsible for monitoring carrier in order to avoid

signal jam.

46 :: What is NetBIOS protocol?

NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System) Protocol allows applications on
separate computers to communicate over a LAN. It runs over TCP/IP giving each
computer in the network a NetBIOS name and IP address. E.g. It can be used for
computers running Windows 2000 (or before) to join a computer network running
Windows 2000 (or later).

47 :: What is IGMP protocol?

Internet Group Management Protocol, allows internet hosts to multicast. i.e. to
send messages to a group of computers. There may be a group of internet hosts
interested to multicast. IGMP allows router to determine which host groups have
members on a given network segment. It helps to establish group memberships. It is
commonly used for streamlining videos and gaming. The protocol can be implemented
both as a host side and router side. The host side is responsible to notify its
membership in a group. The notification is made to a local router. This local
router (router side) in turn sends out queries.

48 :: Explain PPP protocol.

Point to Point protocol helps communication between 2 computers over a serial
cable, phone line or other fiber optic lines. E.g. Connection between an Internet
Service Provider and a host. PPP also provides authentication. PPP operates by
sending Request packets and waiting for Acknowledge packets that accept, reject or
try to change the request.

The protocol is also used to negotiate on network address or compression options

between the nodes. PPP has a number of phases as below:

* Link dead: - takes place when the connection fails.

* Link Establishment Phase: - Used to establish connection. If authentication is
desired, it moves to next phase.
* Authentication Phase: - Allows the nodes to authenticate each other.
* Network-Layer Protocol Phase: - here, the network control protocols come into
play. Data transport, closing of the protocols takes place in this phase.
* Link Termination Phase: - here, the connection is terminated.

49 :: What is TCP / IP protocol?

Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol: - It is a family of protocols
used for communication and connection between hosts on the internet. It is the most
widely used standard for transmitting data over the internet. The four layers in
the protocol are (from bottom to top):- Physical layer, Data link layer, Network
layer, transport layer and application layer, also called as the OSI model. In
TCP/IP , IP is responsible for forwarding packets while TCP ensures the correct
delivery of data from client to server. TCP detects loss of data as well.

50 :: What is FTP (File Transfer Protocol)?

FTP is File Transfer Protocol. It used to exchange files on the internet. To enable
the data transfer FTP uses TCP/IP, FTP is most commonly used to upload and download
files from the internet. FTP can be invoked from the command prompt or some
graphical user interface. FTP also allows to update (delete, rename, move, and
copy) files at a server. It uses a reserved port no 21.
51 :: What is HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)?
HTTP or Hyper Text Transfer Protocol is provides a set of rules to transfer files,
videos, images over the world wide web. When the web browser is opened, a HTTP
request call is made. A web server contains a HTTP daemon. This daemon is used to
wait for HTTP requests and handle them when they arrive. The web browser from where
HTTP requests are made is called as a client. These requests are sent to the
server. It uses a reserved port no 80.

52 :: What is NNTP (Network News Transfer Protocol)?

NNTP or Network News Transfer Protocol is used to manage the notes posted on Unset
newsgroup (a collection of posted notes on a subject posted by different users).
NNTP servers are responsible for managing Usenet newsgroup collected globally. A
NTTP client is a part of the web browser also called as a news reader. It uses a
reserver port no 119.

53 :: What is SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)?

SMTP or Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is used to send email messages between
servers. The messages are retrieved using email clients. SMTP is more commonly used
to send messages from a mail client to a mail server. And hence the email client
like POP needs to be configured. Hence, SMTP is used to send emails while POP or
IMAP are used to receive messages. It is usually operated on port25 on the
internet.

54 :: What is POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3)?

POP3 or Post Office Box 3 is used fro receiving emails. It is a client server
protocol which holds the email. Once the email is downloaded from the server, POP3
deletes it from the server. Ordinal numbers are used to identify specific messages.

55 :: What is SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)?

SNMP or Simple Network Management Protocol is typically used for managing the
network. Managing the network includes managing the nodes present in the network.
These nodes may be server, routers, bridges and hubs. SNMP agents are used to
achieve this. Managing the network is essential because it helps to monitor network
performance, detect network faults or failures, audit network usage etc. the SNMP
messages like TRAP, GET or SET may be invoked by network elements or network
management system

56 :: What are the basic components of routers?

Components of Router

Internal components:

* ROM:- Used to store the routers bootstrap details, operating system software.
* Flash memory: - holds the operating systems images. The content is retained when
the router is restarted.
* RAM: - Used to store the Routing tables, configuration files, caching and
buffering details. Content is lost when lost router is switched off or restarted.
* NVRAM:- Stores the routers startup config files. Data is non volatile.
* Network interfaces to connect router to network.

External components:

* Virtual terminals: For accessing routers

* Network management stations
57 :: What is Routing table?
A routing table stores the routes of the various nodes in a network. Nodes can be
any electronic device connected to the network. The table is usually stored in a
router or the network computer as a database or file. This information helps to
fond the best possible path. The routing table has at least 3 fields: the
destination network id, cost of the path, next hop or address to send the packet.

58 :: What is Routing Protocols?

Routing protocols are used to assist in achieving the basic purpose of routing.
They specify the routers the method to communicate with each other. They help the
routers select the best possible path between nodes. There are different types of
protocols such as link-state routing protocols, path vector protocols and distance
vector routing protocols. These protocols prevent routing loops to form or break if
formed already. They help to decide preferred routes from a sequence of hop costs.

59 :: What is Distance Vector Routing Protocols?

The main goal of Distance Vector Routing Protocols Is to find out the best path for
he data packet to reach the destination. Distance here could be the hops. The three
different types of Distance Vector routing protocols include:- Routing Information
Protocol (RIP v1 and v2) and Interior Gateway Routing Protocol. The protocol is
easy to manage however not well scalable.

The Distance Vector protocol initially prepares a Routing table which is shared
with other routers. This routing table is shared between routers present in the
same network. A new routing table is prepared when some new information is received
from some other router. Now, the bad routing paths are removed keeping only the
smallest hop paths. This new table is then communicated to other routers.

60 :: Describe the basics of internet routing.

When a source sends a packet to a destination, this packet has a specific path or
route it follows. Different routing protocols are used to find the shortest path to
the destination. The protocols maintain routing tables. Routing tables consist of a
set of rules used to determine where these packets will travel. When a packet is
received, a network device examines the packet and matches it to the routing table
entry providing the best match for its destination. The packet keeps hopping until
it reaches its destination.

61 :: What is Data encryption?

Data encryption ensures data safety and very important for confidential or critical
data. It protect data from being read, altered or forged while transmission.

62 :: What is the Public Key Encryption?

Public key encryption use public and private key for encryption and decryption. In
this mechanism, public key is used to encrypt messages and only the corresponding
private key can be used to decrypt them. To encrypt a message, a sender has to know
recipient�s public key.

63 :: What is the Digital Signatures?

Digital signature is an attachment to an electronic message used for security
purpose. It is used to verify the authenticity of the sender.

64 :: What is the firewall?

A firewall is a hardware or software installed to provide security to the private
networks connected to the internet. They can be implemented in both hardware and
software, or a combination of both. All data entering or leaving the Intranet
passes through the firewall which allows only the data meeting the administrators�
rules to pass through it.

65 :: Explain Transmission Control Protocol, TCP.

TCP ensures reliable and end to end delivery of segments of information. Segments
are acknowledged to the source when received by the destination. Data is broken up
into segments and sequenced properly before transmission. This arrangement of
segments allows destination to trace lost data in transmission.

66 :: Explain User Datagram Protocol, UDP.

The UDP is a connectionless, unreliable service. UDP messages can be lost and
duplicated.

67 :: What is TCP windowing concept?

TCP windowing concept is primarily used to avoid congestion in the traffic. It
controls the amount of unacknowledged data a sender can send before it gets an
acknowledgment back from the receiver that it has received it.

68 :: What is TCP protocol?

Transmission control Protocol is used to establish communication between nodes or
networks and exchange data packets. It guarantees delivery of data packets in the
order they were sent. Hence it is most commonly used in all applications that
require guaranteed delivery of data. It can handle both timeouts (if packets were
delayed) and retransmission (if packets were lost). The stream of data is
transmitted in segments. The segment header is 32 bit. it is a connectionless
communication protocol at the third level (network) of the OSI model.

69 :: What is UDP protocol?

User Data Protocol is a communication protocol. It is normally used as an
alternative for TCP/IP. However there are a number of differences between them. UDP
does not divide data into packets. Also, UDP does not send data packets in
sequence. Hence, the application program must ensure the sequencing. UDP uses port
numbers to distinguish user requests. It also has a checksum capability to verify
the data.

70 :: TCP vs. UDP.

TCP guarantees the delivery of data. UDP on the other hand, does not guarantee
delivery of data. TCP delivers messages in the order they were sent. UDP has no
ordering mechanisms. In TCP data is sent as a stream while UDP sends data as
individual packets. UDP is faster than TCP. TCP is a connection oriented protocol
while UDP is connectionless.

71 :: What is Trusted and Untrusted Networks?

Trusted networks:
Such Networks allow data to be transferred transparently. The machines using a
trusted network are usually administered by an Administrator to ensure that private
and secured data is not leaked. Access to this network is limited. Computers using
trusted networks are more secured and confidential because of strong firewalls.

Untrusted networks:
Such networks are usually administered by the owners. They can allow improper
access to sensitive or personal data. These machines are usually separate. Such
machines could me more prone to attacks.

72 :: What is VPN (Virtual Private network)?

Virtual Private network is a network that used the public telecommunication
infrastructure. This means that it used public wires to connect the nodes. E.g.
Internet. VPN supports remote access to computers and allow data to be transmitted
over this public network. Even though the data is transmitted over a public
network, encryption and decrypting data to ensure security.

73 :: What are the different types of VPN?

* Remote Access VPN:- Also called as Virtual Private dial-up network (VPDN) is
mainly used in scenarios where remote access to a network becomes essential. Remote
access VPN allows data to be accessed between a company�s private network and
remote users through a third party service provider; Enterprise service provider.
E.g Sales team is usually present over the globe. Using Remote access VPN, the
sales updates can be made.
* Site to Site VPN � Intranet based: This type of VPN can be used when multiple
Remote locations are present and can be made to join to a single network. Machines
present on these remote locations work as if they are working on a single network.
* Site to Site VPN � Extranet based: This type of VPN can be used when several
different companies need to work in a shared environment. E.g. Distributors and
service companies. This network is more manageable and reliable.

74 :: What are the different authentication methods used in VPNs?

The authentication method uses an authentication protocol. The methods are:

* EAP authentication method: Extensible authentication protocol authenticates

remote access connection. The authentication mechanism is decided between the
remote VPN client and authenticator (ISA). The mechanism is typical in which
authenticator requests for authentication information and the responses are given
by the remote VPN client.
* MS Chap Authentication method: Microsoft Challenge Handshake Authentication
Protocol (MS-CHAP) starts with the authenticator (Remote access server) challenge.
The challenge to the remote access client sends a session identifier and challenge
string. The client in response sends the nonreversible encryption of the string,
the identifier and password. Authenticator checks the credentials and grants access
on a successful authentication.
* Unencrypted passwords (PAP):- Uses plain text passwords. Does not involve
encryption. Used for less secure clients.
* Shiva Password Authentication Protocol (SPAP):- It is a password authentication
protocol. It is less secure as the same user password is always sent in the same
reversibly encrypted form

75 :: What is Tunneling?
Tunneling is a mechanism provided to transfer data securely between two networks.
The data is split into smaller packets and passed through the tunnel. The data
passing through the tunnel has 3 layers of encryption. The data is encapsulated.
Tunneling can be approached by Point to Point tunneling protocol.

76 :: What are voluntary and compulsory tunnels?

Voluntary Tunneling:
Users computer is an end point of the tunnel and acts as tunnel client. Here the
client or user issues a request to configure and create a voluntary tunnel. They
require a dial up or LAN connection. Example of dial up connection is internet at
home where a call is made to the ISP and connection is obtained.

Compulsory tunneling:
In compulsory tunneling, instead of the user a vpn remote access server configures
and creates a tunnel. Hence, the end point is the Remote sever not the user.

77 :: Explain static and dynamic tunnels.

Tunnels that are created manually are static tunnels. Tunnels that are auto
discovered are dynamic tunnels. In dynamic tunneling, tcp connections can be
checked dynamically. If no connections exist that are routed through the tunnel, a
check for more suitable gateway can be done. Static tunneling may at times require
dedicated equipments.

78 :: Describe the concept of Subneting.

Subneting is a process of breaking the network into smaller units. These units care
called as subnets. Here a subnet could be several machines in a single LAN.
Networks using IP can create sub networks of logical addresses. With every IP
address there some of the bits in the machine can be used to identify a specific
subnet. The IP address then contains three parts: the network number, the subnet
number, and the machine number

79 :: Explain the advantages of using Subneting.

Advantages of using Subneting:-

* Easier network management and trouble shooting

* Routing table�s size is reduced which means faster network transfers
* Solves network congestion problems:- Since the complete network is divided into
smaller networks
* Network addresses can be decentralized e.g. the administrator of the network can
monitor the subnet

80 :: What is custom Subneting?

Subnets that can be customized; i.e. modifying the dividing point between subnet ID
and host ID to suit the needs of our network. The subnet mask that we use when
creating a customized subnet is, called a custom subnet mask. This custom subnet
mask is used to find the customization.

81 :: Explain the importance of increasing and decreasing subnet bits.

Adding 1�s as a bit means increasing the subnets and decreasing the hosts. Removing
or decreasing 1�s means decreasing subnets and increasing hosts. Hence by
increasing or decreasing the subnet architecture can be decided as per needs.

82 :: Why do we need a subnet mask?

A subnet mask allows identification of host part and network part of an IP address.
Subnet mask can be used to find if an IP address is present on a subnet or not.

83 :: What is RTP?

Real-Time Transfer Protocol lays a standard or a way to transfer or manage real

time data over a network. It does not guarantee the delivery of data or provide any
quality of service. However it helps to manage the data. Which means that RTP can
be used deliver the necessary data to the application to make sure it can put the
received packets in the correct order Real time data examples could be audio and
video

84 :: What is RTP Multiplexing?

RTP multiplexing allows multiple media flows within a single RTP data payload
between two points. This means that it can be used to carry multiple streams of
data in one RTP packet. RTP multiplexing will reduce the bandwidth used. RTP
multiplexing will also increase scalability.

85 :: Explain the use of RTP and RTCP protocols.

Use of RTP and RTCP:-

1. RTP can be used to transfer Real time data like voice packets.
2. RTP can be used with RTCP which makes it possible to monitor data.
3. Packet loss can be detected by RTP using Sequence number

RTCP provides Qos feedback :- Packets lost, round trip time

86 :: Describe the format of RTP and RTCP packets.

The 32 bits of RTP packet format is as follows:- (L to R)

Bit 0-1:- Indicates version, currently 2

Bit 2:- P- indicates padding bytes
Bit 3:- X- Indicates presence of extension header
Bit 4-7:- CC- Contains number of CSRC identifiers that follows the header
Bit 8:- M- Current data has some special relevance (if set)
Bit 9-15:- PT- Indicates format of payload
Bit 16-31:- Sequence number
Timestamp: - 32bits � time stamp of packet
SSRC- Synchronization source identifier uniquely identifies the source of a stream.
CSRC -Contributing source IDs enumerate contributing sources to a stream which has
been generated from multiple sources
Extension header: - first 32 bit word contains profile specific identifier and
length specifier

The 32 bits of RTCP header format is as follows:- (L to R)

Bit 0-1:- Indicates version, currently 2
Bit 2:- P- indicates padding bytes
Bit 3 to 7:- Count of number of reception report blocks
Bit 8 to 15:- Type: - Determined RTCP packet type. Type can take values from 0 to
255
16 to 31:- Length- Length of RTCP packet - 1
SR: - Sender Report for transmission and reception from active senders
RR: - Receiver report for reception from in active senders
SDES: - Source description items
BYE- indicates end of participation
APP: - Application specific functions

87 :: What is multicasting?
Multicasting allows a single message to be sent to a group of recipients. Emailing,
teleconferencing, are examples of multicasting. It uses the network infrastructure
and standards to send messages.

88 :: Define IP multicast.
IP multicast technology reduces traffic by sending stream of information to many
recipients at one go. Video conferencing, stock quotas are the examples based on IP
multicast.

89 :: Describe how the multicast protocol works.

Multicast protocol or Internet protocol delivers a singles message to multiple
machines. One packet from the source is replicated and sent to the destination.
Every multicast message requires a multi case group. The group defines the
addresses which will receive the message. The group is defined by the class D
address. Different routing protocols are used to find the multicast groups and
build routes for them. Distance Vector Multicast protocol is one of them. The
receiver, to whom the multicast packet is sent to, needs to �join� the group.
Joining the group is enabled and managed by IGMP. Multicast routers are used to
transmit the messages from one network to another.

90 :: Describe how to control the scope of multicast transmissions.

Controlling the scope of multicast transmission restricts the range of group
members. TTL (Time To Live) is one of the mechanisms to limit the scope. If the TTL
value is small, packets would only be multicast to smaller distance destinations.
More the value of TTL, more would be the scope of transmission to a larger number
of machines. Administrative scoping is another mechanism. In this, transmission is
restricted to a specific address space of an organization or a site.

91 :: Explain why use Multicasting.

* a. When the same message or packet needs to be sent to multiple destinations,
multicasting is used.
* b. Within campus and offices, using multicasting file distribution can be done.
* c. System messages, news and videos can be sent at the same time.
* d. More commonly used for audio and video streaming.

92 :: What is the socket?

A socket is used to connect an application to a network protocol. A socket enables
communication between a client and a server. The communication is started when the
client is assigned a local port number, and binds a socket to it. The client writes
on the socket and gets information from server by reading it.

93 :: Datagram vs. stream.

Stream can be considered as a pipe that allows full duplex connection. A datagram
or a packet on the other hand, has a source and a destination. There is no
connection. Stream is like a communication channel while datagram is completely
self contained. Streams provide a reliable and sequenced communication. Datagram�s
on the other hand are unreliable and no sequence maintained.

94 :: What is a stream socket?

A stream socket provides two way communications between a client and server. This
communication is reliable and sequenced. Stream sockets are above TCP to run across
any networks. They provide unduplicated flow of data and have well established
mechanism for creating and destroying connections and for detecting errors.

95 :: How would you define IP address?

IP address or Internet Protocol address is the address of a device attached to an
IP network (TCP/IP network). It is a must for every client, server and network
device to have a unique IP address for each network connection (network interface).
Every IP packet contains a source IP address and a destination IP address. As a
device moves from one network to another, its IP address changes.

96 :: Difference between Static and Dynamic IP.

Static IP is also called as permanent address assigned to each device in a network,
whereas Dynamic IP, a temporary address assigned to the device via DHCP software.
IP address assigned to your service by your cable or DSL Internet provider is
typically dynamic IP. In routers and operating systems, the default configuration
for clients is dynamic IP

97 :: What is the difference between public and private IP?

A public IP address allows equipment accessible to everyone on the internet. A
private IP address is for private use within the network and allows many more PCs
to be connected. If you are using a private IP and wants VOIP, you need to change
to a public IP address.

98 :: What is Network Address Translation?

Network Address Translation acts as an agent between the Internet and a local
network. It is a dynamic method which is used to minimize Internet connectivity
needs. Network address translation describes the rewriting of the Internet Protocol
(IP) addresses of data packets so that multiple transmissions require only one IP
address.

99 :: Define IP multicast.
IP multicast technology reduces traffic by sending stream of information to many
recipients at one go. Video conferencing, stock quotas are the examples based on IP
multicast.

100 :: What is subneting?

Subnet adds one level to the way IP address is represented. It logically organizes
the network. For instance, it can logically group computers belongs to the finance
department.

101 :: What is Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)?

Address Resolution Protocol ARP, is responsible for mapping an IP address to its
corresponding physical network address. It is mostly seen on Ethernet network.

102 :: Explain Maximum Transfer Unit, MTU.

MTU specifies the largest amount of data that can be transferred across a network.

103 :: What is Routing Protocol?

Routing protocol is the way to send routing information between any routers in an
autonomous system.

104 :: Explain the structure and use of internet addresses.

Each IP address is 32 bit long. In human language the IP addresses are written in
dotted decimal notation. These are then converted to binary by the computer. Each
IP address has two parts: Network identifier or a network ID and host ID. The
current internet protocol standard is IPV4. The IP addresses are divided into three
classes: a class A network, a class B network, and a class C network. Class A being
the largest. The four digit numbers in an IPV4 address, each network of class A
will have different first number, and then its network will be addressed by the
rest of the three numbers, or three bytes. The IP addresses identify a machine to
deliver packets and load web pages.

105 :: Explain how names are translated (resolved) into IP address.

Domain Name server or DNS is used to resolve names into IP addresses. When a web
address is entered into the browser, the DNS client sends a request to the DNS
server to find the corresponding IP address for the name. The DNS server receives
this request and searches for the corresponding IP address in the database. If at
this point the resolution fails, this server sends this request to the parent
server. The request keeps going up the hierarchy to the parent servers or the
closest authoritative of the DNS server to resolve the address. If the request
times out an error is retuned to the client. If the server is able to resolve the
name requested, it passes the information back to the client. The next request sent
by the client is to request for a web page for the IP address

106 :: Describe the basics of the internet routing.

When a source sends a packet to a destination, this packet has a specific path or
route it follows. Different routing protocols are used to find the shortest path to
the destination. The protocols maintain routing tables. Routing tables consist of a
set of rules used to determine where these packets will travel. When a packet is
received, a network device examines the packet and matches it to the routing table
entry providing the best match for its destination. The packet keeps hopping until
it reaches its destination.

107 :: What are the the core naming mechanism, Domain Name System (DNS)?
A Domain Name system is used to convert the names of the website on the internet to
IP addresses. The domain names for each IP addresses are stored in a database that
is distributed across different servers. A domain name space consists of a tree of
domain names. The tree has zones. Zones consist of a collection of connected nodes.
These nodes are served by a name server. A domain name is usually in the form of
mydomain.com. Here, .com is the top level domain. Where as mydomain is the sub
domain or subdivision. A host name is a domain name that has one or more IP
addresses associated with it.

108 :: How many types of networks are there?

Types of network based on geographic are LAN, CAN, MAN, WAN Based on Server OS
nature Centralized [domain] model or peer-to-peer [workgroup] model based on media
like arcnet, Ethernet, token ring, wireless etc.

109 :: What is a proxy server?

A proxy server is a process that acts like a switchboard through a firewall to
manage the various types of permitted communications with the outside world. Proxy
servers may also use caching to make communications more efficient.

110 :: What is networking?

Networking is the engineering discipline concerned with communication between
computer systems or devices.

111 :: If you have 10 systems, what would you connect it with? Switch or hub?
To connect 10 systems we can use either switch or hub. As switch is better because,
it does unicasting whereas, Hub does broadcasting. In addition, we have to select
star, bus, ring topology.

112 :: What is class-A, B, C, D IP address in detail?

A: 1-126 127 it's a Loopback IP B: 128-191 c: 192-223 d: 223-247 Multicasting IP's

113 :: What is mean by spare ware? What is the difference between spare ware and
anti virus?
A spare ware is software that monitors the user's behavior and anti-virus is
software that protects the system from viruses.

114 :: How do we repair .pst file?

"Scanpst*.*" searches the file in your C: then run this program. Then you can
repair your .pst files.

115 :: What is an IP address and what is the use of it?

IP address is a protocol, which can define to each pc. IP address is a path of
network to flow.

116 :: What is multi casting?

Multicasting refers to a system, where a computers or network devices (node) sends
out a message to a group of computers or network devices (node) in a network.

117 :: What is VLAN?

To reduce broadcast we use VLAN. By default switch has unique vlan1. There are two
types of VLAN membership 1) static VLAN membership 2) dynamic VLAN membership.
118 :: Which features make Ethernet stand better than Internet?

The speed is first feature upon which Ethernet is better than Internet Others
features are direct access to computers.

119 :: From which DHCP server is the client going to take IP, if 2 DHCP servers are
present in Network?
There will not be two DHCP servers in one network.

120 :: What is protocol?

It is a set of rules to communicate between computers. Alternatively, the language
the computer speaks to communicate between none to node said to be protocol.

126 :: What is mean by Client?

Client is a system which houses the Client operating system like windows
95/98/me/2000professional/xp in the LAN and sharing the resources from the server.

127 :: Define networking.

In information technology, a network is a series of points or nodes interconnected
by communication paths. Networks can interconnect with other networks and contain
sub networks.

128 :: Users are complaining of delay when using the network. How would you resolve
it?
Mostly the physical layer is responsible for the delay in the network, so first
check the connection and if still it does not work,call a network administrator
from some reputed company.

129 :: Why do we use bit stuffing and character stuffing?

The flag bits in the data link layer are of the form 01111110. If there is data
that takes the same form, it will be misinterpreted as a flag bit. In order to
avoid this we stuff additional bits at the sending end and de-stuff the same at the
receiving end.

130 :: Can a single VLAN accommodate 254 computers?

Yes, only thing we need is a pc having ip add. In same subnet (e.g. 192.168.10.1
to192.168.10.254)

131 :: What is leased line modem? How it works in ISP?

Modem which works on isdn line, which is leased from some ISP, it is a point-to-
point connection, very helpful for taking backup by the high end user as it is
faster.

132 :: Is the client a server at a particular point of time? If yes then why what
is it called?
No. client is not a server at a particular point of time. However, in some other
time it may act as a server depending upon its configuration.

133 :: What is RIP what is the use of RIP?

RIP (routing information protocol) is a distance vector dynamic routing protocol.
It is used where there is less number of routers.Its max hop count is 15. It
broadcast its entire routing information in every 30 seconds. It is a class full
routing protocol.RIP version 2 is a classless routing protocol.

134 :: What is the bandwidth of a Switch and a Hub?

Hub bandwidth is 10 mbps; While Switch Bandwidth is 100 mbps.

135 :: Why we use cross cable to connect same devices?

Same devices like PC-2-PC, it uses (NIC for PC) 1, 2 for transmission 3, 6 for
reception. If we do not use cross cable then we cannot transfer data.While in the
case of switch/hub they receive (NIC of SWITCH/HUB) data on 1, 2 transmit on 3,
6.That is why we use straight cable for de-similar host cross cable for similar
hosts.

136 :: What is the difference between unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and Shielded
twisted pair (STP)?
The most commonly used form of twisted pair is unshielded twisted pair (UTP). It is
just two insulated wires twisted together. Any data communication cables and normal
telephone cables are this type. Shielded twisted pair (STP) differs from UTP in
that it has a foil jacket that helps prevent crosstalk and noise from outside
source. In data communications there is a cable type called FTP (foil-shielded
pairs) which consists of four twisted pair inside one common shield (made of
aluminum foil).

137 :: What is difference between ISDN and ATM?

ISDN is an example of Circuit switching but ATM is Packet Switching or Cell
switching.

138 :: Why is OSI model layered?

It provides a structural approach to troubleshoot an issue.

139 :: What is the difference between Client and desktop Operating systems?
Desktop operating system is a standalone operating system, able to perform all
operations and requests independently. Client o/s cannot do that, moreover client
uses all s/w via requests to servers. A node connected to server (Linux concept).

140 :: What is the difference between L3 Switch and Router, if they perform the
same function why do we need both of them?
Layer 3 switches do routing with ASIC chips. Routers do it with a microprocessor
and its associated software. Therefore, the Layer 3 switches are much faster than
traditional but cost more. We need them both because in many situations a slow
router is sufficient and cheaper than a gigabit layer 3-switch router.

141 :: A person would like to access a file on another computer (connected via LAN)
while working with safe mode. What should he do?
Start the computer with "safe mode with networking". While starting the computer
press F8� and four five option will come choose the above option then hope you will
access that particular file through LAN.

142 :: Explain distance vector routing algorithm with the help of suitable example.
Distance Vector Routing Algorithms calculate a best route to reach a destination
based solely on distance. E.g., RIP. RIP calculates the reach ability based on hop
count. It is different from link state algorithms, which consider some other
factors like bandwidth and other metrics to reach a destination. Distance vector
routing algos are not preferable for complex networks and take longer to converge.

143 :: What are the features of BGP Protocol? How it is different to other protocol
Border Gateway Protocol is the core routing protocol .It works by maintaining a
table of IP networks, which designate network reach ability among autonomous
systems (AS). It is described as a path vector protocol BGP does not use
traditional IGP metrics, but makes routing decisions based on path, network
policies, and/or rule sets. BGP replace the EGP routing protocol to allow fully
decentralized routing in order to allow the removal of the NSFNet internet backbone
network.

144 :: User(s) are complaining of delays when using the network. What would you do?
1. If you are using a hub, replacing that with switches will reduce the delay in
case many users simultaneously access the network, copy files etc.2. Firewalls and
antivirus software's cause network delay. If you have some AV of firewalls
installed, uninstall it and check the speed. If you find improvement, u can install
a better AV although that will cause delay to some extent.3. Virus / malwares cause
network delay. Reinstall the OS, use some updated AV, and check it.4. If you mean
delay in Internet connectivity then you have to go for greater bandwidth.

145 :: What is the difference between TCP/IP and NETBEUI protocol?

The main difference is that NetBEUI is a non-routable protocol so there is no
moving packet from one network to another; TCP/IP on the other hand is routable so
you can connect multiple networks to share info and Frag! The internet is a bunch
of TCP/IP networks connected together!

146 :: What is spanning tree? How does it work in VLAN?

Spanning tree protocols main takes is to stop network loops from occurring on your
layer 2 networks. Network loops create broadcast storms and are responsible for
additional overhead on the network.

147 :: What is HPOV? How does it work? What are its monitoring tools?
HP Open View is a suite of business computer management or "e-services" programs
from Hewlett-Packard, which states that the suite is "among the world's 20 largest
software businesses". The Open View programs HP 9000 and e3000 business server
customers. An HP customer's IT professionals can use Open View to manage
applications, device availability, network conditions and status, system
performance, service and program maintenance, and storage resources.

148 :: What is DHCP Server?

DHCP is used to assign IP address (which are defined in scope only) automatically
to the system in the network. It makes life very much easier than previous WINS
Server. In addition, it provides Static IPs to whatever server require like DNS
FTP.

149 :: Explain practical uses of Active Directory. What is printer server?

Active directory as per name it is the directory of active objects in you Domain.
Active directory first time introduced in windows 2000 family, in active directory,
we can maintain all user records, printer, computer, groups, and OU records.
Through active directory we can easily maintained or controlled all the domain
resources. Active directory installed when you configure your server as Domain
server.Printer Server on which machine printer attached physically and shared for
everyone and you can specify permission and priority settings as per environment.
Through printer, we can keep records like printing copies per user on many things.

150 :: What is Protocol? How many types of Protocols are there?

Protocol usually refers to a set of rules that define an exact format for
communication between systems. For example, the HTTP protocol defines the format
for communication between web browsers and web servers, the IMAP protocol defines
the format for communication between IMAP email servers and clients, and the SSL
protocol defines a format for encrypted communications over the Internet.
151 :: Can we have two DHCP servers within one network? If not, why? If yes, will
the IP address conflict?
No, we cannot have two DHCP servers in one network, coz it provide IP address to
the clients. If two servers are supposed to distribute at a time there will be a
conflict of the given and reserved IP addresses between two distribution points.

152 :: What is pulse code modulation?

(PCM) a way to convert sound or analog information to binary information (0s and
1s) by taking samples of the sound and record the resulting number as binary
information. Used on all CDs, DVD-Audio, and just about every other digital audio
format. You can see on DVD-Video.

153 :: What is the full form of "ping" (network command)?

PING Stands for Packet Inter Net Gopher.

154 :: What is intra-VLAN how does it work. Where do we create a VLAN if we enable
one trucking on each side of switch. What is supernating?

Virtual LANs (VLANs) divide one physical network into multiple broadcast domains.
However, VLAN-enabled switches cannot by themselves, forward traffic across VLAN
boundaries. Therefore, you need to have routing between these VLANs, which is
inter- VLAN routing. You can achieve this by using either a Layer 3 switch or a
router.Host Portion Borrowed From Network Portion is Called SUPERNATING

155 :: What is the difference between networking and remote networking?

The main difference between networking and remote n/w, is the network which we use
in offices or other places locally such LAN or INTRANET and remote n/wkg is one in
which we use RAS or TERMINAL Services to communicate with the remote users such WAN
or EXTRANET.

156 :: Why do we need IP address when the MAC address is unique? Cant we
communicate only with the MAC address?
MAC address is the basis on which communication occurs. However, we need IP address
to be able to create a routing table, which enables faster communication. Many
communication algorithms take use of IP addresses (Network address + Subnet masks)
to be able to route packages faster.

157 :: What is difference between Domain and Work group?

Workgroup:

1. All computers are peers; no computer has control over another computer.
2. Each computer has a set of user accounts. To use any computer in the workgroup,
you must have an account on that computer.
3. There are typically no more than ten to twenty computers.
4. All computers must be on the same local network or subnet.

Domain:

1. One or more computers are servers. Network administrators use servers to control
the security and permissions for all computers on the domain. This makes it easy to
make changes because the changes made to all computers.
2. If you have a user account on the domain, you can log on to any computer on the
domain without needing an account on that computer.
3. There can be hundreds or thousands of computers.
4. The computers can be on different local networks.

158 :: What is the difference between packet switched, cell switched and circuit
switched technology?
Packet switch: here the packets send by the user takes different path each time it
is send.

Circuit switch: here the packets are send through a virtual connection is this
every packet from a sender at a particular time is send through that dedicated path
only

Cell switch: in ATM jargon the packets are called are cells

159 :: What is Frame Relay?

Frame relay is a packet switching technology. It will operate in the data link
layer.

160 :: Difference between subnet masks and default gateway

Subnet mask is nothing but a playing of network and Default gateway is communicate
to one network to another network given to router all pc in the network communicate
to that particular default IP address

161 :: What is difference between TCP/IP and UDP?

TCP - Transfer Control Protocol is:a. Reliableb. Connection oriented.c.
Acknowledgement

UDP - User Datagram Protocol is none of the above.

162 :: What is thhe difference between public IP and private IP?

Public IP are the IP that can be accessed by every onetime very user has the access
to this IP's e.g. yahoo.com, google.com etc are the pubic IPs.

Private IP's are the IP that are accessed by every one, I.e. they are excessively
owned by an organization, only the user of that organization has the access to this
IP's.

Ranges of private IP address are

Class A 10.0.0.1 to 10.255.255.254

Class B 172.16.0.1 to 172.31.255.254

Class C 192.0.0.1 to 192.255.255.254

Excluding imps are public IP's.

163 :: What is the difference between BRI and PRI Port?

BRI PORT -2B Chan1D Chan (Basic rate Interface)

1B----64kbps

1D ----16Kbps

PRI Port----24Bchan 1D Chan (primary rate Interface)

164 :: What is RAS Server?
Remote Access services (RAS) on Wide Area Network (WAN) Connection.

165 :: Why do we use Subnet mask? What are its uses?

Subnet mask is use to isolate the network ID and Host ID. e.g. - if an IP is
192.168.0.1 then the default subnet is 255.255.255.0 because it is a C Class
Address C Class Add. Have three network octate and one host octate i.e.

Network ID: 192.168.0.0

Host ID : 0.0.0.1

171 :: What is the time complexity of matrix multiplication?

void Mult_Matrix(matrix A, matrix B, matrix C){int i, j, k;for ( i = 1; i < N; i+
+)for ( j = 1; j < N; j++ ){C[i][j] = 0;for ( k = 0; k < N; k++ )C[i][j] = A[i]
[j]*B[k][j];}return;}

The time complexity of matrix multiplication is O (N^3)

172 :: What is the null pointer in C++?

The null pointer is a special C++ pointer value that can be any pointer does not
point anywhere. It is the constant NULL form stlib.h

173 :: What is the goal of the shortest distance algorithm?

The goal is completely fill the distance array so that for each vertex v, the value
of distance[v] is the weight of the shortest path from start to v.

174 :: What is the difference between an abstract class and an interface?

An abstract class may have fields and some implemented methods. An interface has no
implementation, only constants and method declarations.

175 :: Describe how the DHCP lease is obtained.

It is a four-step process consisting of (a) IP request, (b) IP offer, � IP
selection, and (d) acknowledgement

76 :: I cannot seem to access the Internet, do not have any access to the corporate
network and on ip configuration my address is 169.254.*.*. What happened?
The 169.254.*.* netmask is assigned to Windows machines running 98/2000/XP if the
DHCP server is not available. The name for the technology is APIPA (Automatic
Private Internet Protocol Addressing).

177 :: We have installed a new Windows-based DHCP server, however, the users do not
seem to be getting DHCP leases off it.
The server should authorize first with the Active Directory.

178 :: How can you force the client to give up the DHCP lease if you have access to
the client PC?
Ipconfig /release

179 :: What authentication options do Windows 2000 Servers have for remote clients?
Windows 2000 Servers have PAP, SPAP, CHAP, MS-CHAP and EAP.

180 :: What are the networking protocol options for the Windows clients if for some
reason you do not want to use TCP/IP?
NWLink (Novell), NetBEUI, AppleTalk (Apple)

181 :: What is data link layer in the OSI reference model responsible? Data link
layer is located above the physical layer, but below the network layer.
Taking raw data bits and packaging them into frames. The network layer will be
responsible for addressing the frames, while the physical layer is responsible for
retrieving and sending raw data bits.

182 :: What is binding order?

The order by which the network protocols are used for client-server communications
is binding order. The most frequently used protocols should be at the top.

183 :: How do cryptography-based keys ensure the validity of data transferred

across the network?
Each IP packet is assigned a checksum, so if the checksums do not match on both
receiving and transmitting ends, the data was modified or corrupted.

184 :: Should we deploy IPSEC-based security or certificate-based security?

They are really two different technologies. IPSec secures the TCP/IP communication
and protects the integrity of the packets. Certificate-based security ensures the
validity of authenticated clients and servers.

185 :: What is LMHOSTS file?

It is a file stored on a host machine, which is used to resolve NetBIOS to specific
IP addresses

186 :: What is the difference between forward lookup and reverse lookup in DNS?
Forward lookup is name-to-address; the reverse lookup is address-to-name.

187 :: How can you recover a file encrypted using EFS?

Use the domain recovery agent.

188 :: What is UTP?

UTP - unshielded twisted pair 10BASE-T is the preferred Ethernet medium of the 90s.
It is based on a star topology. It provides a number of advantages over coaxial
media.

It uses inexpensive, readily available copper phone wire. UTP wire is much easier
to install and debug than coax. UTP uses RG-45 connectors, which are cheap and
reliable.

189 :: What is a router? What is a gateway?

Routers are machines that direct a packet through the maze of networks that stand
between its source and destination. Normally a router is used for internal networks
while a gateway acts a door for the packet to reach the 'outside' of the internal
network.

190 :: What is Semaphore? What is deadlock?

Semaphore is synchronization tool to solve critical-section problem, can be used to
control access to the critical section for a process or thread. The main
disadvantage (same of mutual-exclusion) is requiring busy waiting. It will create
problems in a multiprogramming system, where a single CPU is shared among many
processes.

Busy waiting wastes CPU cycles.

Deadlock is a situation when two or more processes are waiting indefinitely for an
event that can be caused by only one of the waiting processes. The implementation
of a semaphore with a waiting queue may result in this situation.
192 :: What is difference between NAT and PAT?
NAT is Network address Translation (IP address translate from local IP to global IP
and vice versa)PAT is Port address translation (port are translate from local to
global IP's) like on port 8080 web service port 80 will work on PAT. It is more
over NAT only.

196 :: What is active Directory? What is main role in windows 2003 server?
Active directory is the main part of 2003 server. The active directory installing
the computer all hosts provide rooming service. In addition, user all information
contain in the active directory.

197 :: What is the TCP/IP protocol number?

IP number is a data transfer and without IP number, not any handle data and without
tcp not transfer the data. In addition, not reached the data will not transfer.

198 :: What is the command to start a service in Windows from command line?
Start-Run-Type CMD -- Then type below command in commandPrompt Net stop <service
name> Net start "<service>"

199 :: How do you check the listening ports on a windows box Command line?
Netstat-a : displays IP, listening port idsNetstat /? : help

200 :: What are the services primitives present in CN?

1. Request
2. Indication
3. Response
4. Confirmation

201 :: Why does blue screen of death occur while installing the windows XP or any
other OS installation?
This situation occurs when the minimum hardware requirements of OS is not
sufficient then blue screen appears.

202 :: What is uplink?

It is the technical term for data transmission in the direction from the subscriber
to the network. Or rather, back to the provider or Internet provider. It is called
as back channel. The opposite transmission direction, the 'transmission channel',
is called the 'uplink' in technical jargon.

203 :: What is patch panel? What is the use?

A panel of network ports contained together, usually within a telecommunications
closet that connects incoming and outgoing lines of a LAN or other communication,
electronic or electrical system. In a LAN, the patch panel connects the network's
computers to each other and to the outside lines that enable the LAN to connect to
the Internet or another WAN. Connections are made with patch cords. The patch panel
allows circuits to be arranged and rearranged by plugging and unplugging the patch
cords.

204 :: What are the most typical functional units of the Client/Server
applications?
User interface

# Business Logic and

# Shared data
205 :: TP Monitor does mainly two things extremely well. They are Process
management and Transaction management.
They were originally introduced to run classes of applications that could service
hundreds and sometimes thousands of clients. TP Monitors provide an OS - on top of
existing OS - that connects in real time
these thousands of humans with a pool of shared server processes.