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NETWORK SYNTHESIS
PRENTICE-HALL ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING SERIES
W. L. Everitt, Ph.D., Editor
Anner Elements of Television Systems
Balabanian Network Synthesis
Benedict Introduction to Industrial Electronics
Davis and Weed Industrial Electronic Engineering
Fett Feedback Control Systems
Fich Transient Analysis in Electrical Engineering
Goldman Information Theory
Goldman Transformation Calculus and Electrical Transients
Hershberoer Principles of Communication Systems
Jordan Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating Systems
Lo, Endres, Zawels, Waldhauer and Cheno Transistor Electronics
Martin Electronic Circuits
Martin Physical Basis for Electrical Engineering
Martin Ultrahigh Frequency Engineering
Moskowitz and Racker Pulse Techniques
Nixon Principles of Automatic Controls
Pumphrey Electrical Engineering, 2d ed.
Pumphrey Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering
Reed Electric Network Synthesis
Rideout Active Networks
Ryder Electronic Engineering Principles, 2d ed.
Ryder Electronic Fundamentals and Applications
Ryder Networks, Lines, and Fields, 2d ed.
Sbedd Fundamentals of Electromagnetic Waves
Skroder and Helm Circuit Analysis by Laboratory Methods, 2d ed.
Stout Basic Electrical Measurements
Vail Circuits in Electrical Engineering
van der Ziel Noise
van der Ziel Solid Stale Physical Electronics
Van Valkenburo Network Analysis
Von Tersch and Swaoo Recurrent Electrical Transients
Ward Introduction to Electrical Engineering, 2d ed.
NETWORK SYNTHESIS
By
NORMAN BALABANIAN
Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering
Syracuse University
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
PRENTICE-HALL, INC
1958
fngin. Library
TK
©—1958, BY
PRENTICK-IIALL, INC.
ENGLEWOOD CLIFFS, X. J.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART OF THIS BOOK
MAY BE REPRODUCED IN ANY FORM, BY MIMEO-
GRAPH OR ANY OTHER MEANS, WITHOUT PERMIS-
SION IN WRITING FROM THE PUBLISHERS.
Library of Congress Catalog Card No.: 5S-11650
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATER OF AMERICA
HI 104
DEDICATION
This book is dedicated to the principle that the
problems which arise in human affairs, in all areas
of activity, can best be solved by the mutual coopera-
tion of human beings relying on their own intellec-
tual and spiritual resources.
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Preface
This book is designed as a graduate level textbook in that portion of linear
electric network theory which is known as synthesis. It is assumed that
the reader will be familiar with elementary Laplace transform theory,
elementary properties of matrices, and functions of a complex variable at
a level comparable with that of Churchill's Complex Variables and Appli-
cations, or LePage's Complex Variables in Linear System Analysis.
The book is intended for the serious student, one not merely interested
in a parade of techniques for network design, but who desires to achieve
a depth of understanding in the subject. Emphasis is placed on establish-
ing realizability conditions for various classes of networks and network
functions. Then, methods are developed for realizing one or more networks
whenever a function of the given class is prescribed. Several of the topics
treated have not previously appeared in book form. Among these are the
realizability conditions and synthesis techniques of Fialkow and Gerst,
and the Ozaki realization procedure.
The first chapter constitutes a survey of such topics in network analysis
which will be important in the later development. The groundwork is laid
for deriving the properties of the driving point impedance and admittance
functions, as well as those of the open-circuit impedance and short-circuit
admittance matrices, by expressing these in terms of the stored and dissi-
pated energy functions.
One-port realizations are treated in Chapters 2 and 3. Networks with
two kinds of elements are discussed in Chapter 2, while general RLC net-
works are reserved for Chapter 3. Discussion of Darlington's method is
deferred until after the exposition of lossless two-port synthesis. Chapter 4
is devoted to establishing necessary realizability conditions on transfer
functions of various classes of networks, the classification depending on
the type of elements and the network structure.
The next four chapters, constituting approximately one-half of the en-
tire book, are devoted to transfer function synthesis. Chapters 5 and 6
treat the case of lossless two-ports. These are followed by a discussion of
viii PREFACE
RC two-ports in Chapter 7 and, finally, general RLC two-ports in Chapter 8.
The final chapter considers the approximation problem in the frequency
domain. This chapter, unlike the preceding ones, does not give a complete
treatment of the topic specified in the chapter heading. There are several
reasons for this, and they have been discussed in the introduction of
the chapter. However, the relatively simple topics which are included
in the chapter have not been given a cursory treatment. On the contrary,
the same depth of understanding has been sought as for the preceding
material.
It is impossible to give adequate credit to all the people who have
contributed directly or indirectly to this book. The bibliography, which
is far from exhaustive, partially serves this purpose. In addition, I would
like to express my indebtedness to Dr. Wilbur R. LePage, my teacher
and colleague, with whom over the years I have spent countless hours
discussing the mysteries of network theory. Special thanks are due Dr.
Jerome Blackman of the Department of Mathematics, Syracuse University
and Mr. Makoto Sugisaki for their many valuable suggestions while read-
ing the manuscript.
Syracuse, New York Norman Balabanian
Contents
INTRODUCTION 1
1. FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY 5
1-1. Network analysis 5
1-2. One-ports and two-ports 9
1-3. Transfer functions of two-port" 13
1-4. Magnitude and frequency normalizations 21
1-5. Interconnections of two-ports 23
1-6. Energy functions 27
1-7. Properties of network functions 31
Problems 33
2. SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS WITH TWO KINDS OF
ELEMENTS 38
2-1. Lossless one-ports 38
2-2. Synthesis of lossless one-ports 43
2-3. RC one-ports 52
2-4. RL one-ports 60
2-5. Summary of properties of two element one-ports 62
Problems 63
3. SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 67
3-1. Properties of positive real functions 67
3-2. Testing for positive realness 77
3-3. Realization of positive real functions—preliminary 88
3-4. Brune realization 92
3-5. Bott-Dumn realization 104
3-6. Determination of a positive real function from its even part . 113
3-7. Miyata realization of a positive real function 117
Problems 130
4. PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS 137
4-1. Properties of general passive two-port functions 137
4-2. Two-ports with no magnetic coupling 143
ix
x CONTENTS
4-3. Lossless two-port functions 153
4-4. Magnitude and angle functions 157
4-5. Minimum-phase and all-pass functions 163
Problems 166
5. REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS 169
5-1. Symmetrical two-ports 169
5-2. Conversion of symmetrical lattice to unbalanced form ... 172
5-3. Synthesis for a prescribed Ya, Za, or TV 181
5-4. Transmission zeros on ju axis—ladder development .... 184
5-5. Parallel-ladders realization 194
Problems 201
6. INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS 205
6-1. Darlington synthesis 205
6-2. Prescribed insertion ratio 213
6-3. Cauer realization of lossless two-ports 220
6-4. Darlington realization of a lossless two-port 226
6-5. Low-pass ladder realization 230
6-6. Complementary networks—constant-resistance filter pairs . . 243
Problems 247
7. REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 249
7-1. Properties of RC two-port parameters 249
7-2. Synthesis for prescribed Yu(s), Za(s), or Ta(s) 252
7-3. Unbalanced symmetrical realization 255
7-4. Maximizing the gain constant 272
7-5. Extension to nonsymmetrical unbalanced forms 276
7-6. Realization in a tree structure 280
7-7. Ladder realization 290
7-8. Parallel-ladders realization 293
7-9. Cascade realization—Dasher 297
7-10. Zero-producing sections for complex transmission zeros . . . 305
7-11. Dasher synthesis—completed 310
7-12. Cascade synthesis—network partitioning 314
Problems 318
8. REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS 323
8-1. Constant-resistance lattice 323
8-2. Constant-resistance ladder 331
8-3. General lattice realization 338
8-4. Matrix-factorization methods . 343
CONTENTS xi
8-5. Nonminimum-phase functions—parallel-ladders realization . 352
8-6. Alternative parallel-ladders realization 357
8-7. Realization in a tree structure 365
Problems 371
THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM 375
9-1. Types of approximation 377
9-2. Filter characteristic—maximally flat response 381
9-3. Maximally flat delay 390
9-4. Filter characteristic—Tchebyscheff response 402
9-5. Transformations of the frequency variable 411
9-6. Predistortion 414
Problems 419
BIBLIOGRAPHY 423
INDEX 431
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Introduction
In this book we shall restrict ourselves to linear networks consisting of
lumped, bilateral, and passive elements. The reasons for such a restriction
are several. In the first place, many actual systems may be approximated
by such an ideal one, so that study of such systems is useful in its own
right. Secondly, concepts and techniques developed in such a study may
be taken over directly, or easily adapted, in other systems where one or
more of the idealizations are not valid. For example, when the "lumped"
restriction is removed, leading to a microwave system, many of the con-
cepts of lumped network synthesis still apply. Similar statements can
be made when the "linear" or "passive" restriction is removed. Finally,
the ideal system is the only one for whose solution general procedures
exist.
The problem of finding the response of a given network to one or more
excitation functions is solved by analyzing the network. The solution of
this problem can always be uniquely determined. In contrast to this case,
when both an excitation and a desired response are specified, and we are
asked to find a network having the specified response to the given ex-
citation, then we have a problem in network synthesis. One outstanding
characteristic of this inverse problem is that a unique solution does not
exist, if one exists at all The types of external characteristics that are
available for a given excitation from a linear, lumped, bilateral, and passive
network are certainly limited. Thus, at the outset of a synthesis problem,
we may be faced with the need for approximating a prescribed response
with one that we know is obtainable from such networks. This constitutes
the so-called approximatior problem.
The performance that is specified for the desired network may be either
in the frequency domain or the time domain. Of course, the time response
and the frequency response are related (through the Fourier and Laplace
transforms) and so specification of the one implies specification of the
other. However, recall that the first step in the synthesis process is to
construct an approximating function. Approximation implies error. If the
1
2 INTRODUCTION
approximation is performed in the time domain, the time domain error
can be controlled, while if the approximation is performed in the frequency
domain, the frequency domain error can be controlled. There exists no
simple relationship between these two errors. Hence, if the time response
is specified, with a tolerance on the permissible error, the approximation
must be performed in the time domain.
After the approximation problem is solved and a realizable network
function (driving point or transfer function) is at hand, there remains for
us to find a suitable network having the given function as its driving point
or transfer function. This is the realization problem. Consider what we
are faced with in this problem. On the one hand, there are various classes
of networks. These networks differ from each other by the number of
terminals available for external connection (one-ports, two-ports), by the
types of elements they contain (RC, LC, etc.), by their structure (ladder,
bridge, etc.), and so forth. On the other hand, there are various classes of
functions which are realizable as network functions. These functions
differ in the permissible locations of their poles or their zeros, the signs of
their residues or their real parts, and so forth.
Whenever it is discovered that a network class is paired off with a
function class, so that if any member of the network class is analyzed it
leads to a member of the function class, and any member of the function
class can be realized by a network belonging to the network class, then a
major breakthrough in network synthesis is achieved. Thus, the mile-
stones in network synthesis are marked by the discovery of necessary and
sufficient conditions for the realizability of a class of networks. A notable
example of such a breakthrough was the discovery, by Otto Brune in 1931,
that the driving point impedances of linear, passive, bilateral networks are
rational positive real functions of a complex variable, and that any rational
positive real function can be realized by such a network.
Proving sufficiency for the realizability of a function class by a network
class involves finding at least one network of the network class which
realizes any function in the function class. This network may not be
desirable from a practical standpoint, because of its structure, or because
it contains an excessive number of elements, or for other reasons. There
may actually be many other networks differing from the first one in several
respects—structure, type, size and number of elements, etc.—which
realize the function class. These constitute equivalent networks, and their
discovery is an important aspect of network synthesis. Availability of a
great varity of network realizations of a given function permits us to select
a suitable one for any given application.
INTRODUCTION 3
Many of the realization techniques which we employ follow a well-
defined pattern, a pattern which may be called the classical model. When
the network function is given, say the driving point impedance of a one-
port, we may first attempt to call upon past experience to identify a net-
work having the given impedance. If this impedance is simple enough, we
may succeed in the attempt and the synthesis will be complete. Thus, if
the given impedance is ks, we recognize that this is the impedance of an
inductance of value fc. In all but the simplest cases this attempt at recog-
nition will fail.
The next step is.lo.systematically decompose the given function into
components, each of which is simple enough to be recognizable. The
realizations of the components are then interconnected in a way demanded
by the process of decomposition. For example, if the given function is an
admittance and it is decomposed into additive components, the entire
function is realized by connecting the realizations of the components in
parallel, in most cases it is not possible to decompose the original function
in one step. Rather, a small realizable part of the function is separated
from it, leaving a remainder function. This remainder function must be
simultaneously realizable and also simpler than the original function, if
progress toward a complete realization is to have been made. In the piece-
meal decomposition process more than one step is usually involved, at the
end of which the remainder function is in the same form as the original
function (yet simpler). The partial network realizing the pieces that are
removed from the original function constitutes a cycle in the realization
procedure. The overall realization, then, consists of an interconnection of
these cycles.
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1
Fundamentals of Network Theory
The tourist who visits a foreign land and is unfamiliar with its language
gains but a superficial knowledge of the customs and characteristics of its
people. His understanding is immeasurably enhanced if he is able to con-
verse with those around him in all walks of life. So it is with you who want
to journey into the realm of network synthesis. In order to gain a thorough
understanding of the subject in all its facets, it is necessary that you have
an adequate background. Before embarking on the journey you should
have a substantial grounding in network analysis, including a passing
acquaintance with the use of matrices and a working knowledge of the
theory of functions of a complex variable.
In this chapter we shall review some of the topics of network analysis
which will be subsequently useful in synthesis. We shall lay the ground-
work for an investigation into the properties of various network functions.
The discussions will of necessity be brief, often resembling a mere outline.
1-1. Network analysis
Figure 1-1 shows an arbitrary linear bilateral network with lumped
elements. Only two sources are shown explicitly but there may be other
sources inside the network. Application of Kirchhoff's voltage law leads
Fig. 1-1. Arbitrary network.
5
6 FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY Sec. 1 1
to a set of simultaneous linear integrodifferential equations. Let us use
the notation
ajkik = Ljk -* + Rjkik + Djk ikdt (1-1 )
where Ljk = ± the inductance common between loops j and k. The plus
sign is used when the reference directions of ij and u in the common
inductance coincide, while the minus sign is used when they are opposed.
Lkk = sum of all inductances on the contour of loop k Rjk, Rkk, same as
above, with resistance substituted for inductance. Djk, Dkk, same as above,
with inverse capacitance substituted for inductance. Then this set of
equations can be written,
Oiiii + Oi2l'2 + . . . + Ojnl'n = BI
anii + a2212 + . . . + a2nin = e2 (1-2)
In these equations the fa are loop currents, while the e's are source voltages.
Remember that these are not algebraic equations but a set of integro-
differential equations. Their solution will depend on the type of forcing
function the source voltages represent.t
The Laplace transform affords a method of solution for any (trans-
formable) forcing function. Let us denote by capital letters the Laplace
transforms of the corresponding functions which are denoted by a lower-
case symbol. Assuming that the network is initially quiescent, the trans-
form of Eqs. (1-2) can be written
6n/i(«) + 6u/2(«) + • . . + 6iJ.(«) = tfi«
Wi(s) + 622/2(s) + . . . + &,"/"(«) = £,(«) (1-3)
where s = a + ju is a complex variable. These are now a set of algebraic
equations in which
6,-* = sLjk + Rjk + 2* (1-4)
s
! In the expressions for power and energy in the case of sinusoidal driving functions
a troublesome factor of 2 will appear if peak values of the sinusoids are retained. For
this reason we shall scale all functions of time by a factor I/ v2.
The network functions with which we shall be dealing are ratios of transforms of
certain voltages and currents. Hence such an amplitude scaling will have no effect on
these functions.
S«c. 1-1 FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY 7
It; is now a simple matter to solve for the loop-current transforms. The
solution is{
'-W-g am*** (1-5)
•where A(s) is the determinant of the system in Eqs. (1-3) and the A;t's are
its cofactors. The elements of the determinant are bjk. Thus, both A and
its cofactors will be polynomials in s, divided Dy a power of s. The ratios
of determinants in Eq. (1-5) will be rational functions of s with real co-
efficients. We shall refer to such functions as "real rational functions."
The inverse Laplace transform of Eq. (1-5) will give the solution to
the original differential equations. Note that there are two sets of singular
points of h(s) in Eq. (1-5): the singularities of the driving-function trans-
forms Ej(s) and the zeros of A(s). The contributions of these singularities
to the solution are identified as the steady slate and the transient, respec-
tively.
The transient solution for each loop current will consist of a sum of
terms A i?*, where the s<'s are the natural frequencies, or natural modes, of
the network. They are the zeros of A(s). Since the loop currents of passive
networks cannot increase indefinitely with time for finite driving functions,
we conclude that the natural frequencies of a passive network cannot have
positive real parts. That is, si must be restricted to the left-half s Diane
(or the ju axis).
The steady-state solution will depend on the driving functions. There
is considerable interest in the solution when the driving functions are
sinusoidal. But sinusoids can be written as the sum of two exponentials;
for example, 2 cos wi = e*- + «~'«rf. Hence, the steady-state solution for a
sinusoid will be known when the solution for the exponential e*- is known.
Suppose we consider a driving function t", where s = o + ju- Such
a function has no physical interpretation for general values of .s. However,
the real or imaginary parts of e" are real functions of time; e.g., for a = 0,
the real part of e" is cos at. Figure 1-2 shows the behavior of the real part
of t" for various values of a and w. These functions may represent physical
source functions, at least for a finite length of time. The complex quantity
s has been called many things, the most common name being complex
frequency. Dimensionally it is reciprocal time. Its real part a is measured
in nepers per second, while its imaginary part is the real angular frequency
and is measured in radians per second. It is quite confusing to call the
X The sign of A,<., j y& k, will depend on the reference direction of h- For a given
reference direction A,* will have one sign; for the opposite reference direction b/,% will
change sign, and so will Ajt. Equation (1-5) will still give h-
8
Sec. 1-1
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
imaginary part of a complex frequency the real frequency. Attempts have
been made to coin a name for s. One possible name isfrequement, combining
the words "frequency" and "increment" or "decrement." In this book
Ret*'
Ret
(a) S = cr+jv,cr<0
Ret
$t
Ret
tt
(b) 5-tr +ju>, <r>0 (d)S=tr
Fig. 1-2. Re it") JE <" cos ai for various values of a and w.
we shall use the name complex frequency variable or simply frequency variable
for s. We shall avoid the use of the terms "real frequency" and "imaginary
frequency." Instead we shall use phrases such as "for s = ju," "for
imaginary values of s," "for real values of s," etc., whenever we want to
restrict s to these values.
Let us now return to the network equations when the source functions
are e,- = Ejyf, where so is a particular value of s not equal to any of the
zeros of A(s). The coefficient of this exponential is a complex number
EjO = \Ejo\eje. When so = jwo, the real part of £&** will be \E#\ cos
(wo< + 0). In this case the quantity E& is the phasor representing the
trigonometric function. The Laplace transform of e;(<) will be Ej(s) =
EjO/(s — So). In the partial fraction expansion of Ik(s) in Eq. (1-5) the con-
tributions of the poles of the driving functions (which lead to the steady-
state solution) will be
/*(«)!
II
-E
A,-*(«o)
;<cady fa A(so) S — So
tate
— So fa A(so)
d-6)
Sec. 1-2
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
By writing the right side of this expression as Iko/(s — So), which leads to
the steady-state currents t*(0 = /*oeM', we get
=E
A(so)
Ea
(1-7)
This equation bears a striking resemblance to Eq. (1-5)! the forms of
the two equations are the same. In the present case the variables are the
complex coefficients of the exponential functions, while the determinants
are evaluated at s = sa. Remember that so is the frequency variable of the
source and is some particular value of s, but any particular value. We may
just as well drop the subscript. If we write
=z
(1-8)
l-t
without any subscript on /* or Ej and without the functional dependence
on s explicitly indicated as in /*(s), we can interpret this equation to stand
for either Eq. (1-5) or Eq. (1-7). That is to say, this equation can express
the relationship between the Laplace transforms of the loop currents and
driving functions for relaxed initial conditions, as well as the relationship
between the phasors representing the steady-state solution for the loop
currents and the driving functions when the latter are exponentials. In
all the succeeding work we shall not distinguish between these two inter-
pretations.
1-2. One-ports and two-ports
Networks are often classified according to the number of terminals, or
terminal pairs, that are available for external connection. The simplest
network from this point of view is the one-terminal pair, or one-port, shown
in Fig. 1-3(a). Its performance is completely characterized by a single
(a) (b)
Fig. 1-3. A one-port and a two-port.
function, the driving-point impedance (or its reciprocal, the driving-point
admittance). This is the ratio of Ei/Ii. An expression for this ratio can be
10 FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY Sec. 1-S
obtained from Eq. (1-8) by removing all the source voltages except £",.
Thus
The impedance of a one-port is seen to be a rational function of s with
real coefficients. The same is true of the admittance function. The zero?
and poles of the impedance are the roots of A(s) = 0 and An(s) = 0.
respectively. But these roots are the natural frequencies of the network
with the input terminals short-circuited and with the terminals open.
respectively. We conclude that the zeros and poles of Z(s) cannot lie in
the right half of the complex s plane (i.e., they will be either real and
negative or complex with negative real part). The complex zeros and
poles must come in conjugate pairs to ensure the realness of the coefficients.
Figure 1-3 (b) shows a two-terminal-pair network, or two-port. The
external behavior at the two pairs of terminals is described by writing
relationships among the two voltages and two currents. One such relation-
ship can be obtained from Eq. (1-8) by setting equal to zero all voltage
except Ei and E2. The result will be
(a) ifl4
. (b)
where we have introduced the notation
*.(.) - <a>
(b) (1-1D
These are the short-circuit admittance parameters of two-port. In matrix
notation we can write Eq. (1-11) as
(/) = (y)(E)
\J/2i J/22
We shall use simple parentheses to designate a matrix.
If we invert Eq. (1-10) or (1-12) to solve for the E'a in terms of the /'s,
we shall get
(E) -.(1/)-'(/) -(«)(/) (1-I3)
or
Sec. 1 -2 FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY 11
Ei = Znh + 2u/j (a)
E2 = znh + znh (b) (1-14)
(2n 2K\
221 222/
W - (c)
\221 222/
The inverse of the (y) matrix is labeled (z). The elements of (2) are the
open-circuit impedance parameters of the two-port. From the definition of
the inverse of a matrix we can write
J/22
«11
=
VuVv -
2/12
— 2/12
*12
=
2/112/22 -
2/12
2/1n
A22A A
22
A11A22 — A12 A1122
-A„A _ _ A„
A11A22 — A12 A1122
_ AnA _ _A_n_
2/112/22 — 2/12 A11A22 — A?2 An22
(a)
(b) (1-15)
(c)
Here we used Eqs. (1-11) to relate the z parameters to A and its cofactors.
The final equality was obtained by using the identityf
AnA22 — A?2 = AA1122 (1-16)
We have now obtained two relationships among the external currents
and voltages. One other important set of parameters is the set of chain
parameters. This set is obtained by expressing the current and voltage at
one pair of terminals in terms of those at the other pair. Thus
Ei = AE2 - Bh
(1-17)
h = CE« - Dh
Expressions for the ABCD parameters in terms of the y and z parameters
can be obtained from Eq. (1-10) or Eq. (1-14). Obviously all these sets
of parameters are related to each other.
Other relationships among the parameters are also possible. In Table
1-1 six sets of equations relating the external voltages and currents are
given. The relationships between each parameter of one set and the
parameters of the other sets are given in Table 1-2.J Note that the signs
in the equations apply for the reference conditions shown in the figure.
Reversing the reference direction of h, for instance, will change some of
the signs in the equations.
tSec M. Bdcher, Introduction to Higher Algebra, Macmillan, New York, 1938.
{See E. A. Guillemiu, Communication Networks, vol. II, Wiley, New York, 1935.
12
Sec. 1-2
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
The above discussion has served merely to introduce notation arid
collect the pertinent formulas. We have made no attempt as yet to de-
termine the properties of the various parameters.
Table 1-1
/, _». | 1 ^_ I2
°+ 7°
Oo
A(s) is the loop-impedance determinant of the network with both ends short-circuited.
Ei = zuli + 212/1
E2 = z2i/i + znI2
(E) = (•)(/)
h = ynEt + ynEt
I2 = yi\Ex + IJnE2
(/) = ivKE)
El
= AE, - BI,
= CE, - Dl2
E, = DEi - Bh
I2 = CE, - Ah
/,
E,
I2
= huI\ + hitE,
= Mi + hnEt
h = ffuEi + ffu/j
E2 = gnEi + gttlt
\*\
— ^11*22 — *Ta
1*1 ='
\y\
= 2/n?/n - !/i2
l»l =f
M
~ \y\
l
AD - BC = 1
1*1 =7
j
*11*22 - *12
71 lff22 - ffl2
I.I
All the discussion was based on the application of Kirchhoff's voltage
law and the writing of loop-current equations. The determinants that
appear are loop-impedance determinants. It is worthwhile to point out
that a similar development can be carried out, starting with a set of node-
voltage equations. Expressions for the two-port parameters in terms of
node-admittance determinants can be obtained. You may carry this out
as an exercise if you desire.
Two other sets of parameters are also in common use. These are the
image parameters and the scattering parameters. Conventional filter
theory makes use of the image parameters exclusively. The scattering-
parameter formalism derives from a picture of waves incident on and
reflected from the terminals of a network. They have found their greatest
use in the study of microwave networks. We shall not use either of these
sets of parameters in this book.
Sec. 1 -3 FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY 1 3
Table 1-2
Km
/I
1*1
A22
~:i
1?/!
c
0n
A[|22
_S!2
1
r
_ 2i!
A12
A1122
Zjl = 2»l
\y\
0n
1
hn
M
Am
Anj2
---=
\v\
(7n
1
hu
M
Am
.Oil
1*1
022
*u
1
hn
£i2
.'/12 = 1/21
1*1
hn
(721
A
El!
A
B
'h'
\,.2
7j-:
1*1
0n
A
ill
±
hw
A22
*11
Vn
012
A,2
B
1*1
*«
hn
hn
_ 22!
_A
A13
C
hj2
hn
012
A1122
An
I)
*1S
1/12
1
An
012
Au
A-
Z|j
;/i2
012
hn
Irl
B
1)
\g\
_A_
An
h„ = — hti
Jii
_ Vi2
1
I)
012
AjJ
?'n
Iff!
A,,
''.:
111
.vn
C
D
I0I
Aim
*2J
An
011
C
A
1*1
Aim
£l2
1
A
An
Aj,
012 = — 021
-11
1*1
A;2
B
A
An
_A_
fte
2ll
J/2;
Aj2
1-3. Transfer functions of two-ports
A simple transmission system consists of a source, a load, and a coupling
network as shown in Fig. 1-4. (In this book we shall not be concerned with
the problem of transmission from more than one source to more than one
load.) We refer to the source impedance Zj and the load impedance Z2 as
14
Sec. 1-3
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
the input and output terminations, respectively. Let us call the ratio of
either of the quantities E2 or 72 to either of the quantities Eo or h a transfer
function. The coupling network serves the purpose of providing a desired
S
Source
Coupling
two-port
(a)
'Load
Source
jj
Coupling
two-port
(bi
i Load
Fig. 1-4. Transmission system.
transfer function. More exactly, the magnitude or angle of the transfer
function may be specified as a function of w. The specifications will depend
on the type of job (such as filtering or equalizing) which the coupling two-
port is to perform. From these specifications it is necessary initially to
determine a function of s which is realizable as a transfer function of the
desired type of two-port (LC, RC, etc.). This constitutes the approximation
problem. Near the end of the book we shall devote a chapter to a con-
sideration of the approximation problem. However, for the most part we
shall be interested in the realization problem. Thus our major problem is
how to find the element values of a two-port when a realizable transfer
function specifying its behavior is given and the conditions of loading at
the input and output are specified.
At this point many of you will be dissatisfied. This is not the natural
order of things, you will say. If you have the requirement for a filter, say,
which must satisfy certain specifications, how can you postpone con-
sideration of the approximation problem, you will ask. Where will the
transfer function that you will realize come from? It is true that, in a
particular synthesis task, both problems, approximation and realization,
must be solved. However, as we shall see throughout the remainder of the
book, all the characteristics of the networks we realize, their structure, the
types and numbers of elements they contain, etc., depend on the locations
of the poles and zeros of the transfer function. Given performance speci-
fications can be satisfied equally well by transfer functions having widely
differing pole and zero locations. For example, a given filtering task may
be performed equally well by an RC filter or an LC filter. In other words.
Sec. 1-3
15
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
you can solve the approximation problem much more usefully if you know
what the effects of placing poles and zeros in certain locations will be on
the ease of realization. For this reason it is essential to become thoroughly
familiar with the properties of transfer functions and with realization
techniques before considering the approximation problem.
When the transfer function of a two-port is specified, the extent to
which the behavior of the two-port is specified depends upon the prescribed
input and output terminations. Thus, consider the network in Fig. 1-5(a).
The source is a current source, and the output terminals are open. This
can be described by saying that both terminations are open. The transfer
function that is prescribed is E2/Ii. But this is z2i (which is the same as z«),
the open-circuit transfer impedance. It appears that we have quite a bit
of flexibility in meeting the specifications of this particular problem, since
only one of the three parameters of the two-port is specified; the other two
may be chosen arbitrarily within limits depending on the type of elements
permitted in the two-port. Presumably we will choose them in such a way
that the realization task is simplified.
(a) (b)
Fip. 1-5. Open- or short-circuit terminations at both ends.
Similarly, in the case of Fig. 1-5(b), the source is a voltage source,
and the output is the short-circuit current. The prescribed function is
I2/El — yn (which is the same as yu), the short-circuit transfer admittance.
A very common situation is the one shown in Fig. 1-6. The output
(a) (b)
Fig. 1-6. Voltage source or current source with open-circuit output.
terminals are open-circuited. In part (a) the source is a voltage source,
while in part (b) it is a current source. In either case the prescribed
16
Sec. 1-3
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
function is the voltage ratio E2/Ei, which we shall designate Tu(s). We
can get expressions for this ratio from Eqs. (1-10) and (1-14). Thus
T"(s) = =
2/22
(1-18)
The minus sign with the y parameters is a result of the chosen reference
direction for /2 and has no other significance. In the present case two of
the three parameters are involved, but only their ratio is prescribed. This
is a slightly more complicated problem than the previous two, but still a
certain amount of flexibility exists. When the transfer function Tu(s) is
given as a rational function of s, we shall need to find two functions zu and
zn (or 2/i2 and 2/22) which satisfy realizability conditions for the type of
network desired and whose ratio is the given function.
In all the cases considered so far the terminations were either open-
circuited or short-circuited. Consider the case shown in Fig. 1-7, where one
(a) (b)
Fig. 1-7. One finite impedance termination with voltage source.
of the terminations is an impedance Z2 and the source is a voltage source.
Applying Thevenin's theorem at the output terminals gives Fig. 1-7 (b).
From this circuit the transfer admittance, defined as the output current
divided by the input voltage, can easily be found.
v
Y2+
(1-19)
In this case again two of the three y parameters are involved, but in a
more complicated manner than in Eq. (1-18).
Figure 1-8 shows the case of a finite load impedance Z2 at one end with
(a) (b)
Fig. 1-8. One finite impedance termination with current source.
Sec. 1-3
17
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
a current source at the other. Application of Thevenin's theorem leads to
part (b). From this the transfer impedance, defined as the output voltage
divided by the input current, can be easily computed.
Zu(s) =
h Z2 + 222
(1-20)
This expression involves the terminating impedance and the z parameters
in the same way that Yu in Eq. (1-19) involves the terminating admittance
and the y parameters. Again only two of the parameters are involved.
Note that Zn(s) in Eq. (1-20) is not the reciprocal of Yn(s) in Eq. (1-19).
As a final case consider the general situation with finite terminations
at both ends. In the most common situation the transmission network is
mserted between a load which can be considered resistive and a physical
source with a finite internal resistance as shown in Fig. 1-9. In this case
Fig. 1-9. Transmission network inserted between two finite resistances.
the response function of interest is the ratio of output voltage to source
voltage, T(s) = E2/Eo. In order to find an expression for this ratio in
terms of the network parameters, we can write
E,
/. =
El =
Ri + Z
KiZu
(a)
(10
(1-21)
7?2 + 222
The last expression is just Eq. (1-20) with /?2 used for Z2. Substituting the
first of these into the second gives
RlZ\2
r(s) E, (fc + Z)(R2 + 222)
(1-22)
This equation is not very useful in its present form because it contains
the quantity Z. From Fig. 1-9 you can see that Z is the input impedance
of the two-port when the opposite end is terminated. To get an expression
for this impedance in terms of the parameters of the two-port, return to
Eqs. (1-14) and solve for the ratio Eill\ with the condition that
18
Sec. 1-)
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
E? = —/?2/2 (minus because of the reference conditions of
The result is
and I2
(1-23
where |z| = Ziiz22 — z?2- This is a very important relationship in its own
right, and we shall use it quite extensively in subsequent work. For the
present, if we substitute it into Eq. (1-22), we shall get
T(s) =
(1-24)
This is the relationship we were looking for. It contains all three of the
z parameters. In a synthesis problem suppose that T(s) is given to us a,
a rational function in s. Before we can realize the network, we shall have
to recognize the set of three z parameters from the given function. This
will be very difficult, if not impossible, in any but the simplest cases. For
this reason the present problem is solved in stages.
Instead of talking about the function E2/Ea, some authors use other
functions related to this in very simple ways. For this reason considerable
notational confusion exists in the literature. One of the difficulties en-
countered is the fact that a response function may be defined either as the
ratio of an output to an input quantity or as its reciprocal. All the functions
we have defined have been of the output/input variety. There is probably
equal merit in either procedure. However, to avoid confusion, it is best to
stick to one or the other. We shall consistently define network functions
as output/input.
When the two-port in Fig. 1-9 is inserted between the source and
load, it is desired to know what effect the network has on the transmitted
power. Let us define the insertion power ratio as the power delivered to the
load with the network present divided by the power delivered to the load
with the network removed. Since the load is the same in both cases, these
two quantities are proportional to the squared magnitude of the cor-
(a)
Fig. 1-10. Situation with network removed.
Sec. 1-3
19
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
responding voltages. Let E%i and PM denote the voltage and power at the
load when the network is removed, as in Fig. 1-10(a), and let E2 and P2
denote these same quantities when the network is inserted. We define the
insertion voltage ratio as
//(«) = I1
-ft 2o
(1-25)
The magnitude squared of this quantity for s = ju is the insertion power
ratio. We can easily find Ex, in terms of Ea from Fig. 1-10(a) so that
Eq. (1-25) becomes
*«- 557(1+13 -^TO <'""'
The previous paragraph has focused attention on the load end of the
network. Let us now consider conditions at the source end. Let P be the
power transmitted into the two-port of Fig. 1-9. This power will have its
maximum value Pm = |/?o|2/4/?i when Z(ju) = Ri.'f When this happens,
the voltage EI = Ea/2. The amount by which EI deviates from Eo/2 is
an indication of the amount by which the power delivered to the network
deviates from the maximum. Let us define the input-end reflection co-
efficient as
Eo/2 - Ei /,(/?, + Z) - 2IJ flt -
- - — — — — —
The power delivered to the network is equal to the real part of the input
impedance times the magnitude squared of the input current. This is
P=U
(1-28)
where Z(ju) = Ufa) + jX(u). We can now write an expression for the
difference between the maximum power and the actual power into the
network,
pm — P =
4ft, (U +
This can be rewritten as
+ X2
|P0«)|' = !-•-
+ uy +
= P»|pO«)l'
(1-29)
(1-30)
Let us now return to the load end of the network. From the definition
of the insertion power ratio and Eq. (1-25) we can write
t Recall that all time functions, and hence their transforms, have been scaled by
the factor l/>/2.
20 FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY Sec. 1-3
\HU»)\* =
ft
Ev
/ (1-31)
'2o
From Fig. 10(a) we can readily calculate P2o in terms of Ru Rit and E0. If
we also remember that the maximum power that can be delivered to the
network is Pm = |Z?o|2/4fti, we can write
_ ff,|/?„l» _ 4fi,ff,
rw ~ (fc + ft2)2 ~ (fti + 7^)J'" U_d^
We now substitute this into Eq. (1-31). Finally, if we multiply numerator
and denominator of the result by P, we get
|//0o,)l = iftA p- - 4«a pp: (1-33'
Noting that the power into the network can never be larger than Pm and
that the power delivered to the load can never be larger than the power
into the network, we can deduce a necessary condition on the insertion
power ratio for passive networks, viz.,
|//<j«)!* < (J^f d-34)
Using Eq. (1-26), we can write this condition in terms of T(ju>). Thus,
Ir^l2 = (ft7fft^1//(J'W)^4| (1~35)
Let us now eliminate the ratio P/Pm between Eqs. (1-33) and (1-30). We
shall get
IpO")I2 + (i^%y p\ I" 0")!1 = 1 d-36)
This is a very valuable relationship. Equation (1-30) involves only source-
end quantities. However, Eq. (1-36) ties load-end quantities to source-end
quantities. The only blemish in this equation is the ratio P/Pt, which is
the ratio of the power into the network to the power delivered to the load.
This ratio will depend on the amount of power dissipation in the network.
In the important case of a lossless two-port this ratio will be unity so that
Eq. (1-36) becomes
Ip0")I2 + (fl*+fi0, l#0«)i2 = 1 d-37) <
Using Eq. (1-26), this can be written
4/?,
|pO«)l2 + ^rMr(>)ll = i d-38)
In an effort to eliminate the constants involving Ri and R^ from the
Sec. 1-4 FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY 21
previous two equations, some authors define another function. Suppose
that when the two-port is removed, it is replaced by an ideal transformer
with a turns ratio VR^R2/l as shown in Fig. 1-10(b). From the primary
side the load appears as a resistance Ri so that the source resistance is
matched. Hence the power delivered by the source to the load will equal
its maximum value Pm = \Ep\*/ARi. Let the load voltage under these
circumstances be called E^ and the power delivered to the load be called
P&. We can easily find E& in terms of Eo from Fig. 1-10(b). If we now
combine this with the expression for Ev, from Fig. 1-10(a), we shall get
Now let us define another function H'(s) = Et/Em, which we shall
call the transmission function (it has also been called the transmission co-
efficient) .f Using Eq. (1-39) and also Eq. (1-26), we get
Hw = "5 = kT+R*H(s) = V"ft T(s) (1"40)
This expression shows that all three of the functions T(s), H(s), and H'(s)
have the same properties; they differ from each other simply by a multi-
plicative constant. In terms of H' Eqs. (1-37) or (1-38) can be written as
|p0o,)|2 + \H'(ju)\* = 1 (1-41)
The origin of the name transmission coefficient for H' is now apparent.
Let us now return to the synthesis problem of Fig. 1-9. Suppose that
the prescribed function is \T(ju)\2. This is related to the reflection co-
efficient through Eq. (1-38). The reflection coefficient is in turn related
to the input impedance of the two-port through Eq. (1-27) and, finally,
Z is related to the z parameters of the two-port through Eq. (1-23). At
the present time we shall not go into the details of the procedure for going
from a prescribed insertion ratio to the network parameters. We shall
leave this until we discuss the actual realization in Chap. 6.
1-4. Magnitude and frequency normalizations
The order of magnitude of the element values that we meet in electric
networks ranges all the way from 10-12 (for capacitances) to 10* or 107
(for resistances). Similarly, the frequency range of interest goes from a few
cycles per second to millions of cycles per second. Thus the numbers we
tin the German literature the quantity log (l/\H'(ju)\) is called the effective loss
(Bt tritbed&mpfung).
22 FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY Sec. 1-4
are likely to have in the network functions, for practical network elements,
are not likely to be convenient numbers. On the other hand, the properties
of these functions and the synthesis procedures which we shall develop
do not depend on the absolute size of the coefficients in the network
functions. It would therefore be wise to divorce the inconvenient size of
coefficients from a discussion of properties of functions and synthesis
techniques. This is accomplished by normalization.
Suppose that each R, L, and D in a network is multiplied by a constant
K. Then each element in the network determinant will be multiplied by
K, as seen in Eq. (1-4). The determinant itself, being of order n, will be
multiplied by K". Each (n — l)-rowed cof actor of A will be multiplied
by K"~l, and each (n — 2)-rowed cofactor will be multiplied by .K""'.
Now look at the two-port parameters given in Table 1-2. Those which are
dimensionally impedance or admittance are the ratio of two determinants
whose orders differ by 1. Those which are voltage or current ratios, like
A and hu, are the ratios of two determinants of the same order. Hence
multiplying each R, L, and D in the network by a constant K will have the
effect of multiplying each impedance function by the same constant and
dividing each admittance by the constant. Any voltage or current ratios
will be unaffected by this multiplication. The inverse is also true: if jwe
multiply an impedance function by a constant K, then each R, L, and D
in the network will be multiplied by K. This process is called changing the
impedance level.
As an illustration, consider the network of Fig. 1-9. The impedance at
the input terminals of the two-port is given in Eq. (1-23). This may be
rewritten as
Z(s) _ zn/R2 + \z\/Rl
"
If we now define Z'(s) = Z(s)/R? and similarly for the other quantities
in the equation, we can rewrite the equation in terms of the primed
quantities. To simplify the notation, we shall drop the primes and get
Formally this looks as if we set R2 = 1 in Eq. (1-23). After we have gone
through a realization procedure and have obtained a network, we can
multiply each R, L, and D by the constant R3. This will multiply the
impedance by R2, thus restoring the impedance level.
Another procedure that simplifies computation is that of frequency
normalization. A new frequency variable is defined as the old variable
Sec. 1-5 FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY 23
divided by a constant, wo- Then the value s = /«o in the old variable be-
comes j\ in the new variable. The impedances of single network elements
are R, sL, and D/s. If a network function is to be unaffected by the
frequency scaling, then these single-element impedances should be un-
affected. R is certainly not affected. The others will also be unaffected if
we multiply L's by uo and divide D's by uo.
In the previous paragraph we assumed the network was available when
we made the frequency normalization. However, when we are undertaking
a synthesis problem, we have a network function, not a network. We make
the desired frequency normalization on the function. When we sub-
sequently realize a network, the element values we get will be normalized
values. In order to obtain actual values, we shall need to do the inverse
of what we did in the previous paragraph.
To summarize, suppose a network realization is obtained on a normal-
ized impedance and frequency basis, the normalizing factors being Ro and
«o. Let Rn, Ln, and Dn be the element values so obtained. Then the actual
element values when the impedance level and the frequency are restored
will be
R = RnRl
L = Ln^ (1-44)
O)o
D = Dnffow0 or C = C
Rooio
It is clearly evident from these expressions that the normalized element
values are dimensionless. In all the discussions that follow we shall
be dealing with normalized functions so that, whenever a realization
is obtained, the element values will be normalized values. The element
values that will be shown on network diagrams will always be those of
Rn, Ln, and Cn, unless explicitly stated otherwise. Since the functions are
normalized, we will not be able to check dimensions.
1-5. Interconnections of two-ports
We mentioned briefly in the introduction that the classical model of
synthesis consists in breaking the network functions down into simpler
functions which are easily realizable. The over-all network realization
then is obtained as an interconnection of these simple networks. Two-
ports can be interconnected in several ways; which one is used in a particu-
lar problem depends on which network function is to be realized and how
24
Sec. 1-5
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
the breakdown into simpler functions is made. We shall now discuss some
of these interconnections.
Figure 1-11 shows two two-ports connected in cascade. The over-all
// — »»
•* — *2 -x */ — *"
N
N'
Fig. 1-11. Cascade connection of two-ports.
external voltages and currents are EI, Ii, E2, and /j. At the junction be-
tween the two we have E2 = E{ and — /j = /{. In matrix notation this
reads
(*/.)-(£)
If we describe each network by its chain parameters, we can write
(a)
»>
(1-46)
The common voltage and current at the junction can be eliminated from
these equations by using Eq. (1-45). Thus we can write
This equation says that the over-all chain matrix of a cascade of two two-
ports is equal to the product of the individual chain matrices. There is
no restriction on the structure of the individual two-ports in this inter-
connection. The extension to more than two two-ports is clear.
Another interconnection of interest is the parallel connection shown in
Jio
Fig. 1-12. Parallel connection of two-porta.
Sec. 1-5
25
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
Fig. 1-12. The over-all terminal current at each end of the network is the
sum of the terminal currents of the component networks. Thus
(1-48)
If we describe each network by its y parameters, we can write
fli\ (yn 2/i2
(1-49)
\IttJ " \2/2i 2/22/ \#2;
The terminal voltages of the two networks are the same. Hence, if we add
the last two equations and use Eq. (1-48), we get
i 2/w1
This equation says that the y matrix of the parallel connection of two
two-ports is equal to the sum of the y matrices of the individual two-ports.
The extension to more than two two-ports is evident.
The description of the behavior of two-ports in parallel by means of
Eq. (1-50) is not always possible. Each network, when alone, is described
by one of Eqs. (1-49). For Eq. (1-50) to hold, we must ensure that we do
not invalidate the previous relationships when we make the parallel con-
nection. For example, the two networks shown in Fig. 1-13 cannot be
Fig. 1-13. Parallel connection for which Eq. (1-50) is not valid.
paralleled directly [and described by Eq. (1-50)] because the element
labeled Z in the top network will be shorted by the bottom network. Thus
the y matrix of the top network, when alone and when in parallel with the
bottom network, will be different.!
t For a more complete discussion of the required conditions for parallel connection,
see Guillemin (55).
26
Sec. 1-5
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
c'
•* — •„ ^
k
^
N
EOI
(
l
. r!
N'
Fig. 1-14. Series connection of two-ports
The third type of two-port connection we shall discuss is the series
connection shown in Fig. 1-14. The over-all voltage at each end is equal
to the sum of the voltages of the individual two-ports. Thus
(1-51)
^o2/ \£2/ \^2>
If we describe each network by its z parameters, we can write
\z21
E(
(a)
(b)
(1-52)
The input currents and the output currents of the two networks are the
same, respectively, so that, if we add these two equations and use Eq.
(1-51), we get
O
This equation says that the z matrix of the series connection of two two-
ports is the sum of the z matrices of the individual two-ports. The extension
to more than two two-ports is evident.
Here again care must be exercised in using the matrix description of
the series connection of two-ports. Connecting the two-ports in series may
change the z parameters of one or the other from what they were before
the series connection. In such a case Eq. (1-53) will not be valid.t
Two other possible interconnections of two-ports are series-parallel and
parallel-series. We shall not discuss these connections here, but you can
easily show that the over-all h matrix for the series-parallel connection
t A more complete discussion is given in Guillemin (55).
Sec. 1-6
27
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
is the sum of the h matrices of the individual two-ports. Similarly the over-
all g matrix of the parallel-series connection is the sum of the g matrices
of the individual two-ports.
These statements are, again, valid only when the individual matrices
are not modified by the interconnection.
1-6. Energy functions
In the previous sections of this chapter we used the passive nature of
the networks under consideration twice. We used it first to establish lo-
cations of the poles of network functions. In Sec. 1-4 we used it again
when we were able to state that the power delivered to the load through
a passive transmission network cannot be greater than the power supplied
at the input of the network. The passive nature of the networks can also
be put into evidence by noting that the energy stored or dissipated in a
passive network can never be negative. This fact will certainly have some
effect on the performance of a passive network. Since network performance
is described in terms of network functions (driving point and transfer),
it should be possible to relate the network functions to the energy stored
and dissipated in the network.
Let us return to Eqs. (1-3), which are the Laplace transforms of the
loop equations of the network of Fig. 1-1 under quiescent initial conditions.
The solution of these equations is given in Eq. (1-8). We showed that this
expression can also represent the steady-state solution for sinusoidal
driving functions if /* and E, are considered to be phasors and s = ju. In
the latter case we can interpret Eqs. (1-3) as relationships among phasors
if we replace s byju in bjk. Let us now assume that there are no sources in
Fig. 1-1 except at the input and output of the two-port and rewrite Eqs.
1-3, this time in matrix notation. The result is
(E) =
where the voltage and current matrices are
(1-54)
(E)
0
6
/,
/2
(1-55)
28 FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY Sec. 1-6
and the loop-parameter matrices are
(L) =
(R) =
(£>) =
DD
KII nU
Rn Rvi
fin.
fin
0
(a)
(b) (1-56)
(c)
Remember that the voltages and currents in Eqs. (1-55) can be either
Laplace transforms in the general case or phasors in the case of sinusoidal
driving functions. In the latter case s will take on the value ju in Eq. (1-54).
Let us temporarily restrict ourselves to sinusoidal source functions so
that the E's and /'s are phasors. The complex power supplied by the
source at the input will be Etl* (where * indicates the complex conjugate),
while that supplied by the source at the output will be £2/5. The total
complex power delivered to the network can be obtained by multiplying
the voltage matrix in Eqs. (1-55) by the transpose of the current matrix
after each element is replaced by its conjugate. Thus
EJl
(1-57)
where (/*)' denotes the matrix which is obtained from (I) by replacing each
element in the matrix by its conjugate and then transposing rows and
columns. Now look at Eq. (1-54). If we multiply both sides of this
equation by (/*)', we shall get (letting s = ju)
(/*)'(£)
+ j«[(/*)'(L)(/) - (
(1-58)
The left side of this equation is the total complex-power input to the net-
work. Let us seek an interpretation for the right side. To this end define
the functions
Sec. 1-6
29
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
F = i(/*)'(fl)(/) = i y; R^!t
T = i(/*)'(L)(/) =
F=
i.*-l
(a)
(b) (1-59)
(c)
The right sides of these are obtained by actually performing the indicated
operations in the matrix products on the left. These quantities are quad-
ratic functions of the variables. In order to get an interpretation for them,
let us consider the simple network shown in Fig. 1-15. We can readily
Fig. 1-15. Simple network for evaluating energy functions.
evaluate the functions in the preceding equation for this network. Thus
F = *(/, /» * + *' = W + |/, + /,|' (a)
-«»»(?
/
= ^|/, + /2|2 + 5^|
(b) (1-60)
(c)
From elementary considerations we know that the right side of the first
of these equations is half the average power dissipated in the resistances of
the network. Similarly the right side of the second equation is the average
energy stored in the inductances, while the right side of the third is the
average energy stored in the capacitances. It is not difficult to appreciate
that these interpretations are generally true for a network of arbitrary
complexity. We shall refer to the F, T, and V functions as energy functions
(even though F has the dimensions of power). Since we know that the
average value of the energy stored and the power dissipated in a passive
network can never be negative, we form the important conclusion that ihe
30 FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY Sec. 1-6
energy functions can never be negative. You may worry about the fact that
the energy functions contain complex quantities, yet from their physical
interpretation they ought to be real. To satisfy yourself that they are
indeed real, take the complex conjugate of F, say. You will find that
F* = F, which is possible only if F is real.
Glance back at the energy functions defined in Eqs. (1-59). They are
quadratic functions of the currents. Functions such as these are called
quadratic forms. We have seen that the particular quadratic forms with
which we arc dealing are always real and never negative no matter what
values, real or complex, the variables may take on. Quadratic forms which
are always positive are called positive definite. If zero is also a possible
value of the quadratic form, it is called positive semidefinite. The quadratic
forms under consideration here are of the latter variety.
The positive definite character of a quadratic form, being independent
of the values of the variables, must depend on the matrix of the quadratic
form. If a quadratic form is definite or semidefinite, its matrix is also
called definite or semidefinite, respectively. Hence we conclude that the
loop-parameter matrices (L), (R), and (D) are positive semidefinite.
In terms of the energy functions we can rewrite Eq. (1-58) and get
(/*'£) = 2F +j2u[T - V] (1-61)
It is now clear that this equation expresses the power balance between the
complex-power input to the network on the one hand and the real power
dissipated and the reactive power stored in the network on the other.
Let us now remove the temporary restriction to sinusoidal source
functions and return to the loop equations of Eq. (1-54). The E's and /'s
are now considered to be Laplace transforms. Although it will no longer
have the physical significance of computing the total power input to the
network, let us again multiply this equation by (/*)'. The result will be
(/*)'(£) = (I*)>(R)(I) + s(I*)'(L)(I) + \(I*y(D)(I)
where
= Fo + sTo + -°
s
Fo = (I*)'(R)(I)
(a)
To = (I*)'(L)(I)
(b)
Vo = (/*)'(/>)(/)
(c)
(1-62)
(1-63)
A comparison of these functions with the corresponding energy functions
in Eqs. (1-59) shows that corresponding ones differ merely by a multi-
plicative positive constant. We shall call these new functions energy
Sec. 1-7 FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY 31
functions also, although they no longer have the physical interpretation
of energy. Clearly, they also are positive semidefinite, since they each
have the same matrix as the corresponding average energy functions.
1-7. Properties of network functions
Now that we have denned the energy functions, we shall turn our
attention to the formulation of the network functions in terms of them.
The positive semidefinite nature of the energy functions will be strongly
reflected in the properties of the various network functions.
First of all consider the case of a network with one pair of external
terminals, a one-port. With E2 = 0 Eq. (1-62) becomes
EJl = Fo + «T. + ^ (1-64)
S
The driving-point impedance Z(s) and the admittance Y(s) can be obtained
from this equation as follows: The impedance is obtained by dividing both
sides by IJ* = |/i|2, while the admittance is obtained by first taking the
conjugate of the equation and then dividing by EiE\ = \Ei\2. The results
will be
sTo + Y ) (a)
(1-65)
- s*To + ^} (b)
These equations are of great importance. They express the relationship
between the driving-point impedance and admittance and the energy
functions. Note that these are not explicit expressions in terms of 8. The
energy functions are themselves functions of s through the fact that the
currents /, are functions of s.
At this point we should note that a completely analogous development
can be carried out, starting with the current equilibrium equations, with
the node voltages as variables. The stored energy and the power dissipated
can be expressed in terms of capacitance, inverse inductance, and con-
ductance. Thus the energy functions will involve the capacitance, inverse-
inductance, and conductance matrices. Relationships just like Eqs. (1-65)
will be obtained for the impedance and admittance in terms of these
energy functions.
Let us examine the expression for the driving-point impedance a little
more closely. The functions Fo, To, and Vo are real and nonnegative for
all values of 8. The magnitude squared of Ii is certainly positive. Now, if
32 FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY Sec. 1-7
s is real, certainly Z(s) will also be real. On the other hand, if s is complex
but its real part is not negative, Z(s) will be complex and its real part will
not be negative. Functions having these two properties, namely
1. real when s is real;
2. real part nonnegative when real part of s is nonnegative
are called positive real functions. (Brune named these functions in 1930.)
The same investigation of the right side of Eq. (1-65b) will show that F(s)
also satisfies these properties. We conclude that the driving-point impedance
or admittance functions of a passive bilateral network are positive real. We
shall have much more to say about these functions in the next two chapters.
Now let us consider the case of a network with two pairs of terminals,
a two-port. In Eq. (1-62) replace the voltage matrix by its equivalent in
terms of the z parameters from Eqs. (1-14). The result will be
(/*)'(3)(/) = zn/i/f + 2z« Re (/,/!) +
= F o + sTo + — (1-66)
s
Since the right-hand side of this expression is a positive real function, the
quadratic form on the left side must also be positive real. Just as we say
the matrix of a positive definite quadratic form is also positive definite, in
the same way we say the matrix of a positive real quadratic form is positive
real. Thus we conclude that the z matrix of a passive bilateral two-port is
positive real. The detailed properties of the z parameters follow from this
fact.
We can derive a similar property of the y matrix by first taking the
complex conjugate of Eq. (1-62). The right side becomes
= (£*)'(/) (1-67)
Hence the complete expression is
(£*)'(/) = Fo + s*To + ^ (1-68)
O
We can now replace the current matrix by its equivalent in terms of the
y parameters from Eqs. (1-12). The result will be
(£*)'(7/)(£) = Fo + s*To + £ (1-69)
o
The right side of this expression is a positive real function. Hence we con-
clude that the y matrix of a passive bilateral two-port is positive real. All the
detailed properties of the y parameters follow from this fact. We shall
devote considerable time in Chap. 4 to exploiting the positive real nature of
Sec. 1 -7
33
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
the z and y matrices to establish many important and useful properties of
two-port functions.
Before terminating this section we can establish a few more interesting
results. We have already seen that the zeros of the driving-point impedance
of a network are the natural frequencies of that network. From consider-
ations of stability we have already concluded that the natural frequencies
of passive networks cannot lie in the right-half s plane. The same result
follows by computing the zeros of the impedance in Eqs. (1-65). The
result is
_A , //AY _ KO
2To \\27V To
(1-70)
This equation does not give an explicit value for s because the energy
functions are themselves functions of s. However, since these functions
are real and nonnegative, we can see that the natural frequencies cannot
lie in the right half plane.
In the special case of LC (lossless) networks Fo = 0. The last equation
reduces to s =
To. Thus the natural frequencies of lossless net-
works lie on the ju axis. Similarly, in the case of RC networks, TO = 0,
while for RL networks Fo = 0. In these cases the natural frequencies will
be given, respectively, by
,>
(a)
(b)
(1-71)
In view of the positiveness of the energy functions we conclude that the
natural frequencies of RC and RL networks lie on the negative real axis.
PROBLEMS
1-1. Find the chain matrix of the networks shown in Fig. P 1-1.
~J•\ o o 1 o o——f FIJI
-o o
(a)
oo
I
(c)
34
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
1-2. Show that the open-circuit transfer impedance zu of the circuit
shown in Fig. P 1-2 is
Zl2 =
Fig. P 1-2
Fig. P 1-3
1-3. For the symmetrical lattice network of Fig. P 1-3 show that
3n = i(Z6 + Z.)
Zi2 -
v"
1-4. Show that the symmetrical tee and symmetrical pi shown in
Fig. P 1-4 will be equivalent to the lattice in Fig. P 1-3 if
-o o
(a) (b)
Fig.P 1-4
= Yb
- y6)J
for the tee
for the pi
1-5. Show that the bridged-tee networks given in Fig. P 1-5 are
equivalent to the symmetrical lattice under the listed conditions, by
examining their z-system or {/-system equations.
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
35
C«/2
2R
ft
£
\\ * «
iw /"
ZLi
I
-o o
1w
(b)
Fig. P 1-5
1-6. In the symmetrical lattice of Fig. P 1-6 the branch impedances
are inverse with respect to Rl, that is, ZaZb = Rl. Show that the input
,2
;V
Fig. P 1-6
impedance is ft,o when the lattice is terminated in Ro. Such a lattice is
called a "constant-resistance lattice." Show also that the transfer im-
pedance is
#J T, .
f,i2 — -j— = -
o + Z.
1-7. Prove that necessary and sufficient conditions that a symmetrical
two-port be constant-resistance (R = 1) are Zn = yn and Zu = — 2/«. A
constant-resistance network is a network whose input impedance is equal
to ft when the network is terminated in a resistance R.
1-8. Prove that a necessary and sufficient condition that the resist-
ance-terminated transfer impedance Zu = £2//i of a lossless symmetrical
two-port be an all-pass function is that the two-port be constant-resistance.
An all-pass function is defined as a function having a constant magnitude.
1-9. The network in Fig. P 1-9 is lossless. Show that |pi(jw)|2 =
|p2(jw)|2 where pi and p2 are the reflection coefficients.
Fig. P 1-9
36
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY
1-10. Figure P 1-10 shows a two-port which is the cascade connection
of two simpler two-ports Na and Nb. Show that the short-circuit transfer
/ Na 2
1 Nb 2
Fig. P 1-10
admittance and the open-circuit transfer impedance of the two-port will
be given by
(b) «„ =
The a and 6 subscripts refer to the component two-ports. These
results are referred to as the "partitioning theorem."
1-11. (a) The transfer impedance of the network shown in Fig.
P 1-11 (a) is
-/."!+*.
Show that this function is also the voltage transfer function Ei/E2 of the
network in Fig. P 1-ll(b). The two-port N is the same in both cases.
Fig. P 1-11
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK THEORY 37
(b) The transfer admittance of the network shown in Fig. P 1-1 l(c) is
v - li ?/i2
'" ~ £i 1 + Vn
Show that this function is also the short-circuit admittance 1i/E2 of the
network in Fig. P 1-1 l(d). The two-port N is the same in both cases. This
problem indicates that the situation in which the load is either a short or
an open circuit while the source impedance is finite can be handled by the
methods that apply when the load is finite and the source is either a current
source or a voltage source.
-
*'
'.
X
2
Synthesis of One-Ports with Two Kinds of Elements
In the classification of networks according to the number of external
terminals the two-terminal network, or one-port, is the simplest. We shall
now embark on the task of the synthesis of one-ports. At this point it is
possible to proceed along one of two paths. We could treat the general
case of RLC networks immediately. The results for networks containing
only two kinds of elements would then follow as special cases. However,
it is easier to treat the special cases first. Furthermore, patterns of thought
that are useful in the general case can be developed for the special case
rather naturally. Hence in this chapter we shall restrict ourselves to one-
ports containing only two kinds of elements. Historically the LC case was
treated first. Modern network synthesis was born when Foster first stated
his theorem in 1924. Foster's work was extended by Cauer shortly there-
after to the case of RC and RL networks.
2-1. Lossless one-ports
Networks in which resistance is absent—and hence F = 0—are called
lossless networks. They are also sometimes called "reactance" networks.
The driving-point impedance of a lossless one-port can be obtained by
using the expression in Eq. (1-9), in which the elements of the determinant
are
bJk = sLjk + && (2-1)
o
Recall that A is the determinant of the network with the input terminals
short-circuited, while An is a principal cofactor. But An is also the deter-
minant of the network with the input terminals open. The zeros of A are
38
Sec. 2-1 SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS 39
the natural frequencies of the network with short-circuited terminals,
while the zeros of An are the natural frequencies with the terminals open.
Since the natural frequencies of a lossless network lie on the ju axis, as
shown in Chap. 1, both the poles and zeros of Z(s) lie on the ju axis.
Now consider Eq. (1-65) for the driving-point impedance function, and
assume that /: is real and equal to unity. This amounts to making a par-
ticular choice for the zero reference of angles and a magnitude normaliza-
tion of the impedance. Since for a lossless network Fa = 0, and since
s = a + ju, we get
= U(a,u) + jX(<x,o) (2-2)
where U and X are the real and imaginary parts of Z. Of course, when
a = 0, the real part is zero. Parenthetically, note that U > 0 when a > 0
and U < 0 when a < 0, as well. We are particularly interested in the
behavior of this function for s = ju, for which values Z(s) = Z(Ju) =
jX(0,u). We can obtain some knowledge of this function if we determine
the slope dX/du. To this end, note that Z(s) is an analytic function of s
so that the Cauchy-Riemann equations involving its real and imaginary
parts will apply. Using one of these, we get
f - f <M»
da oo)
In taking the derivative of U we must remember that the energy functions
are themselves functions of s (and hence of a and w). Thus
dU a dT„ Vo(u* - Q a dVo
da °"r da "r (<72 + w2)2 ^a* + u2da K'
Combining Eqs. (2-3) and (2-4) and setting a = 0, we get
dX
dw ,
Let us now observe that To and Vo are positive semidefinite quadratic
forms. However, their sum must be positive definite, except in trivial
cases which correspond to short circuits in the network. This is most
easily understood by noting that To + Vo/u2, for s = ju, is just twice the
sum of the average energy stored in the inductances and capacitances of
the network. This sum is strictly positive for all values of w. Equation
(2-5) states the important result that the slope of a reactance function is
strictly positive at all frequencies. An alternate way of expressing this is
found by writing
= ^ = T„ + ^° >0 (2-5)
40 SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS Sec. 2-1
dX _ d(jX) = dZ(s)
du d(ju) ds
(2-6)
It is now a simple matter to show that the positive-slope property is also
valid for the admittance as well as the impedance. Thus
ds ds\Z) Z2 ds ('
When s = ju, Z(ju) = jX and so Z"(ju) will be negative. This establishes
the result that dY/ds > 0 when s = ju.
Using this property of reactance functions, it is possible to derive many
other properties very simply. We already know that the poles and zeros
lie on the ju axis. Invoking the positiveness of slope, we can now state
that the poles and zeros of Z(s) must be simple. To show this, let so = jcoo
be a zero of Z(s). Then Z(s) can be expanded in a Taylor series about jua.
Since Z(juo) = 0, the first term will be absent. Thus
_. . dZ(juo) . . , 1 d2Z(jug) . . . . .
Z(s) = Js (s - juo) + ^y rf;2 (s - jwo)2 + ... (2-8)
If 8 = juo is a zero of multiplicity greater than 1, then the first derivative
will also be zero &tjuo. This contradicts the positiveness of slope property.
Therefore the zero must be simple. The simplicity of the poles of Z(s)
may be established by considering the zeros of Y(s) = 1/Z(s) and using
the same argument. Hence the factors of the numerator and denominator
of Z(s) must be of the form s2 + w,2.
Another property we can derive simply is the alternation property of
zeros and poles. A little thought will show that, if Z(s) has two successive
zeros, with no intervening poles, the slope of the curve of X(u> ) versus w
will of necessity become negative somewhere between the two zeros. The
same result will be true if there are two successive poles. Hence between
every two zeros of Z(s) there must be a pole, and vice versa.
We have now established that the numerator and denominator of Z(s)
are polynomials with simple zeros on the ju axis. Each factor in the
numerator and denominator due to a pair of conjugate zeros or poles is of
the form s2 + u}. The value of each such factor is real when s = ju. But
since Z(ju) must be imaginary, we conclude that either the numerator or
the denominator must have a factor s. That is to say, Z(s) will have
either a pole or a zero at s = 0. Considering the other extremity of the
frequency range, we know that any pole or zero of Z(s) at infinity must be
simple. This means that the highest power in the numerator cannot differ
trom that of the denominator by more than 1. The two highest powers
certainly cannot be the same, because this would require Z(ju) to be real.
Sec. 2-1
41
SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS
Hence the two highest powers must differ by exactly unity. This means
that Z(s) has either a pole or a zero at infinity. Thus both extremities of
the frequency range are critical points (pole or zero) of Z(s).
With the knowledge of Z(s) which we have now acquired we can write
Oo + a2s2 + . . . + s"
Z(s) = K
ha + MJ''+
. + s2'
=K
_•
(s2 + u?)(s2 + wl) . â– â– (*2 + wt)2
•(•. +«|) ...(•» +«!_,) (2-9)
In this expression Z(s) has a pole both at the origin and at infinity. In
other cases these two points may both be zeros of Z(s), or one may be a
pole and the other a zero. In other words, Z(s) is an odd rational function
(the ratio of two polynomials, one of which is odd and the other even).
We have shown that the zeros and poles of Z(s) are simple and alternate
on the jo> axis. Furthermore, Z(s) will have a zero or pole at both zero and
infinity. The slope of X(u) with respect to frequency will always be posi-
tive. A typical plot of X(u) is shown in Fig. 2-1. In this plot both the
-e—x—e-
-o-
(b)
Fig. 2-1. Typical reactance function.
origin and infinity arc singular points, but either may be zero for other
reactance functions. When the actual values of the reactance are not
needed but only the pole-zero distribution is of importance, the plot shown
in part (b) of the figure can be used. This gives the frequency pattern of
the given function. For completeness the critical points on the negative
half of the axis should be included, but this information is redundant.
Additional useful properties of reactance functions can be derived
42 SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS Sec. 2-1
based on the positive-slope property. One such property involves the
residues of Z(s) at its poles. Let Z(s) have a pole at s = juo with residue fco-
Suppose we expand Z(s) in a Laurent series and differentiate. The result
will be
Z(s) = —^t- + a„ + ai(s - j«o) + a2(s - jwo)2 + . . . (2-10)
8 J02o
dZ fco
. ■, ,2 + at + 2a2(s - j«o) + . . . (2-11)
ds (s - j«o)2
Now let us restrict s to the jw axis. In the vicinity of the pole the first
term will dominate. Thus the last equation becomes
dZ(s)
ds
/n > 0 (2-12)
;« 0« — >*,)* (« ~ wo)2
The approximation gets better, of course, as s approaches jW From the
positiveness of the slope of the reactance function it follows that the
residue must be real and positive. The residue at s = —jwo is also equal
to ko since the residues at conjugate poles are conjugates (see Prob. 2-14).
So far we have dealt almost exclusively with the impedance function
Z(s). Since the positive-slope property applies to Y(s) as well, everything
we have proved about poles and zeros and residues applies to Y(s) also.
Another interesting property of reactance functions can be easily
established. If we take the ratio of dX/du as given in Eq. (2-5) and \X/u\
as given in Eq. (1-65) (with Ix = 1 and Fo = 0), we get
dX/do _ To + Fo/w2 . , fo iri
\X/u\ ~ |T. - Vo/u*\ ~ * (Z.U)
dX
or -r~
X
(2-14)
This condition is even stronger than the positiveness of slope. It says that
the slope at any point on a reactance curve will be no less than the magni-
tude of the slope of a straight line drawn from the origin to that point. A
similar conclusion follows from a consideration of the susceptance slope.
Thus
dB>
doi ~~
B
(2-15)
where Y(ja) = jB(w).
We have now established the necessary conditions that Z(s) be the
driving-point impedance of an LC network. The proof of these conditions
was based on the positive definite character of the energy functions. The
first condition that was proved, using this property ol the energy functions,
Sec. 2-2 SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS 43
was the positiveness of the slope of the reactance. Since the susceptance
was also shown to have a positive slope, the same properties can be estab-
lished for an admittance. As a matter of fact, the impedance and the
admittance of lossless networks satisfy identical conditions. A given
rational function satisfying these conditions may be the impedance of one
network while it is simultaneously the admittance of a second network.
Thus we shall use the term reactance function to mean either the impedance
or the admittance of an LC network.
When a rational function is given and we wish to determine whether
or not it is a reactance function, it is not necessary to check it against all
the necessary conditions we have established. In fact, since all the other
conditions came from the positiveness of slope, we can apply only this
latter criterion. However, this would require us to calculate the slope for
all values of w. Furthermore, even if we find that the rational function
satisfies this necessary condition, we do not know how to use this con-
dition alone to synthesize a network from the given function, thus proving
the sufficiency of the condition. In the next section we shall show that the
following set of necessary conditions is also sufficient:
Necessary and sufficient conditions that F(s) be the driving-point imped-
ance or admittance of a lossless network are
1. F(s) has simple poles restricted to theju axis.
2. The residues at the poles are real and positive.
2-2. Synthesis of lossless one-ports
In the previous section we derived the properties of the impedance and
admittance functions of LC one-ports. We found necessary conditions that
such a function must satisfy. This constitutes network analysis.
We now have the problem of determining sufficient conditions for
a function to be the immittancef of a lossless network. This is part of
network synthesis. Proving the sufficiency of a set of conditions involves
finding a network whenever a function satisfying the set of conditions is
given. However, a distinguishing feature of synthesis, contrasted with
analysis, is the fact that a network realization of a given function (assum-
ing one exists) is not unique. That is, there are a large number of equivalent
networks realizing a given (realizable) function. Not all these networks
t This term combines the words impedance and admittance. Since both of these
functions have identical properties, it is convenient to use a single word in referring to
them, whenever it is unimportant whether we mean E/I or I IE.
44 SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS Sec. 2-2
will be desirable, from the point of view of structure, number of elements,
etc.
The job we have before us, then, is the determination of the sufficient
conditions for realizability of a reactance function and the realization of
one or more networks. The fundamental process of network synthesis was
outlined in the introduction. This involves piecemeal decomposition of
the given function such that each simple function can be realized as a
simple component network. In the present case the process is even simpler
because a complete breakdown of the function can be performed at the
outset, and each term in the breakdown can be recognized as a simple net-
work. In this way the realization is accomplished in one step.
We begin by writing
r W4;
This function can represent the general reactance function, since a more
complicated function differs from this only in having more zeros and poles.
We have already shown it to be necessary that the poles and zeros be
simple and that the residues at these poles be positive. Now suppose that
Z(s) in Eq. (2-16) satisfies these conditions. The first step requires ex-
panding Z(s) in partial fractions.
U5 S- -f W}
Here the k's are residues at the corresponding poles, and the two terms
involving a pair of conjugate poles have been grouped together into a
single term. The residue at infinity is obtained formally by taking
= kn (2-18)
The residues of rational functions at simple poles are usually found by
evaluating the expression
ki = (s - s,)Z(s)|"-.l (2-19)
However, in the case of reactance functions a simpler expression can be
found. Thus let us multiply both sides of Eq. (2-17) by (s? + w?)/2s and
evaluate at s2 = — w?. The result will be
2s (2-20)
In evaluating the residue by this formula only real numbers will be in-
volved. It is now clear that the partial-fraction expansion of an arbitrary
reactance function will have the form
Sec. 2-2 SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS 45
(2-2D
Equation (2-21) tells us that Z(s) is the sum of several component
impedances. The first and second terms are immediately recognized as
the impedances of an inductance and a capacitance, respectively. Each
r-
Fig. 2-2. Antiresonant circuit. Fig. 2-3. First Foster form of lossless
one-port.
of the remaining terms will be recognized as the impedance of a parallel
resonant circuit as shown in Fig. 2-2. For this circuit we can write
rj I \
Zl(s) =
A + 1 s° + (1/L.C.)
By comparing this expression for Z, ivi;Kt,v*e.torms in Eq. (2-21) we find
C' = (a)
(2-23)
T * _ 2^-
Li
Hence the complete network realization of the given impedance will take
the form shown in Fig. 2-3. The only way in which other reactance one-
ports can differ from this one is in the addition of more parallel-tuned
circuits, representing additional impedance poles, or in the absence of
either Co or Lx, or both, if the corresponding poles at zero or infinity are
also absent.
This concludes the demonstration that the conditions already expressed
as necessary are also sufficient for the realization of a reactance function.
However, we have still the problem of determining other (equivalent)
network realizations.
An alternate synthesis procedure starts with a consideration of the
admittance function. Corresponding to the impedance of Eq. (2-16), we
shall have
46
Sec. 2-2
SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS
+ uj)
(2_24)
_
S2 + 0>f S2 + w1 «2 + ujj
The partial-fraction expansion is shown in the last line. This equation
tells us that the over-all admittance is made up of the sum of a number of
component admittances. We readily recognize each term in Eq. (2-24) to
T"Ce
—T±I
Fig. 2-4. Resonant circuit.
Fig. 2-5. Second Foster form of lossless
one-port.
be the admittance of the series-tuned circuit shown in Fig. 2-4. The
admittance of this circuit is
V
sCi
.,
Comparing this expression with one of the terms in the preceding partial
fraction expansion, we find
(2-26)
uf
0»
The admittance of Eq. (2-24) has a zero at both zero and infinity.
Other admittance functions can differ from this by having a pole at zero
or at infinity. Thus the partial fraction expansion of the general admit-
tance function will have the form
++
(2-27)
The pole at infinity can be realized as a shunt capacitance, while the pole
at the origin can be realized as a shunt inductance. The complete realiza-
tion is shown in Fig. 2-5.
We have now found two network realizations of a given reactance
function. These were first introduced by Foster and carry his name. It is
interesting to notice that both realizations have the same number of
Sec. 2-2 SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS 47
elements and that this number is the same as the number of pieces of
information needed to specify the function completely. In Eq. (2-16) the
six quantities «i, w3, oi6 (tne zeros), w2, £04 (the poles), and /f (the impedance-
level factor) completely determine Z(s). In Eq. (2-17) the two pole loca-
tions and the four residues serve the same purpose. The network should
have at least as many variable parameters (the network elements) as the
function representing it has. It is apparent that the Foster realizations
have the minimum number of elements that will realize the given function.
In this sense they are called canonic forms.
Other equivalent realizations of a reactance function may be found by
proceeding alternately first on an impedance, then on an admittance basis.
One or more impedance poles may be realized in the first Foster form.
Then the remainder function may be inverted and one or more admittance
poles realized in the second Foster form. This procedure may be carried
out until there is no remainder. At each step the remainder function will
indeed be a reactance function.
Two network realizations which are also canonic can be obtained by
proceeding in a special way according to the method just described. These
were first presented by Cauer and are called Cower forms. In the first
Cauer form we deal exclusively with the pole at infinity. Either the
impedance or the admittance must have a pole at infinity. In the former
case the pole is removed and realized as a series inductance. The remain-
ing impedance will have a zero at infinity so that its reciprocal will have a
pole there. This pole is removed and realized as a shunt capacitance leav-
ing an admittance with a zero at infinity. The impedance will then have
a pole at infinity. The procedure of removing the pole at infinity alter-
nately from the impedance and then the admittance can be continued
until the function is exhausted. The resulting network will be a ladder
with the appearance of Fig. 2-6.
Fig. 2-6. First Cauer form.
If the original impedance has no pole at infinity, the first series induct-
ance will be absent and the network will start with a shunt capacitance.
Observe that the network of Fig. 2-6 has an impedance pole at zero fre-
quency. Hence, if the original impedance has a zero at s = 0, the final
shunt capacitance must be absent in the realization.
48
Sec. 2-2
SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS
The second Cauer form is the dual of the first. We deal exclusively
with the pole at s = 0; either Z(s) or Y(s) must have a pole there. Suppose
Z(s) has a pole at s = 0. This is removed and realized as a series capaci-
tance. The remainder has an admittance pole at zero, which is realized as
a shunt inductance. The process is repeated until there is no remainder.
The realization is a ladder network of the form shown in Fig. 2-7. The
o—K-
-K—r~-1'
Fig. 2-7. Second C'liuer form.
initial capacitance will be absent if the original impedance has no pole at
zero. Observe that the impedance of Fig. 2-7 has a pole at infinite fre-
quency. Hence, if the original impedance has no pole at infinity, the final
shunt inductance must be absent in the realization.
The formal procedure in the alternate removal of an impedance and
admittance pole at infinity or zero is carried out by noting that the imped-
ance function of a ladder structure can be expressed as a continued frac-
Fig. 2-8. Ladder network.
tion. In the network of Fig. 2-8 the series branches are labeled Z and the
shunt branches Y. The impedance of the network can be written
1 (2-28)
Z = Z,
1
Such a continued fraction expansion of a given impedance function
may be obtained as follows: (1) Divide the denominator into the numera-
tor, starting with the highest powers, as in long division, stopping after
Sec. 2-2 SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS 49
the first term. The degree of the numerator of the remainder will be two
lower than it was and one lower than that of the denominator (assuming
that the impedance initially had a pole at infinity). (2) Invert the remain-
der function, and divide again, stopping after the first term. (3) Carry out
the successive divisions and inversions until the process terminates. The
process will surely terminate, since after each division the degree of the
remaining numerator will he two less than it was before division. Of course,
if the original function has no pole at infinity, then we first invert before
carrying out the division. This procedure will give the first Cauer form.
Alternatively the division may be carried out by starting with the
lowest powers. This will lead to the second Cauer form. Of course, if the
original function has no pole at zero, then we invert first before dividing.
In the Cauer division process an element of the network is obtained
every time a division is performed. A little thought will show that the
number of divisions that must be performed before the process terminates
is equal to the order of the rational function. T<y the order of a rational
function we shall mean the order of the numerator or denominator, which-
ever is higher. Thus, if Z(s) is
K
^
«(s" + &n_2s"-> + . . . + fe«' + 6o) -
its order is n + 1. Furthermore, there are n/2 coefficients in the numerator
and the same number of b coefficients in the denominator. The total
number of quantities which characterize the impedance, including the
impedance-level factor K, is thus n + 1 , the same as the order. Hence
the number of elements in the Cauer realizations is the same as that in the
Foster realizations, this being the minimum number needed to realize
the given impedance. Thus the Cauer forms are also canonic.
Other equivalent realizations may be obtained by alternately employ-
ing either Foster or either Cauer development. If you will observe that,
at each step, it is not necessary to remove all of an impedance or admit-
tance pole but only part of one, then you will see that an infinite number
of realizations is possible. These, of course, will contain redundant ele-
ments and so will not be canonic. Such realizations may be useful in
practice if they lead to more convenient or available element values.
As an example of these synthesis procedures, consider the impedance
function
„, . _ (s2 + l)(s' + 9) _ s* + 10s2 + 9
w ~~ «(s2 + 4) s3 + 4s
SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS
Sec. 2-?
This impedance satisfies the necessary and sufficient conditions for realiza-
bility. The partial fraction expansion of Z(s) leads to the first Foster form
shown in Fig. 2-9(a).
o 'TJWP-
4/9
-M-
_^__
IS
"
Fig. 2-9. Foster networks for numerical example.
Alternatively we can expand the admittance in partial fractions, to
obtain
«(s' + 4)
3s/8 5s/8
(s2 + !)(«' * 9) s2 + 1 s2 + 9
The second Foster form is. shown in Fig. 2-9(b).
Since the given Z(s) in Eq. (2-27) has a pole both at zero and at infinity,
we can obtain both Cauer forms by starting the division with the given
function before inverting. Starting with the highest powers, the division
process is carried out as follows:
«4 + 10s8 + 9
s3+4s
Ks' + 9
I k8 *-
6s1 +9
6s2
This leads to the continued-fraction expansion
1
Z(s) = s +
1
6+12s J_
5 5s
18
The corresponding network is shown in Fig. 2-10(a).
Sec. 2-2
51
SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS
12/5
(a) (b)
Fig. 2-10. Cauer networks for numerical example.
The second Cauer form is obtained by starting the division with the
lowest powers.
9 + 10sz
!*.
This leads to the continued-fraction expansion
,, 9 . 1
_L^_ _|
31s 961
60s
1
1
J5.
31s
The corresponding network is shown in Fig. 2-10(b). Observe that all the
realizations have the same number of elements.
Besides these canonic realizations any number of other realizations
can be obtained by partial removal of a pole at any step in the Foster or
Cauer procedures. Thus, suppose after subtracting the pole of Z(s) at
infinity as in the first Cauer form, we invert the remaining function and
expand in partial fractions. The result will be
6(s' + 3/2)
s(s2 + 4)
Zi(8) = Z(s) - s =
1
5s/12
6(s2 + 3/2) ~ 6 ' s2 + 3/2
(s2 + 4) s
52 SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS Sec. 2-3
Instead of removing the entire pole of Yi at infinity, suppose we remove
half of it. This will lead to a shunt capacitance of value 1/12 instead of
1/6. If we take the reciprocal of the remaining admittance, we will get
7 = 1 = 36^ , 120«/13
2 F, - s/12 13s + s2 + 13/2
This may now be realized in a Foster network. The complete realization
is shown in Fig. 2-11. Of course, at this stage we could again only partially
Fig. 2-11. Non-canonic realization of numerical example.
subtract one of the terms in Z2 and carry on. This will lead to a more
extensive network.
2-3. RC one-ports
There are two alternate methods of procedure in establishing the prop-
erties of RC (and also RL) driving-point immittances. It is possible to
return to Eq. (1-65), which is valid for any driving-point impedance, and
parallel the development for LC networks in terms of the energy functions.
This is a completely satisfactory procedure. However, it means that we
will need to repeat some of the things we have already done. If we can
find a transformation that will transform the impedance of an RC network
into that of an LC network, we can use the results already established for
such networks in obtaining the properties of RC networks. We shall
follow this latter procedure in order to bring variety into our experience.
The driving-point impedance of a network is given as a ratio of deter-
minants in Eq. (1-9). For an RC network the elements of the determinant
will be bjt = Rjk + Djk/s. Let us make the transformation s = pK Then
** = ** + ^ = I (pR* + y) = l % 0*)
where b'jt = vRik + ^ (2-32)
Since 1/p is a common factor of each element in A and in An, it may be
Sec. 2-3 SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS 53
factored out of each row of both determinants. Let n be the number of
rows in A. Then
A'(p) (a)
(2-33)
An(«) = An(p2) = ^n A,'i(p) (b)
where A'(p) is the determinant whose elements are &/». Note that 6/* is
identical in form with the elements of the determinant of an LC network
with the complex-frequency variable labeled p and R # replacing L/*. The
impedance function becomes
Z«K.) = Zrt» - £gl - 1 |$i - 1 Zu(p) (2-34)
This expression gives us the desired relationship. It tells us that, if we
have the impedance function of an LC network with p as the complex-
frequency variable and we divide this function by p (which ensures only
even powers in the result) and then replace p2 by s, we will have the im-
pedance function of an RC network. Since we know the properties of
reactance functions, we can now determine those of RC impedance functions.
We have already established in Chap. 1 that the natural frequencies
of an RC network lie on the negative real axis. Since the impedance zeros
are the natural frequencies of the short-circuited network and the poles
are those of the open-circuited network, both will be negative real. We
can arrive at the same conclusion by considering a reactance function and
its partial-fraction expansion, as given in Eq. (2-17) for example. We
should change the complex-frequency variable to p, in order to comply
with the notation in this section. If we now divide this expression by p
and replace p2 by s, we shall get, according to Eq. (2-34),
= fc. + - + -xh + JrS (2-35)
s « + W2 S + M4
This is representative of the most general RC impedance function,
since others differ from this only by the inclusion of additional terms like
the last two or the deletion of one or both of the first two terms. We note
that all the poles are simple and lie on the negative real axis. There may
be a pole at s = 0 but this pole will be absent if ko = 0. In this case the
impedance will have a finite positive value at s = 0. Furthermore, there
can be no impedance pole at infinity; the value at infinity will be finite
54 SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS Sec. 2-3
and will become zero if kx is zero. The k's are the residues of the reactance
function from which Eq. (2-35) was obtained, and so they are real and
positive.
The properties of RC admittances can be considered by taking the
reciprocal of Eq. (2-34). Thus
YRC(s) = pFic(p) (2-36)
This expression indicates that to obtain an RC admittance we multiply by
p, a reactance function in which the complex-frequency variable is p;
then we let p2 = s. Since LC impedance and admittance functions have
identical properties, we can again use Eq. (2-17). Multiplying by p and
letting p2 = s, we get
YRC = A. + ^° + -^5 + -^} (2-37)
The admittance poles of an RC network are thus shown to be simple and
to lie on the negative real axis. The admittance may have a pole at infinity,
or it may have a finite value there (if kx is zero). At the origin the admit-
tance is finite; it will be zero if fco = 0. The k's in Eq. (2-37) are the
residues, not of YRC, but of YRC/s. Thus we conclude that the residues of
YRC/s are positive. Note that YRC/s will be finite at infinity, its value
there being kx.
The partial-fraction expansions we have written for RC impedance
and admittance function have used the notation of the corresponding
reactance function. For future reference we should write these in a more
natural notation. Thus
ZRC(s) = fc« + - + f" —r- (2-38)
YRC(s) = kxs + A-o + £ ~^i (2-39)
These are general expressions. Although we have used the same notation
for the poles and residues of both Z and Y, these are of course different.
Note that the second equation is obtained by expanding, not Y, but Y/'s,
in partial fractions and then multiplying the result by s. Thus the k'e are
residues of Y/s.
Using the partial-fraction expansions in the previous equations, we
can very simply establish a property analogous to the positiveness of
slope of reactance functions for s = ju. If we take the derivatives of
these two equations for real values of s, we will get
Sec. 2-3
55
SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS
fc.o-,
(2-40)
(b)
d' t={ (" + *,)'
Since the fci's and o-,'s are all positive, it immediately follows that
(b)
(2-41)
In words, this result says that the slope of an RC impedance function is
strictly negative, while the slope of an RC admittance function is strictly
positive, when these functions are plotted against real values of s.
This result shows a basic distinction between LC and RC functions.
Whereas LC impedances and admittances are members of the same class
of functions, RC impedances and admittances fall in two distinct classes.
We have already seen that the zeros and poles of an RC impedance or
admittance are simple and lie on the negative real axis. From the fact
that these functions are monotonic when s is real, it is easy to see that the
zeros and poles must alternate.
(a) Const, atzero,.
const, at oo
(b) Const, at zero;
zero at oo
(c) Pole at zero;
const, at oo
(d) Pole at zero;
zero at oo
Fig. 2-12. Typical AC impedance or RL admittance functions.
56
Sec. 2-3
SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS
1I i
(a) Const, at zero;
const, at oo
(b) Const, at zero;
pole at oo
Y(cr)
(c) Zero at zero;
const, at oo
(d) Zero at zero;
pole at oo
Fig. 2-13. Typicul RC admittance or RL impedance functions.
Typical plots of RC impedance and admittance functions are shown in
Figs. 2-12 and 2-13. Four cases of each are shown, indicating possible
behavior at the origin and at infinity. It will later be shown that these
same plots apply to RL immittance functions also.
We can now summarize the properties of the impedance and admittance
functions of RC one-ports. These are rational functions in s with simple
alternating zeros and poles restricted to the negative real axis.
In the case of an impedance function the first critical point (zero or
pole) starting from the origin is a pole. The origin may or may not be a
pole. There can be no pole at infinity, so that the degree of the numerator
cannot exceed that of the denominator. The slope of Z(s) will be negative
for all real values of s. The residues of Z(s) at all its poles will be positive.
The partial-fraction expansion takes the form given in Eq. (2-38). When
s = ju, the impedance will be complex. Its real and imaginary parts can
be found readily by rationalizing each term in the partial-fraction expan
sion. The result is
Re [Z(j«)] = k. +
(a)
(b)
(2-42)
From these expressions two conclusions can be drawn immediately:
Sec. 2-3 SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS 57
1. The imaginary part of an RC impedance is negative along the posi-
tive imaginary axis.
2. The real part of an RC impedance is a monotonically decreasing
function of frequency. This means that the slope of the real part is always
negative along the ju axis. This property can be established by differen-
tiating Eq. (2-42a). But it follows quite readily by noting that each term
of the summation in that equation decreases with «. Thus the real part
of the impedance has a higher value at zero frequency than it has at
infinite frequency. This property of the real part should not be confused
with the negativeness of the slope of Z(a).
In the case of an RC admittance function the first critical point starting
from the origin is a zero. There can be no pole at the origin. The point at
infinity may or may not be a pole, so that the degree of the denominator
cannot exceed that of the numerator. The slope of the admittance func-
tion will be positive for all real values of s. The residues of the function
F(s)/s will be positive at all its poles. Thus, given an RC admittance
function, we form the partial fraction expansion of Y(s)/s. After multi-
plying through by s this takes the form of Eq. (2-39). The real and im-
aginary parts of the admittance for imaginary values of s can be found
from the partial-fraction expansion. The result is
„ (2-43)
Im
It follows that:
1. The imaginary part of an RC admittance is positive along the posi-
tive imaginary axis.
2. The real part of an RC admittance is a monotonically increasing
function of w. This means that the slope of the real part, when plotted
against u, is always positive.
Having established the necessary conditions satisfied by RC imped-
ance and admittance functions, we shall now show that these are also
sufficient by constructing at least one network when a function satisfying
the necessary conditions is given. The basic pattern has already been
established for LC networks.
According to the partial-fraction expansion in Eq. (2-38), an RC
impedance is the sum of several component impedances. The first term,
being a constant, corresponds to a resistance, while the second term is
58
Sec. 2-3
SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS
realized as a capacitance. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2-14(a). Its
impedance is
Ri l/Ct
Zi =
(2-44)
sRiCi +1 s + I/Rid
By comparing this expression for Z, with the other terms in the partial-
fraction expansion in Eq. (2-38), we can write
C=-
K< First
p 1 _ A;. Foster
CiCi <ii form
(2-45)
Thus the complete realization of the function takes the form of Fig. 2-14(b).
This is similar to the first Foster form for LC networks, but instead of
inductance we have resistance. It was first developed by Cauer (24).
ci
Zi
Laa/v-J
Tci yRi
(a) (b)
Fig. 2-14. First Foster form of RC one-port.
Alternatively, the second Foster form can be obtained by a considera-
tion of the partial-fraction expansion of the Y/s function as in Eq. (2-39).
r
o—
*zCc
(a)
Fig. 2-15. Second Foster form of RC one-port.
The first two terms in the expansion are readily recognized as a shunt
capacitance and a shunt resistance. The admittance of the circuit of Fig.
2-15(a) is
Sec. 2-3
59
SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS
"1 + sCiRi s + l/dRi ^2A&)
By comparing the expression for Yi with the terms in Eq. (2-39) we can
identify the parameters as
f !•
\^n fl/o,
1 Second
'= kt Foster (2-47)
| le form
-~ 1 Aft,.
Note that both Foster forms will contain the same number of elements
as there are parameters in the partial-fraction expansion specifying the
impedance or admittance. Hence these realizations contain the minimum
possible number of elements, and in this sense they are canonic.
We could have obtained these realizations alternatively by a considera-
tion of the transformation used in going from the LC to the RC network.
Thus Eq. (2-32) shows that replacing inductance by resistance leads from
the LC realization to the RC realization. Figure 2-14(b) follows from Fig.
2-3 by substituting resistance for inductance. This is also apparent by
comparing the formulas for the element values in Eqs. (2-23) and (2-45).
The transformation s = p2 shows that uf = o> There appears to be a
difference of a factor of 2, but this is due only to a difference of notation.
The fc, appearing in Eqs. (2-45) is the coefficient of a term in the partial-
fraction expansion of Eq. (2-38). The coefficient of the corresponding
term in the expansion of the reactance function of Eq. (2-21) is 2^i. Thus
one way of obtaining the Foster realizations of a given RC impedance is
to replace s by p2, then multiply by p, obtaining a reactance function,
according to Eq. (2-34). In the Foster realization of this reactance func-
tion replace L's by R's, and the job is complete.
o—WW-VW-f
"K-HH-H
(a) (b)
Fig. 2-16. Cauer forms of RC one-port.
The two Cauer forms shown in Fig. 2-16 can be obtained by using the
same line of reasoning. However, in actually realizing a given RC imped-
ance function, it is not necessary to transform first to an LC function.
60 SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS Sec. 2-4
The Cauer division can be performed directly on the given RC function.
In performing the Cauer division more caution must be exercised than in
the case of lossless networks. The reason for this is that RC impedances
and admittances behave differently at zero and infinite frequency.
We have seen that the minimum value of the real part of an RC imped-
ance on the ju axis occurs at infinity. Suppose that an RC impedance
function is given, regular at the origin and having a nonzero value at
infinity. That is,
ons" + On-is""i + . . . + ais + ao
If we start the Cauer division from the highest powers, we shall get an/6.
as the first term, while starting from the lowest powers will give ao/6o as
the first term. These are the infinite-frequency and zero-frequency values
of Z(s), respectively; so we know that on/6n < OO/&O- Hence, if we start
the division from the lowest powers, we shall be subtracting from Z(s) a
constant larger than the infinite frequency value of Z(s), thus leaving an
impedance which has a negative value at infinity. Clearly, this makes no
sense. There is no choice of the end from which the Cauer division is
started.
Thus the first Cauer form is obtained by dealing with the infinite-
frequency behavior, alternately of the impedance and the admittance
remaining after each step. Similarly, the second Cauer form is obtained
by dealing with the zero-frequency behavior of these two functions.
2-4. RL one-ports
The properties of RL impedance and admittance functions can be
established in the same manner as the properties of RC functions. The
elements in the determinant of an RL network are 6;* = sLjk + Rjk. Let
us again make the transformation s = p2. Then
bj* = p2Ljk + Rjk = p(pLjk + ^ = pbj\ (2-49)
where 6/t = pL>k + $* (2-50)
The last expression has the same form as the elements in the determinant
of an LC network except that inverse capacitance is replaced by resistance.
The factor p is common in each element of A and AH. Equations similar
to Eqs. (2-33) can be written, but with p" and p"~l in the numerator in-
S«c. 2-4
61
SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS
stead of the denominator. Hence, when we take the ratio of A and An, an
extra p is left after cancellation so that we get
ZRL(s) = pZLC(p) (2-51)
with the transformation s = p2. If we take the reciprocal, we see that
YRL(s) = FLC(p)
(2-52)
If we compare these last two expressions with Eqs. (2-36) and (2-34),
respectively, remembering that lossless impedance and admittance func-
tions have identical properties, we see that an RL impedance function is
identical with an RC admittance function and that an RL admittance is
identical with an RC impedance function. Hence we do not need to make any
separate study of the properties of RL immittances. Figures 2-12 and 2-13
were labeled in terms of RL functions as well as RC functions in anticipa-
tion of the result just established. The partial-fraction expansion in Eq.
(2-38) can be labeled YKL as well as ZRC, while the expansion in Eq. (2-39)
can be labeled ZRL as well as YBC.
The Foster-form realizations of an RL driving-point function are
obtained from the partial-fraction expansions of the impedance and the
admittance in the same manner as for an RC function, with obvious
changes in the type of element. Because of the interchange of admittances
and impedance the two Foster forms will be the duals of the two RC
(a) (b)
Fig. 2-17. Foster forms of RL one-ports.
Foster forms. The network realizations are shown in Fig. 2-17. The
element values are obtained by duality considerations from the corre-
sponding elements of RC networks. Thus for the first Foster form we have
62
Sec. 2-5
SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS
R" = V
(2-53)
Similarly the element values of the second Foster form are
Ri = k(
Since Yrl = Z«c, the continued fraction expansion of an RC imped-
ance can be considered to be the expansion of an RL admittance. Thus
(2-54)
(a) (b)
Fig. 2-18. Cauer forms of RL one-ports.
the Cauer realizations of an RL driving-point function will also be the
duals of the corresponding RC network. The two Cauer forms are shown
in Fig. 2-18.
2-5. Summary of properties of two element one-ports
I. LC networks
A. Necessary and sufficient conditions for driving-point immit-
tances
1. Rational function with simple poles restricted to ju axis
2. Residues at poles real and positive
B. Other properties of driving-point immittances
1. Simple zeros restricted to ju axis
2. Zeros and poles alternate
3. Ratio of odd-even or even-odd polynomials
4. Slope of reactance or susceptance vs. frequency curve
strictly positive
Sec. 2-5 SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS 63
5. Slope of reactance or susceptance at any point on curve
greater than the magnitude of the slope of a straight line
drawn from the origin to the point
6. Real part of impedance or admittance positive, zero, or
negative when real part of s is positive, zero, or negative,
respectively
II. RC and RL networks
A. Necessary and sufficient conditions for ZRC or YRL
l. Rational function with simple poles restricted to negative a
axis
2. Residues of ZRC or YRL at all poles positive
3. No pole at infinity
B. Other properties of ZRC or YRL
l. Simple zeros restricted to negative a axis
2. Zeros and poles alternate
3. First critical point on a axis is a pole
4. Slope of ZRC(O) or YRL(a) strictly negative
5. The imaginary part of ZRC(JU>) or FstO'w) negative
6. The real part of ZKC(ju/) or YRL(ju), a monotonically de-
creasing function
7. Minimum value of real part for s = ju occurs at infinity.
C. Necessary and sufficient conditions for YRC or ZRL
1. Rational function with simple poles restricted to negative
er axis
2. Residues of YRC/s or ZRL/s positive
3. No pole at s = 0
D. Other properties of YRC or ZKL
1. Simple zeros restricted to negative a axis
2. Zeros and poles alternate
3. First critical point on a axis is a zero
4. Slope of YRc(a) or ZRL(a) strictly positive
5. Imaginary part of YRC(JU) or ZKL(ju) positive
6. Real part of YBC(ju) or ZRL(ju) a monotonically increasing
function
7. Minimum value of real part for s = jw occurs at zero
PROBLEMS
2-1. Find the Foster and Cauer canonic forms for the following
reactance functions: (a) Z(s) has poles at s = 0, ±j3/2 and ±j4. It has
64 SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS
zeros at s — ±jl, ±j3, and ±j5. The residue in the pole at the origin is 2.
(f + wj)
&
ui = 1
W2 = 2
dZ
ds
=2
.-/i
=1
=>z
2-2. The impedance of a certain transmission line is given by
Z(s) = coth ITs. Find a lumped-parameter lossless network whose im-
pedance Zo(s) approximates the given one at low frequencies, (a) Choose
two pairs of internal poles and two pairs of internal zeros of Zo(s) to coincide
with those of coth ITS.
(b) Choose two pairs of internal poles of Zo(s) and their residues to
coincide with those of coth -ITs.
(c) Choose two pairs of internal poles of Yo(s) = l/Zo(s) and their
residues to coincide with those of 1/coth TS.
Compare the approximation obtained in the three cases. By internal
poles or zeros is meant finite nonzero poles or zeros.
2-3. An impedance function has zeros at s = —1, —2, and —3; and
it has poles at s = —1.5 and —2.5. The function behaves like s/10 for
very large values of s. (a) Write the analytic expression for Z(s).
(b) Determine the value of the real part of Z(s) at zero and infinity.
(Is it RL or flC?)
(c) Find the four canonic forms
2-4. The admittance of an RC network has zeros at s = 0, —2, and
—5. The slope of F(er) at each of these points is unity. For large values of
s the admittance approaches the value 2. Realize one Foster and one
Cauer form for Y(s).
2-5. Prove that the residues of an RC admittance or an RL impedance
at all internal poles are negative.
2-6. Two impedances Zi and Z2 are said to be complementary if their
sum is a constant for all values of s. Complementary admittances are
similarly defined, (a) Let Zi(s) be the impedance of an RC network
having no pole at the origin and no zero at oo. It is desired to find two
other impedances Z2(s) and Z3(s) such that Zi(s) + Z2(s) = K and also
YI(S) + Y2(8) = K. Find the condition on K in terms of certain co-
SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS 65
efficients of Zi(s) such that both these conditions are simultaneously
satisfied.
Fig. P 2-6
(b) The network of Fig. P 2-6 whose impedance is Zi(s) is to be con-
nected in series or in parallel with another network with impedance Z2(s)
such that
Z,(.) + Zrf.) = 1 or -Lj + jL. = 1
Determine a Cauer form of network for Z2(s). Is it possible for both these
relationships to be satisfied simultaneously? (of course, with different Z2
functions)
2-7.! Let P(s) be a polynomial with negative real zeros only. Prove
that P'(s)/P(s) and P/sP' are RC impedance functions. The prime denotes
derivative.
Note: This will prove that P'(s) has negative real zeros only.
2-8.t Let P(s) be a poynomial with zeros on the ju axis only. Prove
that P'(s)/P(s) is an LC impedance or admittance.
2-9. t Let P(s) be a polynomial with negative real roots only. Prove
that KP(s) + sP'(s) has negative real roots only, where K is a real positive
constant.
2-10.t Let F(s) = P(s)/Q(s) be an RC admittance or an RC impedance
dnP(s) /dsn
function. Prove that , _. ', will also be an RC admittance or an RC
d"Q(s)/dsn
impedance, respectively.
2-ll.t Let Z(s) = P(s)/Q(s) be a reactance function. Prove that
d*P/ds" .
. ', . — is a reactance function.
d'Q/ds"
2-12. Let Y(s) be the admittance of an RC one-port. Then
Y(s) = kxs + ka + V yi y< = 'S
(a) Show that Im yi = u\y'<\, where y[ =
t The proofs of these results were first given by Reza (lOOa).
66 SYNTHESIS OF ONE-PORTS
(b) Show that Im Y(s) > 0 for s = a + ju, w > 0.
(c) Show that Im Y(s) > u\Y'(s)\ for s = a +ju, w > 0.
2-13. Let Z(s) be the impedance of an RC one-port; then
(a) Show that |Im z,| = w\zi\.
. (b) Show that Im Z(s) < 0 for s = a + ja, « > 0.
(c) Show that |Im Z(s)\ > w\Z'(s)\ for s = a + ju, w > 0.
2-14. Let F(s) be a rational function with real coefficients. Let so and
so be a pair of complex conjugate poles of F(s). Show that the residue at
s = so is the conjugate of the residue at s = so.
2-15. From Eq. (2-2) it is apparent that, if Z(s) is the impedance of a
lossless one-port, then
ReZ>0 if Res>0
ReZ<0 if Res<0
ReZ = 0 if Res = 0
Show that these conditions are sufficient as well as necessary for an odd
rational function with real coefficients to be a reactance function.
3
Synthesis of General Passive One-Ports
We are now ready to launch ourselves into a study of one-ports containing
all three elements, resistance, capacitance, and inductance (including
mutual inductance). In the last chapter we discussed the necessary and
sufficient conditions for a function to be the impedance or admittance
function of a one-port containing two kinds of elements only. Our objective
now is to do the same for the more general network. We have already
established that the impedance or admittance function of such a network
is a positive real function of s. A study of positive real functions will
therefore reveal the detailed properties of impedance functions. Having
acquired this familiarity with positive real functions, we shall be in a
position to establish the sufficient conditions for realizability of a one-port.
The final task will be to obtain several alternative equivalent realizations
of a one-port, starting from a function satisfying the sufficient conditions.
3-1. Properties of positive real functions
In Chap. 1 we found expressions for the impedance and admittance
functions of a one-port in terms of the energy functions To, Vo, and Fa.
From the form of these expressions we were able to conclude that the
impedance and admittance are positive real functions of s. We define a
positive real function as follows:
A function F(s) of a complex variable s is called positive real if
1. F(s) is real when s is real.
2. Re F(s) > 0 when Re (s) > 0. (3-1)
Condition 1 implies that all other parameters in F(s) other than s (such
as coefficients, exponents, etc.) are real. In condition 2 the two equality
67
68
Sec. 3-1
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
signs do not hold simultaneously unless they hold identically. For instance,
from Prob. 2-15 we find that the equality sign holds identically for a
reactance function.
s-plane
Z-pi one
Fig. 3-1. Mapping of a positive real function.
Figure 3-1 shows sketches of the s and Z complex planes. The positive
real property means that the right-half s plane maps into the right-half Z
plane, while the real s axis maps onto the real Z axis. (The positive real s
axis goes into the positive real Z axis, but nothing is said about the negative
real s axis.) It can go anywhere on the real Z axis.
From the results of Prob. 2-15 we see that a reactance function is a
positive real function of s, but of a special type. Not only does the right-
half s plane go into the right-half Z plane, but the left-half s plane goes into
the left-half Z plane as well. This fact makes the reactance function simpler
than the general positive real function.
We established in Eqs. (1-65) that the immittance functions of a passive
bilateral one-port are positive real functions (pr for short). However, the
immittance functions of lumped networks are further restricted—they are
rational functions of s (ratios of two polynomials). In fact, not only is the
positive real and rational property necessary, but it is also sufficient for
readability of a one-port. Demonstration of this fact will constitute a
large part of this chapter. In doing this we shall have to make extensive
use of the theory of functions of a complex variable, and we shall assume
familiarity with the fundamental concepts of this theory.
Our first objective will be to establish the major properties of pr
functions. In the first place we shall show that if Z(s) is a pr function it
must be regular in the right-half s plane. To demonstrate this, we invoke
a theorem which states that the real part of a function of a complex variable
changes sign 2n times in the neighborhood of a pole of multiplicity n. To
prove the theorem, let Z(s) have an nth-order pole at s = so and expand
Z(s) in a Laurent expansion about so.
(s - SO)n (s -
a'(s -
(3-2)
Sec. 3-1
69
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
As s approaches the pole, the first term dominates. Hence, very near the
pole we may write
Z(s)
(3-3)
Now let us take a circular path around the pole at So, as shown in Fig.
3-2(a). The radius r of the circle is assumed small, in line with the approxi-
s-plane s-plane
(a) (b)
Fig. 3-2. Contour in right-half plane.
mation in the last equation. Assuming a_n is also complex, we can write
s — so = re'B (a)
a_n = KJ* (b)
so that Eq. (3-3) and its real part become
(3-4)
Z(s) = «/<*—)
Re [Z(s)] = ~n cos (nO -
(a)
(b)
(3-5)
As the variable point s goes around the circular contour once, d goes from
zero to 2x. The sign of the cosine changes 2n times, thus proving the
theorem.
By the definition of a positive real function the real part of Z(s) is
never negative for any value of s in the right half plane. This means that
the real part cannot change sign at all, which, in turn, requires n = 0. It
follows that Z(s) can have no poles in the right-half s plane
We should also consider the possibility of a pole on the axis as shown
in Fig. 3-2(b). In this case s is in the right half plane when 6 is in the range
— r/2 < 6 < ir/2. We also know that the cosine function is positive when
its argument is in the range — n-/2 to ir/2. Hence, looking at Eq. (3-5),
we deduce that Re [Z(s)] will be positive if n6 — iti lies in the range —ir/2
to »/2. Since 6 also lies in this range, this condition can be satisfied only
L
70 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-1
if n = 1 and iti = 0. n = 1 means that the pole is simple. In this case
a_n = a_i is the residue at the pole, and the condition we just established
(iti = 0) means that the residue must be real and positive. We conclude
that it is possible for a pr function to have a pole on the ju axis provided
that the pole is simple and has a real positive residue.
Another useful property of pr functions is the following: The reciprocal
of a pr function is also pr. Thus, if Z(s) is a pr function, its reciprocal is
F(s) = ZOO = V + jX = I'* + X2 ~ J[/2 + X2
where U and X are the real and imaginary parts of Z. It follows that the
real part of Y will be positive whenever U is positive. Since, in addition,
Y(s) is real when Z(s) is real, then Y(s) is pr. By the preceding property
Y must have no poles in the right half plane. Since the poles of Y are the
zeros of Z, we can now state that, if Z(s) is a pr function, it can have neither
zeros nor poles in the right half plane. Any zeros or poles on thejoi axis must
be simple. The residues at such poles must be positive.
This property tells us something of the relative degrees of the numerator
and denominator of a pr function. Since the point at infinity may be con-
sidered to lie on the ;'w axis, any pole or zero at infinity must be simple.
This means that the highest powers of s in numerator and denominator
cannot differ by more than 1. Considering a possible pole or zero at
s = 0 leads to the conclusion that the lowest powers of numerator and
denominator cannot differ by more than 1 either. In contrast to a reactance
function, however, an arbitrary pr function need not have a pole or a zero
at zero or infinity; the highest and lowest powers of numerator and de-
nominator may be the same.
In order to test whether or not a given function is positive real, we have
no recourse now but to apply the definition. This is not a very convenient
test since it involves examining the real part of a given function for all
values of s in the right half-plane, as required by the definition. We need
to find some conditions which are sufficient for a function to be positive
real and which, at the same time, are easy to apply as a test.
Let us digress slightly to discuss some theorems from the theory of
functions of a complex variable, which we will need both in our present
search for properties of pr functions and in subsequent work. Let F(s) be
a function of a complex variable, regular within a given region of the S
plane and on its boundary C. Let the largest value of the magnitude of
F(s) for every point on C be M. That is \F(s)\ < M for all s on C. Then,
it is true that the magnitude of F(s) for all values of s inside C will be no
Sec. 3-1
71
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
greater than M, its maximum value on the boundary. This theorem is
called the maximum modulus theorem. To prove the theorem, consider
the circular region with center so and radius r, shown in Fig. 3-3, and apply
s-plone
Fig. 3-3. Proof of the maximum modulus theorem.
Cauchy's integral formula. Letting s denote any point on the circum-
ference this formula is
We are assuming that F(s) is regular inside the circular region and on the
boundary. In polar coordinates we can write
s — so = rt'e
ds = jrt,* d6
When we substitute these into Eq. (3-7), we get
(3-8)
w-ir^*
(3-9)
We are really interested in the magnitude of F(so); so let us take the
absolute value of both sides of Eq. (3-9). Then
|F(so) i=Uti'F(s) H - s h2w if w â– * (3_io)
The last step follows from the fact that the absolute value of a sum (or
integral) of complex numbers is not greater than the sum (or integral) of the
absolute values of the numbers. Furthermore, by hypothesis \F(s)\ < M
at all points on the boundary. If we replace \F(s)\ in the integrand by the
constant M, the inequality in Eq. (3-10) will be strengthened. Finally
integration will yield
\F(so)\ < M (3-11)
The result states that the magnitude of F(s) at the center of a circle is no
greater than the largest value taken on by the magnitude of F(s) at any
point on the circumference of the circle. Furthermore, by tracing the steps
72 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-t
of the development, you can see that the equality sign in the last equation
can apply only if F(s) is equal to M everywhere inside the circle.
The fact that the largest value of the magnitude of F(s) occurs on the
boundary of a region of regularity was proved only for a circular region.
However, the result is general. You can prove this by assuming that the
maximum occurs at an interior point of an arbitrary region and then
showing that this contradicts the special result we just proved by taking
a circle about the interior point. v
Let us now apply the maximum modulus theorem to the function
F(s) = t~zM. Let Z(s) = U +jX be regular in a region. Then F(s) will
be regular there also. The magnitude of F(s) is
\F(s)\ = 11-«-'+'*, | = t-v (3-12)
The maximum value of the magnitude of F(s) will occur on the boundary
of the region of regularity. But the maximum of t~u will occur where U is
a minimum. We conclude that the minimum value of the real part of Z(s)
will occur on the boundary of the region of regularity.
We are now ready to use this theorem to derive an important property
of pr functions. We have already seen that a positive real function is
regular in the right-half s plane. It may have poles on thejw axis, but these
must be simple. If there are poles on the ju axis, let us imagine that we
expand the given Z(s) into partial fractions and group all the terms con-
taining the j'-axis poles. Call this Zi(s) and call the rest of the function,
which now contains no j'-axis poles, Z2(s). All the poles of Zi(s) are on the
ju axis, and the residues are all positive; so Zi(s) qualifies as a reactance
function. We can write
Z(s) = Z1(s) + Zt(s) (a)
Re [Z(ju)] = Re [Z,(»] + Re [Z,(»] = Re [Z.f»] (b)
since Re [Zi(ju)] is zero.
The theorem discussed above may now be applied to Zt(s), which is
regular in the entire right-half s plane and on the boundary. Then, ac-
cording to the theorem, the minimum value of the real part of Z2(s) occurs
on the ju axis, which is the boundary of the region of regularity. If the
real part is positive on the ju axis, then it surely will be positive at any
point in the right half plane. Adding the reactance function Zi(s) to Zt(s)
can do nothing but increase the real part at any point inside the right half
plane according to the result established in Prob. 2-15.
The above considerations lead us to state the following necessary and
sufficient conditions for the positive realness of a function. Of course, the
function should be rational (for a lumped network) with real coefficients.
Sec. 3-1 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 73
In addition, a function of the complex variable s will be positive real if and
only if:
1. The function is regular in the right-half s plane;
2. Any poles on the ju axis are simple with real positive residues;
3. The real part of the function is nonnegative on the ju axis.
Thus, instead of examining the real part of the function for all values
of s in the right half plane, we break the job into three parts, each of which
is considerably simpler to apply.
In the preceding discussion of positive real functions we have formu-
lated our ideas in terms of rectangular coordinates, starting from the very
definition of pr functions. Additional useful information can be gathered
by a reformulation in terms of polar coordinates. The result we wish to
establish involves a relationship between the angle of Z(s) and that of s in
the right half plane. We already know that, when s is real and positive
(that is, args = 0), Z is also real and positive (argZ = 0). To obtain a
further relationship, let us transform both the frequency variable and the
pr function in the following way:
s/k
(3-14)
Z(s) - Z(k) Z(s)/Z(k) - 1
Z(s)/Z(k) + l
A word of explanation is needed about the notation in the last equation.
As the equation stands, if we keep Z as a variable, the right-hand side
defines a function of Z. However, if we replace Z by its value in terms of
s, the right-hand side will define a new function (of s), say, W'(s). Finally
we can replace s by its value in terms of p by taking the inverse of Eq.
(3-14). This will then lead to a new function (of p), say, W"(p). Of course,
W(Z) = W'(s) = W"(p). For convenience, we shall use the same symbol,
W, to stand for each of these functions. The quantities k and Z(k) are
positive constants. It is convenient to normalize both s and Z(s) by
writing k = 1 and Z(k) = Z(l) = 1. An alternative viewpoint is to
introduce new variables s' = s/k and Z'(s) = Z(s)/Z(A-) and write the
transformations in terms of these new variables. The primes are then
dropped for purposes of simpler notation. In either case the transfor-
mations become
W = (3-17)
74
Sec. 3-1
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
We should not lose sight of the fact that s and Z are normalized quantities.
Aside from the fact that different symbols are used, these last two
equations are identical. In the language of function theory these are bi-
linear transformations. In order to accomplish our purpose, we must study
the mapping properties of this transformation. However, we shall consider
only those properties useful to us at present.
Let us treat Eq. (3-16) explicitly. With s = a + ju, we can write
(a - 1) +ju l(a - I)8
«—i T,—r- = \/7
(er + 1) + ju \ (o
s-1
(a + I)2 +
(a)
(3-18)
where y = tan"
- tan-i
tan-
(b)
In the first equation p is written in polar form. We observe that the ju
axis of the s plane (a = 0) maps onto the circumference of the unit circle
in the p plane. When a is positive—corresponding to the right-half s plane
—p falls inside the unit circle.
s-plane
p-plane
(o)
Z-plane
Fig. 3-4. Mapping properties of the bilinear transformation.
Sec. 3-1 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 75
Thus Eq. (3-16) maps the right-half s plane onto the interior of the
unit circle in the p plane, the map of the ju axis being the unit circle itself.
Similar statements apply to the mapping of Eq. (3-17). The right-half Z
plane maps onto the interior of the JF-plane unit circle. These transforma-
tions are illustrated in Fig. 3-4. The familiar Smith Chart is precisely this
type of transformation. Since Z(s) is pr, the right-half s plane maps into
the right-half Z plane, which in turn maps onto the interior of the TF-plane
unit circle. Furthermore, the right-half s plane maps inside the p-plane
unit circle also, through Eq. (3-16). Thus the positive real character of
Z(s) relates the interiors of the two unit circles. Because of the normaliza-
tions which we made, Z is equal to 1 when s = 1. These points correspond,
respectively, to W = 0 and p = 0; so the origin of the p plane maps onto
the origin of the W plane.
The positive a axis goes onto the real p axis from — 1 to +1. Similarly
the positive real Z axis goes onto the real W axis from — 1 to 1. We con-
clude that the angle of s is zero at all points on the real p axis from — 1 to
-4-1. Likewise, the angle of Z is zero at all points on the real W axis from
-1 to +1.
The ju axis of the s plane corresponds to \p\ = 1. Since Z(s) is pr, the
complex values that Z takes on when s = ju will lie in the right-half Z
plane (or on the jX axis). This corresponds to points inside (or on the
boundary of) the W-plane unit circle. So we can write
\W\ < 1 for |p| = 1 (3-19)
At this point we need a fact from the theory of functions of a complex
variable. This is called Schwarz's lemma (57). Let W(p) be regular on
and within a circle of radius R, its value at p = 0 being zero. Let the maxi-
mum value of \W\ on the circle be M. Then, at any point p inside the
circle, except at p = 0,
\W(p)\ < \p\ f (3-20)
At p = 0, W = 0 so that an equality sign will hold. Similarly the inequal-
ity will become an equality if W(p) = p. This theorem is easily proved
by use of the maximum-modulus theorem.
In our case W(p) satisfies the conditions of Schwarz's lemma. The
radius of the circle (in the p plane) is unity, and according to Eq. (3-19)
the maximum value M on the circle is also unity. Hence we can write
(3-21)
\W\ < \p\
for
0 < |p| < 1
(a)
\W\ = |p|
for
p=0
(b)
76
Sec. 3-1
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
It is now a simple matter to substitute for W and p from Eqs. (3-16) and
(3-17). In these expressions let us write
Z = U + jX = |Z|e* (3-22)
s = iT + > = e'" (3-23)
The fact that we have set the magnitude of s equal to unity should not
bother you. Remember that this is a normalized variable; a normalized
value of unity means an "unnormalized" value of k—and k is any positive
number.
Making these substitutions in Eq. (3-21), we get
or
Z-1
S
-1
2
Z+1
)2 + X
S
(U-
1
2
-]
)' + w'
- s*
(3-24)
When this expression is simplified and the polar form is used, we get
cos 6 ..
COS a
(3-25)
A plot of the function in parentheses is shown in Fig. 3-5. It has a mini-
mum value of 2, which occurs when \Z\ = 1. Thus the right-hand side of
»+&
4
2
I
Fig. 3-5. Plot of \Z\ + l/\Z\ against \Z\.
the equation is strictly greater than unity except at \Z\ = 1 which corre-
sponds to the origin in the p plane. It follows that cos 6 will be strictly
greater than cos a and so |0| will be strictly less than \a\.
This conclusion was derived starting from Eq. (3-21a). Hence it
results from a consideration of all points in the interior of the unit circles
except the origins. The origins of the p and W planes correspond to s - 1
and Z = 1, respectively. At these points the angles are equal. To com-
plete the story, we should also consider the boundaries. The boundary of
the p-plane unit circle corresponds to the >i axis, on which the angle of S
is ±jr/2. Either the function Z(jui) will be purely imaginary (and so its
angle will be ±>r/2), or it will be complex with a positive real part (so
Sec. 3-2 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 77
that its angle will lie between — ir/2 and +2r/2). In this case, \6\ will be
less than or equal to |ot|.
To summarize, we can write the facts we have established as follows:
// Z(s) is a positive real function, then it necessarily follows that
|argZ(s)| < |args| for 0 < |args| < »/2
|argZ(s)| = |args| for |args|=0 (3-26)
|argZ(s)| < |args| for |args| = T/2
Actually these conditions are sufficient as well as necessary that Z(s) be
positive real (see Prob. 3-7).
3-2. Testing for positive realness
In the preceding section we formulated the necessary and sufficient
conditions for a function to be positive real. The purpose of the present
section is to establish tests to determine whether or not a given function
satisfies these conditions.
Let us assume that the functions presented to us will be rational and
will have real coefficients. There remains to determine whether the func-
tion is regular in the right half plane, whether j-axis poles are simple with
positive residues, and whether the real part is nonnegative on the ju axis.
We define a Hurwilz polynomial to be a polynomial with all its zeros
in the left half plane. Zeros on the ju axis are also permitted as a special
case. To distinguish between these, we shall refer to the former type of
polynomial as strictly Hurwitz. Our first purpose, then, is to check whether
or not the denominator of the given function is a Hurwitz polynomial.
Let this polynomial be P(s), with even and odd parts m(s) and n(s), and
write
P(s) = Oo + ais + a2s2 + . . . + aqs"
= m(s) + n(s) (a)
m(s) = oo + a2«' + . . . + a«s< (b) (3-27)
n(s) = ais + a3s3 + . . . + a,-i®""i (c)
There is no loss in generality in assuming q to be even, as we have done.
There are certain properties of Hurwitz polynomials that we can check
merely by inspection. For example, if P(s) is Hurwitz, it is necessary that
none of its coefficients be negative or zero. (In the case of a polynomial all
of whose zeros are on the ju axis, which is the extreme limit of a Hurwitz
78
Sec. 3-2
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
5-plane
polynomial, every other coefficient will be zero.) This is easy to see by
considering Fig. 3-6, which shows the possible locations of the zeros of
a Hurwitz polynomial. The factors in the
polynomial due to these zeros will have one
of the following forms: s + ao for a real zero,
(« + ao)2 + w? for a complex pair, and s2 +
w? for an imaginary pair, where iTO is a posi-
tive number. Products of such factors cannot
lead to negative coefficients, nor to zero co-
efficients, by cancellations among terms.
Let us now discuss a more refined check
on the Hurwitz character of a given poly-
nomial. Let P(s) = m + n be a Hurwitz polynomial. Consider the ratio
of the even part to the odd part. This can be written
pi \ — m(s) _ (m + n) + (m — n)
n(s) (m + n) — (m — ri)
(-«) P(«)/P(-«) + 1
Fig. 3-6. Locations of zeros of
Hurwitz polynomial.
With the definition
P(s)-P(-s)
G(s) =
P(-s)
we can express F(s) in terms of G(s), and vice versa, as follows:
(3-28)
G=
G+ 1
G-1
F+l
F-1
(a)
(b)
(3-29)
The function F(s) = m/n is the ratio of the even part to the odd part
of a Hurwitz polynomial. In the previous chapter we found that reactance
functions are ratios of even and odd polynomials. Our purpose now is to
find a relationship between reactance functions and the even and odd
parts of Hurwitz polynomials.
To this end consider the relationship between G and F expressed in
Eq. (3-29b). This is a bilinear transformation similar to those in Eq.
(3-16) or (3-17), but with one difference; it is the left half of the F plane
which is mapped into the interior of the unit circle of the G plane, rather
than the right half. The j axis of the F plane becomes the unit circle in
the G plane. This is illustrated in Fig. 3-7.
Sec. 3-2
79
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
F-plane
G-plane
s$
Fig. 3-7. The mapping G
F+l
F-l
We can express the important mapping property of the two planes
analytically as follows:
\G\ = 1 imply Re F = 0, respectively
(3-30)
This condition involves the magnitude of G, which, from the definition
in Eq. (3-28), involves the magnitudes of P(s) and P( — s). Remember
that P(s) is a polynomial with real coefficients, so that its zeros are either
real or complex conjugates. Consider a polynomial with a real zero at
s = ao and a pair of complex conjugate zeros at s = iTI ± jui. This poly-
nomial and its magnitude can be written
P(«) = (s - So) (« - S,)(« - «J)
= V[(a -
M2][(a - al)4 + 2(a -
W?)
(W2 -
(a)
(3-31)
oi2][(a
2(a
(b)
The magnitude of the polynomial P(— s) is obtained by reversing the sign
of a, since the sign of w will have no effect on the magnitude.
Let us now assume that all the zeros of P(s) are in the left half plane,
which means that CTO and iTI are negative. This is illustrated in Fig. 3-8.
Let us consider the following three cases in turn: (1) The variable point s
is in the right half plane, which means that a is positive. The point — s
will then lie in the left half plane. Comparison of Eqs. (3-31a) and (3-31b)
for this case will show that |P(s)| > |P( — s)|. (2) The variable point s is
in the left half plane, which means that v is negative. For this case we
80
Sec. 3-2
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
(s-s,)
(s-s0)
Fig. 3-8
find |P(s)| < |P( — s)|. (3) Finally the variable point is on the ju axis,
which means a = 0. In this case we find |P(s)| = |P(—s)|.
The conclusions in the preceding paragraph are unaltered if there are
additional left-half-plane factors in the polynomial P(s). We can sum-
marize these results for a Hurwitz polynomial in the following way:
Res = 0 imply \G\ = I, respectively
(3-32)
Combining this expression with the one in Eq. (3-30), and remembering
that F = m/n, we get
Re f — ) = 0 for Re s = 0, respectively
(3-33)
Now refer back to Prob. 2-15. There you are asked to establish the
result that the conditions just listed are sufficient to guarantee that the
function m/n is a reactance function. Taking this theorem as proved, we
have now shown that the ratio of the even to the odd part (or vice versa)
of a Hurwitz polynomial is necessarily a reactance function.
However, this is not exactly what we want. We want to take a poly-
nomial and determine whether or not it is Hurwitz. We really need the
converse of what we have established. Unfortunately the converse is not
completely valid.! This is easily appreciated by considering the ratio
\P(s)/P(—s)\ when P(s) has a zero in the right half plane, say, at s = s2.
Then, by forming the magnitudes as in Eqs. (3-31), we shall find that Eq.
(3-32) cannot be satisfied, except in the event that s = — s2 is also a zero
of P(s). In such a case P(s) and P( — s) will have a common factor which
will cancel, thus permitting Eq. (3-32) to be satisfied. The ratio of the
even to the odd part of this non-Hurwitz polynomial will thus be a react-
ance function.
t This was pointed out by Prof. J. Blackman of Syracuse University.
Sec. 3-2 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 81
As an illustration, consider the polynomial
P(s) = s6 + 2s4 + 3s3 + 6s2 + 4s + 8
= (s + 2)(«» + s + 2)(s2 - s + 2)
This is not a Hurwitz polynomial. Nevertheless the ratio of its even and
odd parts is
2s4 + 6s2 + 8 2
s(s* + 3s2 + 4) s
which is certainly a reactance function.
The condition that P(s) and P( — s) have a common factor can also be
satisfied if P(s) has a pair of conjugate zeros on the ju axis. In such a case
P(s) will have a factor s2 + wf. It is clear that P(—s) will also have this
factor so that a cancellation takes place in the ratio P(s)/P(—s).
Based on this discussion, we can now state the following theorem:
If the ratio of the even and odd parts of an arbitrary polynomial P(s) is a
reactance function, then either P(s) is a Hurwitz polynomial or it is a Hurwitz
polynomial times an even polynomial. The zeros of this even polynomial
can fall in one of three categories: (1) conjugate pairs on the ju axis;
(2) pairs of real zeros, one being the negative of the other; (3) groups of
four complex zeros symmetrically arranged about both the real and the
imaginary axes as in the numerical example given above. In any case this
even polynomial will be a factor of both the even part and the odd part
of P(s) and, hence, will have no effect on their ratio.
In the case of a pair of real zeros, one in the right and the other in the
left half plane, the polynomial P(s) will have some negative coefficients.
Hence we can rule it out of further consideration.
We now have a powerful test to determine whether or not a given
polynomial is Hurwitz (short of actually computing the roots). We take
the ratio of the even to the odd part of the given polynomial and determine
whether or not it satisfies the conditions of a reactance function. Here we
can proceed in two alternate ways, corresponding to the Foster or Cauer
methods of synthesis of reactance functions. In the first method we can
imagine expanding m/n or its reciprocal in partial fractions. For this we
shall need to find the poles and the residues of one of these functions. If
the original polynomial is less than the seventh degree, this will involve
factoring no more than a quadratic.
The alternate procedure involves carrying out a continued fraction
expansion. If the coefficients are all positive, a realizable LC network can
be found, indicating that m/n is a reactance function. If any negative
82 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS See. 3-2
coefficients appear, the original polynomial is proved to have zeros in the
right half plane.
If the first alternative is used in checking the Hurwitz property of a
polynomial P(s), the procedure involves finding the poles of m/n and then
finding the residues at these poles. To find the poles, we factor n(s). Any
y-axis zeros of P(s), and any right-half-plane zeros accompanied by their
images in the left half plane will make their appearance at this point. If
there are any zeros of the latter variety, the testing will be over, since P(s)
is then shown to be non-Hurwitz. The j-axis zeros of P(s), if any, cannot
be poles of m/n. Hence, when we calculate the residues of m/n at these
points, we shall get zero. A zero residue at one of the zeros of n(s) will tell
us that this point is also a zero of P(s).
If we use the second alternative and carry out the Cauer-division
process, eventually nothing will be left in numerator and denominator
except identical even polynomials due to the common factors of m and n.
These will then cancel, terminating the division process prematurely. The
denominator that is left just before the procedure terminates will contain
the common factors of m and n. Factoring this denominator will expose the
j'-axis zeros of P(s) and any right-half-plane zeros which, together with
their left-half-plane images, form an even polynomial with positive co-
efficients.
As an example, consider the following polynomial:
P(s) = s6 + 4s» + 6s4 + 12s3 + lis2 + 8s + 6 (3-34)
m = ss + 6s4 + lis2 + 6
n = 4s6 + 12s3 + 8s
m = s» + 6s4 + lis2+ 6 1,1. 0 . 0 ,, „.v
n" 4s6 + 12s3 + 8s 4s "*" 4s "*- s2 + 1 "*" s2 + 2 ('
The roots of the denominator of m/n are easily found and two of the
residues are found to be zero. Furthermore the rest of the poles are simple
with positive residues. Hence P(s) is Hurwitz, with two pairs of j'-axis
zeros at s = ±jl and s = ±jv2. In this case we can find the rest of the
zeros by recombining the partial-fraction expansion in Eq. (3-35) to get
m _ s2 + 3
n 4s
Thus the polynomial remaining after the j-axis zeros of P(s) are removed,
say Pi(s), is
P, - s5 + 3 + 4s = (s + 3) (a + 1) (3-36)
Sec. 3-2 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 83
By this process not only did we find out whether or not P(s) was Hurwitz,
but we also determined its zeros.
If we carry out the alternate procedure, we get
11s2 + 6
4s6 + 12»3 +
s6 + 3s4 + 2s2
4s5 + 12s3 + 8s
4s8 + 12»3 + 8s
3s4 + 9s2 + 6
s
4
0
We see that the process terminates before the degrees of the numerator
and denominator are reduced to zero. Hence P(s) must have j-axis or
right half plane zeros. These are the zeros of the divisor just before the
process terminates, which is
(3s4 + 9s2 + 6) = 3(S2 + l)(s2 + 2) (3-37)
When this is divided into P(s) we have left
2) = (s' + 4* + 3) = (s + l)(s + 3) (3-38)
The answers given by the two methods agree, as they should.
Remember that our purpose is to see whether or not a given rational
function is positive real. So far, we have discussed a method of determining
whether the function is regular in the right-half s plane. Furthermore we
have located the j-axis poles, if any, and can certainly tell whether or not
they are simple. The residues at such poles can be computed by standard
methods to determine whether or not they are positive. It remains for us
to check on the real part of the given function for all values of w.
Let the given function be Z(s), and write
= ,' (3-39)
The m's and n's represent the even and odd parts, respectively, of the
numerator and denominator. When s = ju and only in this case (except
possibly at isolated points in the s plane), the m's will be real, while the n's
will be imaginary. Let us separate Z(s) into its even and odd parts. This
is done by multiplying numerator and denominator by m2 — n2. The
result is
„, . i2 — i- > 2i — i2 ._ ...
Z(s) = 2 - 2 -- -- 5 - s — (o-4(J)
mi — n\ m% — n%
The first term is even, while the second term is odd. For arbitrary values
of s each of these terms will be complex. However, when s = ja, they will
reduce to the real and imaginary parts of Z, respectively. Hence we can
write
84 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-2
Re Z(ju) =
— nin*
(3-41)
N and D stand for numerator and denominator, respectively.
This is an even function of w, and so we have labeled it U^). Suppose
we do not set s = ju on the right-hand side. This will be equivalent to
replacing «2 by — s2. Hence we shall label the resulting function U(— s2).
Our objective is to examine the right side of the last equation for all
values of w to see whether or not it ever becomes negative. Note that, for
s = ju, the denominator is the sum of squares of the real and imaginary
parts of a complex quantity, and this is always positive. So we need to
consider the numerator only. For positive realness we must require
#(«2) = (m.m2 - ninOI.-*. > 0 (3-42)
We have already mentioned that this is an even function of «. Hence
we can write
+ s2)(o,2 + si) . . . (o,2 + si) (3-43)
In terms of S, since s2 = — oi2 when s = ju, this becomes
s2) . . . (s2 - s2) (3-44)
This is the numerator of the even part of Z(s). It is the analytic con-
tinuation of N(w2) and is a bona fide function of s, even when s takes on
complex values. However, it becomes the numerator of the real part of Z
only when « = ju. We shall now investigate the permissible locations of
the zeros of the polynomials in the last two equations if the condition in
Eq. (3-42) is to be satisfied.
At this point it is convenient to introduce a change of variable. Since
only the square of u appears in Eq. (3-43), let w2 = x. All real values of
w fall in the range 0 <x < «. Equivalently we can set x = — s2 in Eq.
(3-44). In either case we shall get
N(x) = K(x - *,)(* -x2)...(x- Xn) (3-45)
The zeros of this polynomial may be complex, negative real, or positive
real. Consider two factors involving a pair of conjugate zeros 1i = ai+ jbi
and x* = ai — jbi.
(x - *,)(* - «T) = [(* - ai) + J6i][(* - a,) - j&j (3-46)
The second factor on the right is the conjugate of the first factor, so that
the product can never be negative for any real positive value of x. In the
case of a negative real root x = — a, the corresponding factor is x + a,
which also can never become negative for real positive values of x.
Sec. 3-2 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 85
For a real positive zero x = +a, the corresponding factor x — a will
change sign as x passes through +a. This means that N(x) will surely
become negative, unless a is a double (or even-order) zero of N(x). In this
case N(x) will have a factor (x — a)2 and will not change sign.
We conclude that N(x) will be positive for all positive values of x
(which correspond to all real values of ui) provided that any positive zeros
of A7 Or) are of even order (including zero order, meaning n
Stated ina different way, we can say that a real rational function Z(K] will
have a nonnegative real part on the entire ju axis provided that the
numerator of its even part has no odd-order zeros on the j'w axis.
For a given rational function Z(s) as in Eq. (3-39), we can form the
polynomial N(x) according to Eq. (3-42) and the change of variable w2 = x.
If the coefficients of N(x) are all of the same sign, Descartes's rule of sign
will tell us there are no positive roots. However, this is not a conclusive
method when there are changes of sign among the coefficients. There is a
method of testing a polynomial to determine whether or not it has any
zeros in a given interval of the real axis, and the order of such zeros. This
is Sturm's theorem. t We shall state the theorem and give an example of
its use but shall make no attempt to prove it here.
The theorem makes use of a set of Sturm functions, which are obtained
as follows: Let the given polynomial and its first derivative be
Po(x) = ao + aix + a&2 + . . . + anx" (a)
Pl(x) = Pl(x) = a, + 2a2z + . . . + nanx-' (b)
(The prime indicates differention.)
These are the first two Sturm functions. We form the next one by
dividing Po by PI and stopping when the remaining dividend is one degree
lower than PI. This will usually take a two-term quotient but sometimes
will occur after the first term. This remaining dividend is labeled — P2(x).
The succeeding Sturm function is formed by dividing PI by P2 and again
stopping when the remaining dividend is one degree lower than the divisor.
This is — PS. This process is similar to the Cauer division except that the
quotient usually consists" of two terms. We can write the process con-
cisely as
Po = ?iPi - P2
Pi = ?2P2 - P3 (3-48)
t See L. E. Dickson, New First Course in the Ttumg of Equations, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York, 1935.
86
Sec. 3-2
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
Observe that, if P* is zero, then P*_i is a factor of P*_j. Working back
through the Sturm functions, we shall find that Pk-\ is a factor of both
Pi and Po. Thus P*_i contains all the multiple roots of Po with a multi-
plicity one less than that occurring in Po. This follows from the fact that
a root of Po of multiplicity m will be a root of its derivative with a multi-
plicity m — 1. In this fashion all the multiple roots of Po are found,
together with their multiplicity. Of course, if the polynomial P*_i is of
high order, finding its roots may be a job in itself. In this case the Sturm
procedure can be applied to Pk-i-
Suppose now that the Sturm functions are formed as in Eqs. (3-48)
until the last one, Pa, is a constant. This will happen if Po has no multiple
zeros. (If the original polynomial has multiple zeros, these are found by
the Sturm procedure. After these are factored out, call the remaining
polynomial Po.) Let a and b (a < b) be real numbers which are not zeros of
Po(x). Sturm's theorem says that the number of real zeros of Po(x) between
the two numbers a and b is the excess in the number of variations in sign of the
Sturm functions for x — a over the number of variations in sign for x = b.
Table 3-1 will serve as an aid in understanding this. It represents a par-
ticular case where k = 5. The theorem states that in this case the number
of zeros of Po(x) between a and b is one.
Table 3-1
Number of
Po
Pi
Pi
P.
P«
Pj
variations
in sign
x=a
+
-
-
+
-
+
4
x-b
-
+
+
-
-
+
3
For our present purpose the range of x in which we are interested in-
cludes all nonnegative values. Thus the values zero and infinity correspond
to a and b. The signs of the Sturm functions at these extreme values are
the signs of the constant terms and the signs of the highest-power terms,
respectively, and so are determined simply by inspection.
Let us now illustrate the methods of testing for positive realness which
we have discussed. Consider the function
Z(s) =
2s4 + 7s3 + Us2 + 12s+ 4 = mi + nt
s* + 5s3 + 9s2 + lis + 6 ~ m2 + n2
(3-49)
This is a rational function with real coefficients, all of which are positive
and nonzero. We first perform a Hurwitz test on the denominator.
Sec. 3-2
87
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
s4 + 9s2 + 6
(3-50)
n2 5s3 + lls 5 ' lls ' s2 + y
Since the poles of m2/?i2 are on the ju axis and are simple with real residues,
m2 + n2 is a Hurwitz polynomial [the process also shows that Z(s) has no
j-axis poles].
The next job is to investigate the real part. To this end we construct
A7Y o3(\ -
= (2s4 + lls2 + 4)(s4 + 9s2 + 6) - (7s3 + 12s)(5s3 + lls)
= 2(s«-3s°- lls4 - 15s2 + 12) (3-51)
Setting — s2 = x, we get
N(x) = 2(x4 + 3x3 - llx2 + 15x + 12) (3-52)
Descartes's rule of sign does not give us any conclusive information
about the number of positive roots in this case, and so we resort to Sturm's
theorem. Observe from Eqs. (3-48) that we can multiply any Sturm
function by a positive constant without altering the result of the theorem.
We shall take advantage of this fact to avoid inconvenient numbers. The
Sturm functions are formed as follows:
#c = 2(x4 + 3z3 - llx2 + 15x + 12)
Ni = 2[4x3 + 9z2 - 22x + 15]
Na x4 + 3x1-llx2 +15x+12 I,
Ni 4x3 + 9x2 - 22x +
N2 = 115x2 - 246x - 147
Ni 4x3 + 9x2 - 22x + 15
N2~ 115x2-246x - 147
N2 = -x - 1.81
15
1 115x2 - 246x - 147
T^T (4x + 17.55) - 20.65
-x - 1.81
N2 H5x2 - 246x - 147
—674
N, -x - 1.81
115x + 4.
'N2
Nt = -674
Table 3-2
Number of
variations
in sign
..
«,
N%
N>
Nt
x=0
+
+
-
-
-
1
X = a0
+
+
+
-
-
1
Since the last Sturm function is a constant, there are no repeated roots.
The number of variations in sign of the Sturm functions is the same at both
88 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-3 /
extremities, indicating that there are no real positive roots. The given |
function is thus shown to be positive real.
3-3. Realization of positive real functions — preliminary
Let us pause briefly and review what we have accomplished. We have
shown that the driving-point impedance or admittance of a passive, bi-
lateral, lumped network is a positive real function of s. We have further
established necessary and sufficient conditions for a rational function to
be positive real, and we know how to test a given function to determine
whether or not it fulfills these conditions. It remains for us now to
demonstrate that, given an arbitrary positive real rational function, we
can find a passive, bilateral, lumped network whose driving-point im-
pedance or admittance is equal to the given pr function. This will establish
the sufficiency of the pr condition for driving-point immittances.
In our attempt to find a network realization for a given pr function we
may be tempted to proceed as in the synthesis of two-element one-ports by
expanding the given function in partial fractions. If we can recognize each
term as the impedance or admittance of a component network, then the
series or parallel connection of these components will yield the complete
synthesis, as in the Foster realization of reactance functions. This idea
appears to have merit, and we shall pursue it further.
In the first place, if a given impedance function has j-axis poles, we
can write
Z(«) = k*s + -° + £ -j^-i + Z,(«) (3-53)
s t^i s f Uj
in which the j-axis poles are shown explicitly and Zi(s) is regular on the
ju axis but has all the other poles of Z(s). The real part of Zi(jui) is equal
to the real part of the given function on the ju axis. Hence Zi(s) is positive
real. The terms in the partial-fraction expansion on the right side can be
realized in a scries connection of lossless networks as in the first Foster
form. The resulting network will have the form shown in Fig. 3-9 (a).
Now suppose that Zi(s) has j-axis zeros. We can invert it and write
Following the same reasoning as before, we find Z2(s) to be a positive real
function. The partial realization of Zi(s) will take the form shown in Fig.
3-9(b).
Sec. 3-3
89
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
Fig. 3-9. Realization of j-axis poles and zeros.
We may now find that Z2 has poles on the ju axis, in which case these
can be realized in the form of Fig. 3-9(a). Continuing this process, we will
eventually end up with a remainder impedance which has neither zeros
nor poles on the ju axis. In this case the numerator and denominator must
be of the same degree.
We use the expressions reactance reduction and susceptance reduction to
describe the process of removing poles on the ju axis from the impedance
function and the admittance function, respectively. We can think of the
reactance reduction as a modification of the imaginary part of an impedance
without affecting the real part. When all the j-axis poles are removed from
an impedance function, the reactive part of the function can no longer be
altered without at the same time modifying the real part. This leads to
the idea of a minimum-reactance pr function, by which we mean an im-
pedance that has no poles on the ju axis. In a similar manner we define a
minimum-susceptance pr function as an admittance that has no poles on
the jw axis (or an impedance that has no zeros on the jw axis). Bode (15)
was the first to define these functions.
In this terminology the first step in our contemplated realization
procedure is to apply reactance and susceptance reduction alternately,
until a minimum-reactance minimum-susceptance function is obtained.
The degree of the numerator of such a function will be the same as the
degree of the denominator. All the poles of this function will lie in the
interior of the left-half s plane. Following our major theme, we can expand
90 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-3
this function in partial fractions. We shall immediately encounter some-
thing new. Whereas, in treating LC or RC functions, we found all the
poles to be simple, this is no longer true for arbitrary pr functions. Thus
in our partial-fraction expansion we may meet terms like
which are due to multiple poles. We cannot recognize such terms as the
driving-point immittance of simple component networks. Hence this
realization technique fails in the general case. However, in special cases
with simple poles, this procedure may lead to a realization (see Prob. 3-12
for restrictions).
Let us return now to a minimum-reactance minimum-susceptance pr
function which is to be the impedance function of a one-port. The real part
of the function is nonnegative along the ju axis. If it is not already zero
at some value of u, we can subtract from the function a real number that
does not exceed the smallest value that the real part takes on for any value
of u. The remaining function will have the same poles as the original one,
and its real part on the jw axis will be not less than zero; so it will be pr.. Its
reactive part will be unaltered. This process is termed resistance reduction.
The largest constant we can subtract and still have a pr remainder is the
smallest value of the real part on the ju axis. The remaining function will
then have a zero real part somewhere on the ju axis. We will call such a
function a minimum-resistance function. This situation is not quite the
same as the minimum-reactance (or minimum-susceptance) case. A func-
tion may be minimum-reactance without being minimum-susceptance, and
vice versa/However, a minimum-resistance function is at the same time
minimum-conductance. That is, if the real part of a function is zero at some
value of w, the real part of its reciprocal will also be zero there. It would be
completely appropriate, then, to call such functions minimum-^real-part
functions. No committment is made as to whether the positive real
function is an impedance or an admittance. We should point out, however,
that these last statements are true only for a minimum-reactance minimum-
susceptance function. For example, the function s/(s -f- a) has a zero real
part at s = 0. But its reciprocal is 1 + a/s, which has a unity real part
for all values of s = ju. \
Let us return to the'realization problem. After we have obtained a
minimum-reactance minimum-susceptance function, we can subtract from
this function or its reciprocal the smallest value that the real part assumes
on the ju axis, thus obtaining a minimum-real-part function. Functions
Sec. 3-3
91
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
which are minimum-reactance, minimum-susceptance, and minimum-
real-part will be called minimum functions. This removed constant is
realized as a series resistance or a shunt resistance depending on whether
the function is an impedance or an admittance. It may be that the re-
maining function now has a j-axis pole or zero, which may be removed, in
turn, as a reactance structure. If the minimum real part occurs at w = 0
or infinity and this value is removed, the remaining function will surely
have a zero at the corresponding value of s. This is true since the imaginary
part of the pr function is already zero at these extreme frequencies; remov-
ing the real part will result in a zero of the function.
In some cases the complete realization may be obtained by the alternate
application of what we may term imaginary-part reduction and real-part
reduction. As an example, consider the impedance function
_ 2s8 + 3s2 + 7s + 4 _ 2«8 + 3s2 + 7s + 4
*W " s3 + 3s2 + 2s + 6" (s + 3)(s2 + 2) l ^
This has a pair of conjugate poles on the ju axis. We can remove these
poles from the function, obtaining a shunt-tuned circuit as a series branch.
The remaining function becomes
Z M - ZM s = 2(s + *)
iW (s) ^ + 2 8 + 3
(3-57)
This ig a minimum-reactance minimum-susceptance function. We can
proceed either with Zi or with its reciprocal. If we proceed with Zi, we
find that it has a minimum real part of f, which occurs at s = 0. If we
remove this, we shall create a zero at s = 0. This, in turn, can be removed
as a shunt inductance. Thus
n / \ n / \ ^ TTO
9
3
4
(a)
(b)
(3-58)
When the shunt inductance of f is removed, we are left with a constant,
1/2
t/2
2/3
(a) (b)
Fig. 3-10. Realization of a simple positive real function.
92 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-4
which of course is realized as a resistance. The complete realization is
shown in Fig. 3-10(a).
Alternatively we can deal with Yi, the reciprocal of Zi, after the react-
ance reduction. We find that the minimum value of the real part of Fi is
\, and it occurs at infinity. If we subtract this from YI in the form of a
shunt resistance, we shall create a zero at infinity. The reciprocal function
will, of course, have a pole at infinity, which we can realize as a series
inductance. Thus
F' = Fi - \ = rn (3-59)
Z, = — = s + 1 (3-60)
I2
After removal of the series inductance we are left with a constant which
is realized as a resistance. This alternate realization is also shown in
Fig. 3-10.
We went through this simple example in rather unnecessary detail only
to show the fundamental procedure that we would follow in a more com-
plicated example.
3-4. Brune realization
Up to this point we have taken some relatively simple steps in our
attempt to realize a given positive real function. First we remove poles
and zeros of the function on the ju axis and realize these as reactive series
and shunt branches. Having achieved a minimum-reactance minimum-
susceptance function, we then subtract the minimum value of the real part
in the form of a series or shunt resistance. If this step creates a zero on the
ju axis, we can perform some further imaginary-part reduction. As we
showed in the last section, alternate application of these two steps alone
may lead to a complete realization in some cases.
Suppose that the real-part reduction does not create a zero of the re-
maining function on thejw axis. This will pose a completely new problem.
To carry on the discussion, let us consider a biquadratic minimum-react-
ance minimum-susceptance function.
„ . . s2 + a{s + a'o . .
•w- «
To guarantee that Zo(s) is positive real, its coefficients must be positive. In
Sec. 3-4
93
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
addition, the zeros of L7(u2) in terms of w2 should not be real and positive
unless they are equal. This condition is ensured if the discriminant of the
numerator of U(u2) is not positive. Simplifying the expression for the
discriminant leads to the condition
(Vol - VboY < aibi
(3-62)
If the equality sign applies, then the real part of Z(jw) will have a double
zero on the ju axis.
Our problem now is to determine the smallest value of £/(or) and the
frequency at which it occurs. This may be at zero, infinity or a finite non-
zero value. Let us make the change of variable w2 = x as we did before
and plot the function U(x). Figure 3-11 shows possible U(x) functions.
U(x)
n
\i
U(x)
(b)
U(x)
(c) (d)
Fig. 3-11. Possible variations of Re Z(ju).
The region of interest is the positive x axis; the negative x axis corresponds
to the real axis of the s plane. If the minimum real part occurs at zero or
infinity, as in Fig. 3-11(c) and (d), removal of this value will create a zero
of the remaining impedance at the corresponding value of s. The admit-
tance will have a pole there, and this can be removed as a shunt inductance
or capacitance, respectively.
When the minimum value of the real part occurs at a finite nonzero
frequency uo, we meet an essentially different situation. In this case re-
moval of the minimum real part leaves a function which has a purely
imaginary value at wo- The remaining impedance, which we have called a
minimum function, is still a biquadratic, though; it has the same denomi-
94
Sec. 3-4
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
nator, but the coefficients in the numerator are different. Thus, if Z(s) is
the remaining impedance function, let us write
6,«
(3-63)
This impedance is a minimum function, its real part being zero at s = JWQ.
Hence we can write
Z(jwo) = jX (3-64)
The reactance X may be positive or negative. Assume temporarily
that X is positive. We know that the impedance of an inductance has a
positive imaginary value at positive frequencies; so let us consider remov-
ing an inductance Li which at s = JUQ has a reactance X. That is,
X
—
wo
(3-65)
Removing this inductance creates a zero of the remaining impedance
at s = jwo, which can be realized as a series-resonant branch in shunt
L,
'TnflT,-
Z(s)
Z,(s)
Fig. 3-12. Initial steps in Brune cycle.
across the rest of the network. This configuration is shown in Fig. 3-12.
Let us carry out analytically the steps which we have just described.
After removing Li we shall have
Z, = Z - sL, =
s2 + bis +
-L.s3 + (1 -
s2 + bis + bo
+ to, - &oLi)« +
(3-66)
This remaining impedance is seen to have a pole at infinity which was not
there before. Furthermore the residue at the pole is negative. Hence this
function is not even pr. Nevertheless it has a zero at jwo so that we can
write its reciprocal as
Sec. 3-4 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 95
y = -1 = s/L2 1 *
+ s2 + wg
(s' -f
2
(3-67)
where we have set
- ~ P2(«)
By comparing the last line of this equation with the reciprocal of Zi
in Eq. (3-66), we see that PI(s) must be a linear function of s. Writing
PI = AIs + Ao, we can determine the coefficients Ao and Ai by comparing
coefficients in the two equations. Similarly we see that P2(s) must be a
constant and that we can determine its value by comparing coefficients.
Carrying out this process, we find
Z2(«) = - ^a s + os (3.6g)
The first term in Eq. (3-67) represents a series-resonant branch. Having
found Z2, we can now solve for the elements of the series-resonant branch
from Eq. (3-67). The result is
T LIU& . .
L2 ~ 6o - o,2o (a)
(3-69)
„ 1 6o - «p (b)
We now have the realization shown in Fig. 3-12, including the element
values. We see from Eq. (3-68) that Z2 has a pole at infinity, but with a
negative residue. This can be removed as a negative inductance
L3 = — Liwo/6o. The remainder is a resistance of value Oo/6o = Zi(0).
The complete realization is shown in Fig. 3-13.
r
do —
bo
Fig. 3-13. A Brune cycle.
I- .
96 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-4
There are several points to clear up in this discussion. In the first place
the values for L2 and C2 as given by Eqs. (3-69) involve the difference
6o — W0. We do not yet know whether or not this quantity is positive. To
establish this, we need to return to Eq. (3-63) for the impedance. We get
one expression involving wo and the coefficients by setting Re [Z(jwo)] = 0.
Next we substitute this relationship into the expression we get by assuming
that the imaginary part of Z(juo) is positive. This leads to the result
(The details are left for you as an exercise.) This requires bo — wo to be
positive, which in turn ensures that L2 and C2 are positive.
Second, the value of the inductance L3 is negative. In its present form,
then, the realization of Fig. 3-13 is not physical. To overcome this diffi-
culty, recall that the transformer and the tee circuit of inductances shown
L,=L0-M L3=Lb-M
o <Tnnr>-
1*-*
(a) (b)
Fig. 3-14. Transformer and its equivalent circuit.
in Fig. 3-14 are equivalent. The square of the coefficient of coupling of
the transformer is
M2 __ L\ _l2 i!3 i8 .
LaLb (L, + L2) (L, + L,)" (Li + L2) (L, + L,)
We now replace the tee circuit of inductances in the Brune realization of
Fig. 3-13 by an equivalent transformer. Using the values of the inductances
given in the figure, we find that
LiL2 + L2L2 + LjL3 = 0 (3-72)
This means that the transformer is realizable, but with a coupling coeffi-
cient of unity as shown by the preceding equation. The final realization
takes the form of Fig. 3-15.
A third point that should be mentioned is the following: In actually
going through a Brune realization for a specific problem it is not necessary
to retrace all the steps following Eq. (3-65). We went through the devel-
opment merely to establish the existence of the realization for the case of
Sec. 3-4 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 97
the biquadratic minimum function. The element values given in Figs.
3-13 and 3-15 are the end result.
L.-r-k-il*
Oo — uo
L - ZQuo)
jwo
J
AJ = L2 — ~, 2 Ll
Fig. 3-15. Brune cycle with transformer.
This completes the discussion when the value of the reactance in Eq.
(3-64) is positive. If the value of this reactance is negative, a completely
similar procedure can be followed. The inductance Li in Eq. (3-65) will
now be negative, but the impedance Zi in the following equation will be
pr. Hence the inductances L2 and L3 will be positive, but you will find
that the condition of unity coupling is again satisfied. You are urged to
go through the details of the development for this case.
We have now completely demonstrated the Brune realization of a
biquadratic minimum positive real function. We shall next consider a
minimum pr function of arbitrary complexity. Let us define the rank of a
rational function as the sum of the degrees of the numerator and denomi-
nator polynomials. For the type of function considered these degrees will
be the same, say, n. The rank will then be 2n. Let the given function be
„, ^
Z(s) =
6n_lS- + . . . + bls + 6o -
Since Z(s) is a minimum function, its real part is zero at some point on
the ja axis. We know how to proceed if this minimum occurs at zero or
infinity; so let us assume that it occurs at some finite frequency so = jwo-
We can then write
ZO'wo) = JX = jV*L! (3-74)
just as before. At s = jua, Z is purely reactive and either positive or nega-
tive. In either case remove an inductance LI, whose value is given in the
last equation. This will be either positive or negative. The remaining
function will be
Z,(s) = Z(«) - Lis (3-75)
It will have a pole at infinity and a zero at jug, and it will be pr only if X
is negative. Let us temporarily assume that X is negative. The inductance
98 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-4
Li will then be negative. The zero of Zi(s) at s = jua can be realized by
considering the reciprocal of Zi (which will be pr).
where 1/L2 = 2 times residue of Y at s = jua and F2 = l/Z2 is the remain-
ing function. The left-hand side has a zero at infinity (since Zi has a pole
there); so the right-hand side must also. It follows that 72 will have a zero
at infinity, which means that Z2(s) must have a pole at infinity. The
residue at this pole can be found by putting Eq. (3-75) into (3-76) and
noting the behavior of Z2 as s goes to infinity.
.. Z2
lim — = hm
s/L2
lim - : - - - 577- = -TrV (3-77)
,-.. 1 s2/L2 LI + L2
Z(s)/s - Li
Hence the residue of Z2 at infinity is
The pole at infinity can now be removed as a series inductance, leaving a
remainder
Z2(s) = Z,(«) - L3s (3-79)
If the procedure we have been following is to be worthwhile, this remain-
ing function should be of lower rank than the original impedance. To find
the rank of Z8(s), we retrace our steps and see what effect the various
operations we have performed have had. Writing only the degrees of each
function, we see that
7 _." V ,n — %
6 — i - Y 2 — i - -
n n — 1
7 _» n + 1 7 -»" ~ l
i — ^~ 2" n — 2
Thus Z3(s) is a positive real function with a rank of 2 (n — 2), four less
than the rank of Z(s). The realization is shown in Fig. 3-16(a). It differs
from Fig. 3-13 by the fact that a more general pr function Z3(s), rather
than a resistance, appears at the end of the cycle.
The inductances in the realization are related by Eq. (3-78). If we
Sec. 3-4
99
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
rewrite this equation, we find that it reduces to Eq. (3-72), which expresses
the fact that the transformer equivalent of the inductance tee is perfectly
coupled. This equivalent is shown in Fig. 3-16(b).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3-16. A Brune cycle.
Let us return to Eq. (3-74) and assume that X is now positive. Then
Li will be positive, and Zi in Eq. (3-75) will no longer be positive real.
Let us see how it differs from a pr function. In fact, the result we shall
establish is a general one, and so we shall use a general notation.
Let Z(s) be a pr function regular at infinity and with Z(0) ?* 0. Con-
sider the function
Z,(s) = Z(s) - Ks (3-81)
where K is a positive constant. We shall show that Zi(s) has exactly one
zero in the right half plane and that this zero is simple and lies on the a axis.
For the proof we shall need the condition on the angle of a pr function as
given in Eqs. (3-26). If Zi(s) is to be zero at s = so, then Z(so) should
equal Kso. In particular the angle of Z(so) should equal the angle of so
(since the angle of Ksa is the same as that of so). According to Eqs. (3-26)
the only place at which the angle of Z(s) and that of s are equal in the
right half plane is the a axis. Thus any zeros of Z(s) — Ks in the right
half plane must occur on the a axis.
Suppose there are two values of s, namely, s = ai and s = in, at which
Zi(s) is zero. That is,
= Kai (a)
= Ka2 (b)
Return to the bilinear transformation in Eq. (3-15), and choose the nor-
malizing factor k so that W = 0 when s = in. That is,
(3-82)
Z(k)
or
(3-83)
(3-84)
100 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-4
Now let us evaluate W when s = <r2. We get
_ Z(vj - Z(k) _ Zfo) - Z(a,) ,
""**' - -
But the values of Z(a2) and Z(in) are given by Eqs. (3-82). When these
are substituted in the last equation, \ve get
= p(a') (3-86)
~
a2 -(- <TI a2 ~r K
The last equality follows from the transformation in Eq. (3-14). This
equation states that W and p are equal when s = a2. But, according to
Eqs. (3-21), | IF | = |p| only when p = 0 (if W is not identically equal to p).
With p(a2) = 0, it follows that o-2 = k = irI. This proves that Zi(s) =
Z(s) — Ks has at most a single zero in the right half plane.
We can show that Zi(s) must have at least one zero on the positive real
axis by noting that Zi(0) = Z(0) > 0 by hypothesis. Furthermore, since
Z(s) is regular at infinity, Zi(i0 — » —Ka as a — » +00. Thus Zi(a) changes
sign as a goes from 0 to infinity, which means the plot of Zi(a) versus a
must cross the a axis at least once. Since there is at most a single zero, but
there must be at least one, we conclude that there is exactly a single zero
in the right half plane.
We have now shown that Zi(s) = Z(s) — Ks has exactly one zero in
the right half plane (on the real axis) when the pr function Z(s) is regular
at infinity and has a finite nonzero value at the origin. However, we have
not established the multiplicity of this zero. We can easily show that the
zero is not of second order by noting that a second-order zero will lead
to a plot of Z(a) versus a similar to Fig. 3-17. This is not possible since
<r—^>
Fig. 3-17. Plot of Zi(ff).
we know that Zi(a) —» — «, as a —i «. In fact, the same reasoning will
show that any even-order zero is not possible. The only remaining pos-
sibility is an odd-order zero of multiplicity greater than 1. In a later sec-
tion we shall prove that this is also impossible (see Probs. 3-15 and 3-14).
Now we can return to the realization problem. If the value of X in
Eq. (3-74) is positive, Zi(s) in Eq. (3-75) will not be pr. However, we have
just shown that it will have exactly a single zero on the positive real axis.
Sec. 3-4 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 101
Suppose we formally go through the same realization procedure that we
did for the case X < 0, even though Zi is not pr. Its reciprocal Yi will
have one pole in the right half plane, but since Re [Zi(jw)] = Re [Z(ju)]
> 0, then Re [FiO)] > 0.
The admittance FI(«) has a pair of j-axis poles at s = ±jwo- In order
to write F: in the form of Eq. (3-76), we must ensure that the residue of
YI at s = jua is real and positive. This residue is
k = lim (s - jwo)7i(s) = lim „,. s""
If we write Z(joi) = U(u) + jX(u) and evaluate the limit by the use of
1'Hospital's rule, we find for the residue
dZ(juo)/j du — X(UO)/UQ dX(uo)/du — X(ua)/uo
The right side follows from the fact that the real part of Z(ju) has a double
zero at s = jua so that dU/du = 0 there. We conclude that the residue of
YI at s = jua is real. It remains to show that the residue is positive. For
this purpose return to Eq. (2-14) where we showed that, for a reactance
function,
dX >X
du ~ u
(since X is positive and we are talking about a positive w, the magnitude
bars can be omitted). If you review the argument on which this result
was based, you will see that the result is also valid for any pr function at
a frequency for which the energy function Fo (and hence the real part of
the pr function) is zero.
As a consequence of this discussion we can conclude that the value of
LI obtained in Eq. (3-76) will be real and positive. After subtracting the
j\-axis poles from Yi(s) we see that the remaining admittance Y2(s) will
have the same pole in the right half plane that Fi(s) has and again Re
[F1(j«)] > 0. Its reciprocal, Z2(s), will have a single zero in the right
half plane but Re Z2( ju) > 0. It will also have a pole at infinity with a
negative residue. When this pole is realized as a negative inductance L2,
the remaining impedance Z3(s) will satisfy all conditions of positive real-
ness, except possibly for that lone zero in the right half plane. We shall
now show that this zero disappears when we remove L3 so that Z3(s) is
positive real.
What we have obtained formally is the realization of Fig. 3-16 but
with different values of the L's from before. We can compute Z(s) from
the figure.
1 02 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-4
r , - [L,s + Z,(«)] (C,Ltf' + 1)
- LlS - 2
The left-hand side of this equation has a single zero in the right half plane,
say, at s = fc; the right-hand side must be zero there also. Since C?LJ,2 + 1
cannot be zero for a positive k, we must have
Z,(fc) + kL3 = 0 (3-88)
Our purpose is to show that Z3(s) does not have the zero in the right half
plane that Zi(s) has. This we have now done, since the last equation says
that Z3(s) has the value — kL*, and not zero, at the right-half-plane zero of
Zi(s). Furthermore, since L8 is negative, Z3(k) is a positive number.
This completes the demonstration that positive realness is a sufficient,
as well as necessary, condition for the realization of a driving-point immit-
tance function. The steps in the process are as follows: First remove all
poles and zeros on the ju axis, in any order, until a minimum-reactance
minimum-susceptance function is obtained. Now find the minimum value
of the real part of this function on the ju axis, and remove it (as a series
or shunt resistance). If the minimum occurs at zero or infinity, further
reactance or susceptance reduction is possible. If the minimum occurs at
a finite nonzero frequency, wo, a Brune cycle will result. One of the in-
ductances Li or L3 will be negative, depending on whether the remaining
reactance, after subtraction of the minimum real part, is negative or posi-
tive. In either case the element values are found from the same formulas.
A physical realization requires the use of perfect transformers (unit
coupling).
The Brune cycle reduces the rank of the function by 4. The same
sequence of steps is repeated (where applicable) and the rank reduced
still further until the function is exhausted.
We should point out that the Brune realization will not always require a
perfect transformer. If the original positive real function is an impedance
and has a pole at infinity, this is normally realized as a series inductance,
say, Lo. This inductance can then be combined with the inductance LI of
the Brune section and, depending on the relative sizes of Lo and Li, may
lead to a tee network of inductances all of which are positive or, at worst,
will lead to a transformer with less than unity coupling. An example of
this is provided in Prob. 3-6.
We shall now illustrate the Brune-realization procedure with a numer-
ical example. It is desired to obtain a realization for the following imped-
ance function:
Sec. 3-4 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 1 03
tf(-s2) = (2s2 + !)(s' + 1) - (s3 + «)(«3 + 2«)
= (1 - s2)(l + s2)2 (3-90)
•
The Hurwitz test shows that there are no poles or zeros in the right half
plane or on the ju axis. The last equation shows that N( — s2) has a pair
of zeros on the ju axis, but these are double zeros. Hence the given func-
tion is a minimum pr function. Its real part is zero at wo = 1. For the
value of Z(s) at s = jl we find
Z(jl) = jl = jaJn (3-91)
Hence Z/i = 1
We next remove an impedance &Li = s from Z(s) and get
(3-92)
• We have thus created a zero on the ju axis. This zero is removed by taking
the reciprocal of Zi and computing the residue at the pole. Thus
1 ._, „ s3 + s2 + 2s + 1
* â„¢3
!
2
With wo = 1 we now have the shunt-branch parameters,
L2 = 2 (3-93)
2
Next we subtract the admittance of the shunt branch from Ki(s) and get
> S2+l 1-s2
The reciprocal of this function has a pole at infinity with a residue — §.
When this is removed, we get
_ /_?5\ =?
V 3^ 3
J<: "J '-"' - 1+3«/2
. This completes the Brune cycle, leaving a very simple function as a re-
mainder. We observe that this is an RC impedance function, its minimum
real part occurring at infinity. We get
Z^ - 5 + 27.. 10 + 9/5 (3-95)
104
Sec. 3-5
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
-2/3 4/9
M=2
4/9
Fig. 3-18. Brune realization of positive real function.
The complete realization, together with the transformer equivalent, is
shown in Fig. 3-18.
3-5. Bott-Duffin realization
When first announced, the Brune-realization technique had great sig-
nificance because it established sufficient conditions for realizability of a
driving-point immittance function. From the practical point of view,
however, the realization leaves much to be desired. The reason for the
appearance of the negative inductances, necessitating a perfectly coupled
transformer, is the insistence on a ladder form of realization. We know
that other structures exist. Perhaps, if we relax our requirement of a
ladder structure, we can find other realizations that do not embody the
perfect transformers required by Brune. We should expect to pay for this
in some other manner, possibly by the appearance of additional elements.
The first attempt in this direction was made by Bott and Duffin (18),
utilizing a theorem due to Richards (102a). Since the Bott-Duffin realiza-
tion technique is intimately tied up with this theorem, we shall first dis-
cuss the theorem.
Let Z(s) be a pr function, and let us again use the bilinear transforma-
tions given in Eqs. (3-14) and (3-15). By simple algebra we can write
W Z(s) - Z(k) s + k = 1 - F(s)
p ~ Z(s) + Z(k) s - k ~ 1 + F(s)
kZ(s) -
(3-96)
where
F(s) =
(3-97)
kZ(k) - sZ(8)
Equation (3-96) is again a bilinear transformation, the two variables
being F and W/p. (It differs from the previous ones we considered by a
minus sign, which affects only the angle of W/p and not its magnitude.
Since we need only the magnitude of W/p for our purposes, this sign will
have no significance.) Thus the right-half F plane is mapped onto the
interior of the unit circle in the W/p plane, the j axis falling on the circum-
Sec. 3-5
105
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
ference of the circle. The inside of the unit circle in the W/p plane is
described by writing
"' < 1 or |TF| < |p| (3-98)
But, according to Eqs. (3-21), this corresponds to the interior of the p-plane
unit circle. Thus the interior of the p-plane unit circle maps into the inte-
rior of the W/p-plane unit circle. But, by the transformation of Eq. (3-14),
the former is the map of the right-half s plane. Thus, finally, we have the
result that the right-half s plane maps into the right-half F plane. By giv-
ing proper attention to the boundaries of the right half plane as well, we
can write Re F > 0 when Re s > 0. In addition, since Z(s) is pr, F(s) is
real when s is real. Hence we can state Richards's theorem as follows:
// Z(s) is pr, F(s), given by Eq. (3-97), is also pr. The various transforma-
tions involved are illustrated in Fig. 3-19.
F -plane
w_ F-I
P ~ F+t
Z-plane
W
z-t
Z+1
s-plane
_ s-1
''s+l
Fig. 3-19. Transformations of Richards' theorem.
Unit
circle p-plane
106 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-5
Let us now check on the rank of F(s). Suppose that Z(s) is a minimum
function of rank 2n [numerator and denominator of Z(s) both of degree n].
Superficially, it looks as if the degree of the numerator of F(s), as well as
that of the denominator, will ben + 1, giving 2(n -f 1) for the rank of F.
However, the form of the numerator of F(s) is the same as that of the right-
hand side of Eq. (3-81), and hence the numerator has a zero in the right
half plane. (We see by inspection that it occurs at s = k.) But we just
showed that F(s) is pr and cannot have any zeros in the right half plane.
We conclude that the denominator of F(s) must also have a zero at s = k
in order to cancel the zero of the numerator. This reduces the rank of
F(8) by at least 2, making the degree of the numerator, as well as that of
the denominator, at most equal to n.
As a matter of fact, consideration of the rank of F(s) and that of Z(s)
will permit us to complete the proof that the multiplicity of the right-half-
plane zero of Z(s) — Ks is exactly unity, for a Z(s) which is regular at
infinity and nonzero at s = 0. Let us invert Eq. (3-97) and solve for Z(s).
If we write F(s) as the ratio of two polynomials with no common factors,
F(«) = P(s)/Q(s), we shall get
Z(s) = kF(a) + s _ kP(s) + sQ(s)
Z(k) k + sF(s) kQ(s) + sP(s) ('
We have already established that the right-half-plane zero of the
numerator of F(s) cannot be double. Suppose it is triple. Then, since
F(s) is pr, this must be canceled by a triple zero of the denominator. Look-
ing at Eq. (3-97), this means that P(s) and Q(s) will each be of degree
n — 2. Consequently, according to the preceding equation, the numerator
and denominator of Z(s) will each be of degree n — 1, contrary to the
assumption that they are each of degree n. This proves that a triple zero
in the right half plane is impossible. Of course, a higher-order zero will be
ruled out even more strongly by the same reasoning.
It may be well to point out that the rank of F(s) need not be the same
as that of Z(s). From Eq. (3-99) we can see that the degree of P(s) and
Q(s) can each be n — 1 and still give Z(s) a rank of 2n as assumed. This
is possible if, in addition to the simple positive real zero common to the
numerator and denominator of Eq. (3-97), there is a common negative
real zero as well. (See Prob. 3-24)
The Bott-Duffin realization technique, which we shall now discuss,
starts in the same manner as the Brune realization. A given impedance
function is first reduced to a minimum function by imaginary-part and
real-part reduction, so that the real part is zero at a finite nonzero fre-
quency «o. At this frequency the imaginary part is either positive or
Sec. 3-5 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 107
negative. To start with, consider the case X > 0, and write
Z(j«o) = jX = jwoLi, Li = X/wo (3-100)
At this point the procedure diverges from the Brune procedure. We turn
to the pr function F(s) in Eq. (3-97). If we invert it and solve for Z(s):
'
Z(k)s n Z(k) kZ(k) T Z(k)F(s)
As yet k is an arbitrary positive number. Let us choose k such that
Z(fc) = kLi (3-102)
where Li is given in Eq. (3-100). This is possible, since we know that the
function Z(s) — Lis has a real positive zero, which we shall denote by k.
With this substitution, Eq. (3-101) becomes
Z(i> = 1/L,s + 1/Z^s) + Cls + l/Z2(s) (3"103)
where Z^s) = JT±-
Z2(s) = fcL,F(s) (3-104)
1
The impedances Zi and Z2 are seen to be inverse with respect to fc'Lf. Re-
turning to Eq. (3-97) and using Eq. (3-102), we see that, when s = jwo,
F(s) = 0. Hence Zi(s) will have a pole at s = jwo, and Z2(s) will have a
zero there, so that we can write
Z((s} (a)
(3-105)
The realization of Eq. (3-103) now takes the form of Fig. 3-20. Note that
L2C, = L,C, = l/«8.
Suice F(s) is of rank no higher than that of Z(s), the functions Zi and
Z2 have this property also. The primed impedances then have a rank 4
less than that of the unprimed impedances. This completes one cycle of
the Bott-Duffin procedure. The next step in the realization is to take each
of the impedances Z{ and Z£ and repeat the synthesis procedure.
In the simple case of a biquadratic the Bott-Duffin realization will
yield Fig. 3-20 with Z( and Z% replaced by resistances Ri = Zi(») and
ff2 = Zi(0), respectively. You can see this by noting the behavior of the
reactive elements at the two extreme frequencies.
108
Sec. 3-5
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
(a) X>0 (b) X<0
Fig. 3-20. Bott-Duffin realizations.
Let us now return to the case where the remaining reactance is nega-
tive, after the minimum resistance is removed. The susceptance will then
be positive; so we can write
.1
C, = --L > 0 (3-106)
A completely analogous development is now carried out. Instead of
Eq. (3-97) we write
_ kY(s) - sY(k)
w kY(k) - sY(s)
(3-107)
which is pr if Y(s) is pr. The considerations of the rank of F(s) are the
same as before. Setting Y(k) = kCi and inverting the last equation, we get
11
1/sd
sL + l/Y2(s)
where
F2(s) = kdF (s)
1
(3-108)
(3-109)
L, =
fc'C,
The notation here might become a little confusing; note that there is no
relationship between YI and F2 in this development and Zi and Z2 in the
previous development.
Sec. 3-5
109
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
We see that Yi and F2 are inverse with respect to fc2C1. Since F(s) is
zero at s = jwo according to Eq. (3-107), YI will have a pole while F2 will
have a zero there. Thus we can write
+
Y2(s) =
(3-110)
!
The realization of Eq. (3-108) takes the form of Fig. 3-20(b). The func-
tions Y( and Y'2 are 4 less in rank than Y. The cycle is now repeated on
these functions. In the case of the biquadratic function these two admit-
tances reduce to Y(«*') and F(0) respectively. Again note that L2C2 =
L3C3 = l/«8-
We have now established a significant fact. Any positive real function
can be realized as a driving-point immittance function without transformers.
In some cases this will take a ladder structure; in other, more complicated
cases as described in this section, a nonladder structure will be required.
It is apparent that this result is achieved at the expense of a large number
of elements.
To acquire some insight on the structure of the Botfr-Duffin realization,
consider the network in Fig. 3-21. This is a bridge network with Zo con-
h
c,
i
*'C,1
1
Fig. 3-21. Generalized Bott-Duffin realization.
stituting the detector arm. The conditions listed in the figure indicate
that the bridge is balanced so that the voltage across Zo is zero. Hence the
driving-point impedance Z(s) will not be affected by Zo. A glance at Eqs.
(3-104) and (3-109) shows that the bridge balance conditions are satisfied
by both Bott-Duffin realizations.! Figure 3-20(a) is obtained when Zo is
short-circuited, while Fig. 3-20(b) is obtained when Zo is an open circuit.
Any other intermediate value of Zo will also yield a realization for the given
t This was first pointed out by F. M. Reza (99).
110
Sec. 3-5
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
\<-1 r
Z(s)
rTi
1 — 1
El
i'-j
LLq
r°
11
s
J
(a) (b)
Fig. 3-22. Conversion of Bott-Duffin realization for A" > 0.
driving-point impedance. Obviously we would not put additional elements
in the detector arm if they did not serve a useful purpose.
We can use the flexibility discussed in the previous paragraph actually
to reduce the number of elements in the Bott-Duffin realization as pointed
out by Storer (125). To see how we can accomplish this, consider Fig.
3-22(a), which is a redrawing of Fig. 3-20(a), but with the short circuit in
the detector arm replaced by an inductance L. The circuit inside the
dotted lines can be replaced by a pi equivalent. This transformation will
be physically realizable if the value of L is chosen so that the resonant
frequency of L and Ci is equal to the resonant frequency of L2 and C2 (2).
The tee and its pi equivalent are shown in Fig. 3-23. We see that Us, and
Fig. 3-23. Tee-pi equivalents.
Sec. 3-5
111
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
Ca have a resonant frequency of uo. Because of this fact, when the tee is
replaced by its equivalent pi in Fig. 3-22(a), the branches composed of
L2C2 and LyCa can be combined in parallel into a single branch with capaci-
tance equal to the sum of C8 and Ca and inductance whose reciprocal is
the sum of the reciprocals of L3 and L*. The final network is shown in
Fig. 3-22(b).
What we did was to add one element to the Bott-Duffin realization.
Then we performed a tee-pi transformation which permitted us to combine
four elements into two. The net result is a reduction of one element in the
Bott-Duffin realization of Fig. 3-20(a).
A similar procedure can be followed in the case of the second Bott-
Duffin realization shown in Fig. 3-24(a) (see Prob. 3-10). This leads to
the realization of Fig. 3-24(b). These modifications of the Bott-Duffin
realizations lead to an unbalanced bridge structure.
Fig. 3-24. Conversion of Bott-Duffin realization for X < 0.
To illustrate this procedure, let us obtain a Bott-Duffin realization for
the following impedance function, which we have already realized by the
procedure in the last section:
83 + 2s2 + s + 1
Z(s) =
s3 + s2 + 2s + 1
(3-111)
We found that this is a minimum function, the real part being zero at
u = 1. We found the imaginary part to be X = 1 at this frequency, and
hence Li = 1.
The first step in the Bott-Duffin procedure is to find the value of fc by
solving the equation Z(k) = kLi. We get
112
Sec. 3-5
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
Hence
=0
fc' + 2fc2 + fc + 1 _ , = 1 - fc4
fc3 + fc2 + 2k + 1 k3 + fc2 + 2k + 1
= 1 (3-112)
Z(A-) = Z(l) = 1
Next we form the positive real function F(s), using Eq. (3-97). Thus
Z(s) - s _ s4 - 1 _ (s2 + l)(s2 - 1)
F(s) =
1 - sZ(s) s4 + s3 - s - 1 (s2 + s + l)(s2 - 1)
s2 + s + 1
(3-113)
We find that the rank of F(s) is less than that of the original function,
owing to the cancellation of a left-half-plane zero as well as one in the
right half plane.
The next step is to compute Zi(s) and Z2(s) from Eq. (3-104). We get
F(s) s2 + 1
+1
= F(s) =
1
s/(s' + 1) + 1
From these we compute the element values to be
C2 = 1 L3 = 1
11
(a)
(b)
(3-114)
=1
(3-115)
Zl 7
i=1 &2 = I
The complete realization is shown in Fig. 3-25(a). The modified realization
(b)
Fig. 3-25. Bott-Duffin realization and storer modification of numerical
example.
Sec. 3-6 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 11 3
shown in part (b) of the figure is obtained by replacing the short circuit in
the detector arm of the bridge by an inductance which resonates with Ci.
A subsequent tee to pi transformation leads to the realization shown. The
details are left for you.
Note that the modified Bott-Duffin realization has seven elements—
the same number as the Brune realization. Although the Bott-Duffin
synthesis leads to redundant elements in the synthesis of most impedance
functions, it is not so wasteful in some cases, as in the present example.
3-6. Determination of a positive real function from its even part
We have now discussed two different realization techniques whereby
an arbitrary positive real rational function can be realized as the driving-
point function of a passive, bilateral, lumped network. Each of these pro-
cedures suffers from a disadvantage. In the Brune process perfectly
coupled transformers are often required, while the Bott-Duffin realization
requires a large number of elements. There is room for other realization
techniques which do not require perfect transformers, yet involve fewer
elements than the Bott-Duffin realization.
A contribution to this problem was made by Darlington, who showed
tha^an_arbitrary positive real function can be realized as a lossless two-
port terminated^ in a resistance. However, this does not constitute a solu-
tion to the problem of realization of pr functions so much as it constitutes
a reformulation of the problem in different terms. Thus the Darlington
technique transforms the problem from the realization of a single pr func-
tion to the realization of a set of two-port open-circuit impedance param-
eters or short-circuit admittance parameters. We shall defer the discussion
of the Darlington procedure to a later chapter after we have discussed
synthesis of two-ports for prescribed z or y parameters.
Besides these general techniques, which apply to the synthesis of any
positive real function, other procedures exist which will yield a realization
for special classes of pr functions. The Foster and Cauer techniques fall
into this catagory. Since the definition of a pr function is tied up so inti-
mately with the real part, we should expect the properties of thejreal part
of a pr function toaffecijn aft essential way thej-ealization of the function.
Xjflven a pr function Z(s), we can, of course, compute the real part
according to Eq. (3-41). The question arises, Given a function which is to
be the real part of a positive real function, is the pr function uniquely
determined? To this we shall have to answer "no," because we know that
to any pr function we can add a reactance function without affecting the
114 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-6
real part. On the other hand, a pr function is an analytic function of s.
As such, its real and imaginary parts are related uniquely through a pair
of Hilbert transforms (57) or, in more popular terminology, through Bode's
formulas (16), provided it has no poles on the ju axis. Thus a given im-
pedance real part will determine an imaginary part, and the two together
will define a unique minimum reactance function. The trouble is that this
is an extremely complicated procedure even if we can evaluate the required
integrals.
Fortunately there are other (algebraic) methods for determining a pr
function from its real part. More exactly, the pr function is determined
from its even part, which is the analytic continuation of the real part
evaluated at s = ju. One of these methods is due to Gewertz (51). Using
the previously defined notation, we can write
Re.
N(-s-
[r(-s1' - D(-*>
= Aa + Ais2 + . . . + Ams2
The function that is given is the ratio of the two polynomials in the last
line. The degree of the numerator is at most equal to that of the denomi-
nator so that m < n.
Let us first examine the denominator polynomial,
D(—s2) = (m2 + n2)(m2 — n2) (3-118)
Our job is to find the Hurwitz polynomial m2 + n2 from the given even
polynomial D(—s2). Suppose so is a zero of m2 + n2; that is, m2(so) +
n2(so) = 0. Let us look at the polynomial m2 — n2 and evaluate it at
s = —so. We shall find that
m2( —So) — W2(—So) = m2(so) + n2(so) = 0 (3-119)
because m2 is an even polynomial, while n2 is odd. The conclusion is that
the zeros of m2 — n2 are the negatives of the zeros of m2 + n2.
The denominator polynomial D( — s2) is an even polynomial in s. In
terms of s2 the zeros of an even polynomial may be real and positive, real
and negative, or complex. Typical zeros are shown in Fig. 3-26. A real
positive s2 zero will lead to two zeros in the s plane, one being positive,
the other negative, both with the same magnitude. A real negative s*
Sec. 3-6
115
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
Q
<•!*>
s2-plane
-s2
o
5,6
-S0O
s - plane
Fig. 3-26. Typical locations of zeros of an even polynomial.
zero will lead to a pair of conjugate imaginary zeros in the s plane. Finally
a pair of complex conjugate s2 zeros will lead to four zeros in the s plane
symmetrically placed with respect to both the real axis and the imaginary
axis. This type of configuration we shall refer to as quadrantal symmetry
(82). With this terminology we can state that the zeros of an even poly-
nomial occur in quadrantal symmetry.
In our present case, given U(—sv), we factor the denominator poly-
nomial D( — s2). This will have no zeros on thejw axis, and the other zeros
will come in quadruplets of complex zeros or pairs of real zeros as in Fig.
3-26. Since m2 + n2 must be a Hurwitz polynomial, all its zeros must lie
in the left half plane. Furthermore we showed that the zeros of mI — n2
must lie in the right half plane. Hence all the zeros of D( — s2) which lie in
the left half plane belong to m2 + n2. In this way half the problem of
determining the impedance function in Eq. (3-116) is solved. It remains
to find the a coefficients in that equation.
To do this, let us substitute the expressions for mi, m?, ni, and n2 in
terms of the a and b coefficients into the expression N(—sr) = mtm2 — njn2.
Comparing coefficients of this result with the given A^( — s2) permits us to
solve for the unknown coefficients. Thus
mim.2 —
= (CD + o2s2 + . . . + ans")(bo + b^ + . . . + bns")
(3-120)
AI = ajb2 +
A2 — ao64 + a262
Ak =
(3-121)
;--*
116 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-6
Equations (3-121) form a set of simultaneous linear equations in the a
coefficients. They look formidable but are actually simple to solve. The
a and b coefficients are zero for k > n. Thus, when n = 3, the equations
reduce to
Ad = ao6o
A\ — aobo + boat — aiW
(3-122)
At = 0262 — 0163 — 0361
A3 = —ajo3
The first and last give the solutions for ao and a3 immediately. When
these are substituted in the center two equations, only two unknowns are
left. Similar simplification is achieved for higher-order functions as well.
Note that the impedance obtained by this procedure will be a minimum-
reactance function. Any other function differing from this one by a sum
of terms of the form ks/(s1 + w?) will still have the same real part.
Bode has described an alternate method for determining Z(s) from a
given Re [Z(ju)]. This follows from the recognition that
Re[Z(j«)] = HZ(s) + Z(-s)],-y„
so that 2{/(-s2) = Z(s) + Z(-s) (3-123)
Let us assume that Z(s) is minimum-reactive since only such a function
can be determined uniquely from the given U( —s2). The poles of Z(s) are
in the left half plane, while those of Z(—s) are in the right. The function
U( — s2) has both these sets of poles. Suppose we find the residues of both
sides of Eq. (3-123) at the left-half-plane poles of U( — s2). The contri-
bution to the residues of the right-hand side by Z(—s) will be zero since it
has no poles in the left half plane. Hence the residues of Z(s) at its poles
are twice the residues of U( — s2) at its left-half-plane poles. Furthermore,
since Z(s) is minimum-reactive, both Z(s) and Z( — s) approach a constant
Rx as s —»00 (this may be zero). Thus the partial-fraction expansion of
Z(s) is completely determined.
In both the Gewertz and the Bode methods it is necessary to find the
poles of U( — s2) so that neither method has a computational advantage
in this respect. Bode's method involves computation of residues, and these
will ordinarily be complex, whereas the solution of Eq. (3-121) involves
real numbers only.
Although we have used the impedance Z(s) in this development, the
same thing holds true for an admittance function. We merely have to
interchange the symbols Z and Y and use the term minimum-susceptance
instead of minimum-reactance.
Sec. 3-7
117
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
We have now demonstrated that starting with an even rational function
of s with no poles on the ju axis, including infinity, we can determine a
unique minimum-imaginary-part positive real function whose even part
is equal to the given rational function.
3-7. Miyata realization of a positive real function
Let us now consider positive real functions whose real parts have
special properties. We shall exclude poles on the ju axis for reasons dis-
cussed earlier. In particular we should like to obtain realizations for
functions whose even parts have zeros at infinity or zero, or both. Let us
consider an impeHance iuncttotrZ(s)~iriid write — ' ---
+
Ofl
6o
(3-124)
with the stipulation that 6o ^ 0 in order to avoid a pole at the origin. On
the other hand, either an or OQ, or both, may be zero, leading to a zero at
infinity or at the origin, or both, respectively. For the even part of Z(s)
we can write
where
£»(-s')
TO-2 — l1%
(3-125)
(3-126)
We have assumed that n is even; if it is odd, the sign of N(— s2) will be
reversed. The denominator of U( — s2) is of the 2nth degree. If neither
aa nor an is zero, [/(— s2) will have no zero at zero or infinity.
An = an
l«_i = an_2 + an6n_2 — an_i6n_i
= a26o +
Z(s)
r^
o—
Z,(s)
Tt
z^s; a,
I/
r f1
Z2(s)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3-27. Partial realization for real part zeros at the origin.
1 1 8 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-7
Suppose N( — s2) has a zero of order 2k at s = 0. This will require all
the A coefficients from A o up to Ak-i to vanish, and N( — s*) will have a
factor ( — s2)*. Hence ao also will vanish, and Z(s) will have a zero at s = 0.
Its reciprocal will have a pole there, which can be realized as a shunt in-
ductance Li = bo/ai, as shown in Fig. 3-27(o). The remaining admittance
function will not have a pole at s = 0. We can write
1 / mi \ . 1 / n, \
- ( n2 -- r) + -(wi2--7L)
s \ sLJ s V sLj
"
Since YI(s) should have no pole at s = 0, we have divided numerator and
denominator of the right side by s in order to cancel out the factor s which
is contained in mi + HI. This gives the last form of Eq. (3-127). The even
part of Ki(s) can now be calculated as
ni I mi\ mi I ni\
-?(n'— ~T ) ~ 7F I m2 T)
f/^-s2) = ^ '' 2 \ '^ =
(l/s2)(n? - m?)
or AT^-s2) = ^£^ (3-128)
We see that the even part of the remaining admittance function has
lost a factor (—s2) by the removal of the shunt inductance Li, and the rank
of Fi(s) (which is the same as that of Zi) is two less than that of Z(s).
Ari( —s2) now has a factor (—s2)*"l so that F^s) also has a zero at s = 0.
Its reciprocal has a pole there, and this can be realized as a series capaci-
tance as shown in Fig. 3-27 (b). By repeating the previous steps we shall
see that the remaining impedance Z2(s) will have a rank two less than Zi(s),
and its even part will have a factor ( — s2)"-~2. Thus we can continue in this
fashion, alternately removing shunt inductance and series capacitance
until, after removing k reactive elements, we arrive at a remainder Z*(s)
whose even part does not have a zero at s = 0 and whose rank is 2(n — k).
If k = n, that is to say, if N( — s2) = s2", so that all zeros of the real part
of the original impedance are at s = 0, then the remaining function after
the removal of n reactive elements will have a rank of zero, which means
it can be realized as a resistance. For such a case the realization is complete
with n reactive elements and one resistance.
Now suppose that the even part U(—s2) has a zero of order 2k at
infinity. This means that all the A coefficients in Eq. (3-125) from A*
down to A „_*+i must be zero. In such a case Z(s) will have a zero at infinity
[since an in Eq. (3-124) will be zero]. This can be realized as a shunt
capacitance. We can actually carry out steps similar to Eqs. (3-127) and
Sec. 3-7 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 119
(3-128) to show that the even part of the remaining admittance will have
a zero at infinity of multiplicity two less than that of U(—a2). Alternatively
we can use the transformation p = 1/s, which transforms infinity into the
origin, and thus reduce the present problem to the previous case. By
either procedure we can alternately remove shunt capacitance and series
inductance until we have removed k reactive elements. The details of the
procedure are left for you as an exercise.
Note that, when Z(s) in Eq. (3-124) has a zero at infinity, its rank will
be odd. If, after reduction, we are to have a remainder function with no
zero or pole at infinity, its rank must be even. Thus, when the last re-
active element is removed, the rank of the remaining function must be
reduced by only unity from that of the immediately preceding function.
Thus, starting with Z(s) of rank 2n — 1, we shall terminate with Z* of
rank of 2(n — k). In particular, for k = n, that is, when all the zeros of
U( — s2) are at infinity, the rank of Zn will be zero, corresponding to a
resistance. Again the complete realization will consist of n reactive
elements and a single resistance.
Finally the even part may have a combination of these properties; i.e.,
it may have a zero of order 2fc at s = 0 and a zero of order 2j at infinity.
\i k -\- j = n, which means that the even part has no other zeros, then
again the complete realization will consist of n reactive elements and a
single resistance. However, now A: of these elements will consist of shunt
inductance and series capacitance, while the rest will be shunt capacitance
and series inductance.
We shall now discuss a realization procedure due to Miyata which
utilizes the properties discussed above. The realization procedure is not
general, in that it applies only to a restricted class of positive real functions.
We shall be able to see what the restrictions are after we discuss the
procedure.
Consider the impedance function Z(s) given in Eq. (3-117) with the
even part given in Eq. (3-118). Let us rewrite this last equation as follows:
U( } D(-s2)-(- D(-s>) -'"•••"t"D(-s2) "*"Z)(-s2)
= Un(-s>) + E/n_,(-s2) + . . . + Uii-s1) + Uo(-t?) (3-129)
The even parts Uk( — s2) have the property that all their zeros are at zero
or infinity. If the coefficients At have the correct sign, then each of the
quantities £/* will be positive for all values of s = ju. Consequently each
of the even parts will correspond to an impedance which can be realized
as a network containing n reactive elements plus a resistance, according
1 20 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-7
to the previous discussion. The series connection of these networks will
give a realization for the original Z(s). For t/*(w2) to be nonnegative for
all values of w, we require
to be nonnegative. This means that all the A coefficients with odd sub-
script must be negative and those with even subscript positive. More
concisely (— 1)M* > 0. This, then, is the essential restriction on the
realization procedure. We shall refer to pr functions which satisfy the
condition as belonging to the Miyata class. At the end of this section we
shall discuss an interpretation of this restriction in terms of the permissible
locations of the roots of N(— s2).
Let us now return to the realization technique. We already know how
to find the impedance functions Zk(s) from the even parts [/*(— s2); we
can do this by either the Gewertz or the Bode procedure. However, the
work of carrying out this process for each of the component impedances
will prove tedious. We notice that the denominators of all the component
even parts are the same. Miyata developed a scheme which will permit
using the Gewertz procedure, say, only once in finding all the component
impedances. We proceed as follows:
The starting point is a minimum-reactance minimum-susceptance
positive real function. (If there are originally any poles or zeros on the
ju axis, these can be realized by reactive structures.) We now form the
even part as in Eq. (3-129). We next consider the even function
*> = = 0-130)
where m2 + n2 is the denominator of the given function Z(s), and, using
the Gewertz or Bode procedure, form from this the positive real function
which has the previous function as its even part. This has the same
denominator as the original function but a different numerator. Now we
form the functions
nf)
where Nk(— s2) js_the_nurnerator of the fcth term in Eq. (3-129). These
TuncTIons" will not be positive real (except for k = 0 since No is just a
Sec. 3-7 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 121
constant) because the numerators will exceed the denominators in degree
by more than unity. However, the even part of Fk(s) is Uk( — s2), as you
can easily verify. Let us now divide the denominator into the numerator
by long division, stopping when the numerator no longer exceeds the
denominator in degree. The result will be a polynomial Q*(s) plus a rational
function. Thus
Fk(s) = Q*(s) + Zk(s) (3-133)
Uk( — s2) = even part of Qk + even part of Zk(s) (3-134)
The even part of the polynomial Qt(s) will consist of the sum of all the
even powers of s. If there are even powers of s in Qk, then the right side of
the last equation will become infinite as s —>«», whereas the left side we
know does not. We conclude that Qk(s) contains no even powers of s, and
hence has no even part. Therefore
Even part of Zk(s) = tr*(-s2) (3-135)
Furthermore the poles of Z*(s) are the same as the poles of the given pr
function and so are in the left half plane. Hence Z/«(s) is a positive real
function.
The job is now complete. We have been able to obtain a positive real
function for each of the component even parts in Eq. (3-129), using the
Gewertz or Bode procedure only once.
Let us illustrate the procedure with an example. We require a Miyata
realization for the impedance function \*
= s2 + 7s/3 + 2 . 1
(3-136)
o4 _ O,l2 _L_ A N'
T7/ 9\ * ^** I U /1_\
s< - 3s2 + 9
We first have to check the coefficients in the numerator of U( — s2). We
find that they satisfy the required condition. Next we construct the pr
function Za(s), which has as its even part
Using the Gewertz procedure, we find
z.(s) - 1 *+£+3 (3-138>
Finally, using this expression in Eq. (3-132), we get
122
Sec. 3-7
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
Fo(s)
= 6 • Us + 3) = §s + 2
s2 + 3s + 3 s2 + 3s + 3
-2s2 - Ks + 3) 2
1l s2 + 3s + 3 9
fs
3)
so that the three component impedances are
s2 + 3s + 3
s2 + 3s + 3
s2 + s
(a)
(b) (3-139)
(c)
(a)
(b) (3-140)
(c)
s2 + 3s + 3
These can now be realized by carrying out a continued-fraction expansion.
The complete realization of Z(s) as the series connection of the three com-
ponent networks is shown in Fig. 3-28(a).
2/3
2/9
Brune realization
3
J
-'THnp-
2/9
LLJL
(a) (c)
Fig. 3-28. Miyata realization compared with Brune realization.
The impedance used in this particular example could have been realized
more simply, as shown in Fig. 3-28(b), so that the Miyata method was not
really necessary. However, the example points up a feature of the Miyata
realization, viz., the excessive number of elements required. This is due to
the number of components into which the given even part is decomposed.
Sec. 3-7 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 123
If we could decompose the even part into a smaller number of components,
while maintaining the pr character of each part, this would help reduce
the number of elements required. The question is one of decomposing an
even polynomial in w whose coefficients are all positive into a small number
of even polynomials whose coefficients are also all positive, but which
are of reduced degree or contain powers of u- as factors, or both. Many
types of such decompositions are possible, a number of which have been
discussed by Kuh (73). We shall illustrate one possible breakdown with
the numerical example just used. Instead of decomposing the numerator of
Eq. (3-136, b) into three terms, let us break it into two terms, keeping the
constant term as No and combining the other two terms into Ni. Thus
U,_M = s4 ~ ™ + 6 _ s'(«' ~ 2) , _ 6_
k ' s4-3s2 + 9 s4- 3s'- + 9 ^s4 - 3s2 + 9 w
The same procedure is followed as before for computing the impedances of
which these are the even parts. Of course, Za is the same as before. To
compute Zi, we write
«3 5s s2 + 5«/3
= 9 -? +.I + 3. + 3 '"'
s2 + 5s/3 1
Hence Z,« = «2 + 3s + 3 = 9 + « (3-143)
Since Ui(— s2) has a factor — s2, we can remove a shunt inductance.
According to Eq. (3-128), the numerator of the even part of the remaining
function will be the same as the numerator of C/i, but with the factor — s2
missing. This is easily verified in the present simple example. In fact Zt(s)
is readily expanded in a continued-fraction expansion to give
9,
15s 18
7 '" 7
The complete realization is shown in Fig. 3-28(c). This realization saves
two reactive elements when compared with the first Miyata realization.
124
Sec. 3-7
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
This example illustrates a general procedure for pr functions of the
Miyata class. Instead of decomposing the even part of a given positive
real function into a number of terms equal to the number of terms in the
numerator, as in Eq. (3-129), we decompose it into two terms as follows:
'
D(-s-)
Let us assume that Ao ^ 0 and An ^ 0. Then the first term in this equa-
tion will have a 2(n — fc)th-order zero at infinity, while the second term
will have a 2(k + l)th-order zero at s = 0. Hence, according to the dis-
cussion at the beginning of this section, a realization of the form shown in
Fig. 3-29 will be obtained. The first ladder will have n — k reactive ele-
•—nnnr,-»
Fig. 3-29. Modified Miyata realization.
ments and a remaining function whose rank is 2k (recall that the rank of
the original function is 2n). Furthermore the numerator of the even part
of the remaining function will not be changed. Similarly the second ladder
will have k -f- 1 reactive elements. The remaining function will have a
rank 2n — 2(k + 1), and the numerator of its even part will be the same
as that of the second term in Eq. (3-145) except for the factor s2**^i'.
At this stage the remaining functions may be simple enough so that
they can be easily realized. This was true in the numerical example. If the
remaining functions are still of high order, we can repeat the same pro-
cedure. You can appreciate that the resulting structure will have the form
of a tree.
In special cases other decomposition schemes may lead to alternative
realizations. Some of these are suggested as problems at the end of the
chapter.
Let us now turn to a consideration of the restriction on the signs of the
coefficients of N(—s*). For simplicity of statement we can say that the
Sec. 3-7
125
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
signs of all the coefficients of N(u2) must be positive. It is clear that the co-
efficients of a polynomial are dependent on the locations of the zeros of
the polynomial. We know, for example, that the coefficients of a Hurvvitz
polynomial are all positive. Thus left-half-plane zeros are a sufficient con-
dition for a polynomial to have positive coefficients. But this is not a
necessary condition; polynomials may have zeros in the right half plane
and still have positive coefficients.
The following theorem gives a necessary and sufficient condition (78).
// a polynomial P(z) of degree n has no negative coefficients, it will have no
zeros in the sector bounded by rays emanating from the origin and making
Fig. 3-30. Forbidden region for zeros of a polynomial with positive
coefficients.
angles ±w/n with the positive real axis. Figure 3-30 shows the excluded
region. The proof of the theorem is relatively easy. Let us write
P(z) = oo + aiz + a2z- + . . . + anz" (3-146)
Consider the closed contour in the z plane formed by the two rays and
a circular arc at an arbitrary radius r as shown in Fig. 3-31. Suppose we
P-plane
z=r
z-re
â– jw/n
Fig. 3-31. Polynomial mapping of a z plane contour onto a P plane.
traverse the contour in a clockwise direction, starting at the origin. Accord-
ing to the Principle of the Argument the number of times the P-plane image
1 26 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-7
of this contour encircles the origin is equal to the number of zeros of the
polynomial enclosed by the contour (since there are no poles). At all points
on the ray in the first quadrant the angle of z is constant at jr/n. Each
term in the polynomial will thus have an angle less than ir (except the last
term, which will have an angle of exactly v). Hence the angle of the sum
of all the terms will never exceed v. This is most easily shown in the follow-
ing way: At a fixed value of z suppose we add the first two terms of the
polynomial. The first term has an angle zero, while the second one has an
angle ir/n. The sum will have an angle somewhere between zero and w/n
depending on the magnitude of z and the relative size of the coefficients.
To this sum we add the third term, which has angle 2ir/n. The angle of
the resultant will certainly be less than 2v/n. We continue adding the
terms in this fashion. At each step the angle of the sum is no greater than
the angle of the last term added. Since the angle of the highest power
term is v, the angle of the polynomial will be no greater than ir. Thus,
along the upper ray, the value of the polynomial will lie in the upper half
plane. In a similar manner we conclude that the value of the polynomial
will lie in the lower half plane when z is on the lower ray.
We must now determine how the P-plane contour behaves when we
traverse the circular arc in the z plane. Consider a point on the arc with
polar coordinates rt'e with 0 < 6 < w/n. By the same reasoning we em-
ployed before the angle of the polynomial will be no greater than n6, which
z-plane
P(z) = (z* - 202 cos B + o!)(z + c)
Fig. 3-32. Zeros of a third-order polynomial.
is certainly less than r. As a matter of fact, when 0 = 0, the angle of
the polynomial will also be zero (because none of the coefficients are nega-
tive). We conclude that the P-plane image of the 2-plane contour has
the form shown in Fig. 3-30(b). It is apparent that the origin of the
P plane is not enclosed. This proves the theorem.
As a simple illustration, consider the third-order polynomial having the
zeros shown in Fig. 3-32. It is
P(z) = (22 - 2az cos 6 + a-)(z + c)
= z3 + (c - 2a cos 6)z"- -\- (a- - 2ac cos 6)z + car (3-147)
Sec. 3-7
127
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
To ensure that none of the coefficients will be negative, we must satisfy
the condition
a
2a cos 8 < c <
— —
- - 2 cos 6
(3-148)
Thus c must fall within the range indicated. For this range to exist, the
right-hand extreme must certainly be no less than the left-hand extreme.
0a
2 cos 6
cos 8 < \
2a cos 6
(3-149)
which is in agreement with the theorem.
Let us now return to the problem of determining the implications of
requiring positive coefficients for Ar(w2). Let us make the transformation
s2 = —z, where z = x + jy. This reduces to or = x when s = ju. The two
planes are shown in Fig. 3-33. The left-half z plane maps into the shaded
s-plane
Fig. 3-33. The transformation sz = — z.
wedges between the two 45° lines in the s plane. If all the zeros of Ar(—s2)
fall in this region, when we make the transformation — s2 = z, all the zeros
of N(z) will fall in the left-half z plane. Hence all the coefficients of N(z)
will be positive, which, in turn, means that all the coefficients of Ar(or) will
be positive. Thus, location of the zeros of N( — s2) in the region described
is a sufficient condition for positive coefficients of A^w2), but it is not
necessary.
The region in the z plane from which zeros of N(z) are excluded if the
coefficients are to be positive maps into the wedge-shaped region in the
s plane centered on the ju axis and bounded by lines making an angle
a = w/2n with the ju axis. Thus, if W(w') is of degree 2n in u and all the
1 28 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-7
coefficients are positive, then the zeros of N( —s2) cannot lie in this wedge
of total angle 2a = w/n. It follows that it is possible for N(—s2) to have
some zeros in the unshaded part of the plane while all the coefficients of
Ar(w2) are still positive.
This discussion points up the fact that the applicability of the Miyata
synthesis procedure is dependent on the locations in the s plane of the
zeros of the even part of the positive real function.
Now suppose that initially not all the coefficients of Ar(w2) are positive.
We should like to perform some operation which makes all the coefficients
positive, while at the same time it does not affect the real part. As a matter
of fact we have already seen an example of how this can be done. Glance
back at Eq. (3-147) and Fig. 3-32. Suppose we consider the quadratic
factor to be the polynomial under consideration. It has a negative co-
efficient. If the right-half-plane zeros are suitably located, we can find a
factor z + c by which the given polynomial can be multiplied such that
the resulting polynomial has only positive coefficients. This is an example
of a more general theorem, which can be stated as follows:
Let N(z) be a polynomial with real coefficients which has no zeros on
the positive real axis. Then there exists a polynomial P(z) all of whose
zeros lie on the negative real axis and are distinct, such that the poly-
nomial N(z) • P(z) has coefficients that are all positive. This theorem was
proved by Fialkow and Gerst (45). In their proof it was demonstrated
that the order of the necessary polynomial P(z) will depend on how close
the zeros of N(z) are to the positive real axis; the order increases without
limit as a zero of N(z) approaches closer and closer to the positive real axis.
We shall not repeat the proof here.
This theorem can be applied to the even polynomial N(—s2) by the
transformation — s2 = z. The polynomial P(-s-), which corresponds to
P(z), will have factors of the form a? — s2, which becomes aj + u2 for
s = jw.
Let us now apply this theorem to our problem. We shall assume that
the given function Z(s) is not a minimum function so that the real part has
no zeros on the finite ju axis. Suppose some of the coefficients in the
numerator of the real part are negative. That is, Ar(w2) has some negative
coefficients. We multiply numerator and denominator of U(u2) by factors
w2 + of, with suitably chosen values of a,, until the numerator no longer
has any negative coefficients. The Miyata procedure can now be applied.
To be practically useful, of course, the number of factors needed should
be small; otherwise the complexity of the resulting network will be in-
tolerable.
Sec. $-7 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 1 29
In terms of s the multiplying factors are af — s2 = (a,- — s)(aj + s).
Let us see what effect these factors have on the impedance function. To
be specific, let us consider a single factor al — s2.
^ sJ ml-nla?-s2
AT(-«g)(«S ~ s2) (3_150)
[(wt2 + n2)(ao + s)][(mj - ti.2)(ao - s)]
From the last form it is apparent that m2 + n2, the denominator of Z(s),
is multiplied by the factor s + cto. The numerator of Z(s) must be multi-
plied by this factor, as well, in order to maintain the same Z(s). Factors
such as this are called surplus factors. They have no effect on the im-
pedance function but provide additional realization techniques which
would not otherwise be possible.
To generalize this result, let us multiply the numerator and denominator
of Z(s) by the surplus Hurwitz polynomial mo + no.
Z( \ = m* + n' m° + n° = (miWo + nino) + (nmo + nomi) .„ .
m2 + n2 Wo + no {mmo + n2no) + (n2mo + nom2)
When we compute the even part, we get
(miwt2 - nin2)(mg — nl)
(ml - nl)(m% - nl)
<A-« J _ /™2 _ „2N/m2 21 (a-ioz;
Thus the numerator and denominator of the even part are multiplied by
ml — nl.
Now we consider the reverse procedure. In order to convert a given
pr function into a function of the Miyata class, we multiply the numerator
and denominator of the even part by surplus factors of the form af — s2.
All these factors taken together constitute a surplus polynomial which we
can label ml — nl. The surplus polynomial by which the pr function itself
must be multiplied, in order that its even part be multiplied by ml — nl,
is the polynomial mo + no, which is formed from all the left-half-plane
zeros of m2, — nl.
As an example of the use of surplus factors, consider the impedance
function
„, , 2s2 + 3s + 3 . .
Z(s) = s2 + 3s + 4 (a)
(3-153)
N(w2) = 2w4 - 2w2 + 12 (b)
We see that one of the coefficients of A;(u2) is negative so that the Miyata
procedure cannot be applied directly. Hence we multiply Z(s) by surplus
factors. The polynomial N(z) (with z = — s2) is a quadratic whose roots
1 30 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS Sec. 3-7
make an angle of 78.2° with the positive real axis. This is quite far from
the axis, and we would anticipate the need of very few surplus factors.
Suppose we try a single factor. Let us multiply N(w2) by w2 + a2. Then
#i(w2) = (w2 + a2)Ar(w2)
= 2w6 + 2(a2 - IV + 2(6 - a2)w2 + 12a2 (3-154)
For all the coefficients to be positive we must have
1 < a2 < 6 (3-155)
Choosing either one of the extreme values of a2 will make one of the co-
efficients vanish, thus requiring fewer component impedances in the Miyata
realization. Thus, with a2 = 1, we shall have
Ari(w2) = 2w6 + 10w2 + 12 (3-156)
The numerator and denominator of Z(s) must be multiplied by the factor
(s + vl) so that Z(s) becomes
„,, 2s3 4- 5s2 + 6s + 3
Z« - s3 + 4s2 + 7s + 4 (3-157)
The Miyata procedure can now be carried out and will lead to three ladder
networks connected in series. This is left for you as an exercise.
PROBLEMS
3-1. Let Zi(s) and Z2(s) be positive real functions.
(a) Prove that Zi[Z2(s)] is pr.
(b) Based on part (a), prove that 1/Z(s) is pr if Z(s) is pr.
(c) Based on part (a), prove that Z(ll/s) is pr if Z(s) is pr.
3-2. Test the following functions for positive realness:
(a) Z(s) = — ['"!'
(b) Z(s) =
(c) Z(s) =
(d) Z(s) = .. , - , ., , .
s3 + s2 + 2s + 1
s2 +
s+4
s2 +
s+ 1
s2 +
s+2
22,s2
+ 46s + 45
44s-
+ 48s + 54
s:
:+s+1
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 131
(e) Z(«) =
(f) Z(s) =
(g) Z(s) =
4s3 + 8s' + 19s + 16
16s3 + 28s2 + 32s + 12
s4 + s3 + 3s2 + 2s + 1
s3 + s2 + 2s + 1
s4 + 3s3 + 4s2 + 3s + 1
s4 + 7s3 + 6s2 + 4s + 1
... „, . s4 + 2s3 + 3s2 + s + 1
(h) Z(s) = «< + s3 + 3s2 + 2s + 1
n 7( , _ 2s" + 5s3 + 6s2 + 3s + 1
W * W - 2g4 + 4s, + ?s2 + ?s + 3
3-3. The following are "minimum" functions. Obtain a Brune and a
Bott-Duffin realization:
2s2 + s + 1
(a) Z(s) =
(b) Z(.) -
(c) Z(s) =
2s2 + 2s + 4
«' + s + 2
2s2 + s + 1
4s2 + s + 1
s2 + s + 1
3-4. Synthesize the positive real functions in Prob. 3-2 by the Brune
method.
3-5. Synthesize the positive real functions of Prob. 3-2 by the Bott-
Duffin method. Reduce the number of elements by means of the Storer
transformation .
3-6. Synthesize the following driving-point impedance function by
Brune's method. Start the Brune cycle on the function as it stands without
removing the pole at infinity. Find the coefficient of coupling of the trans-
former in the realization. Comment on the generality of this result.
«' + 5s2 + 2s + 1
3-7. Prove that the conditions given in Eqs. (3-26) are sufficient for
Z(s) to be positive real.
3-8. Let Z(s) = (MI + ni)/(m2 + n2) be a positive real function.
Prove that
P(s) = m, + Kini + KM + K3n*
is a Hurwitz polynomial, where the K's are positive constants.
3-9. After the removal of the minimum real part in the Brune process,
suppose the remaining reactance is positive. Proceed on an admittance
132
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
basis, and obtain the realization shown in Fig. P 3-9. From a consideration
of the z-system parameters of the reactive network inside the dotted lines,
show that this is equivalent to the Brune network of Fig. 3-16.
/?„ 1
"o
O—'VVv *
'11
\[
Z(s) \ _
X Cc9
Z0(s)
Fig. P 3-9
3-10. Show that the realization given in Fig. 3-24(b) can be obtained
from that of Fig. 3-24 (a) by going through a development similar to that
following Fig. 3-22.
3-11. Prove that the derivative of a Hurwitz polynomial is Hurwitz.
Hint: Show that P'(s)/P(s) is a positive real function.
3-12. Consider the function
F(8) =
k
k* _ 2as + 2(a<ri — bwi)
- s, + s - st ~ (s + <r,)2 + w?
where
k = a +jb = \k\e'a
Figure P 3-12 shows the location of the pole and its residue in the complex
plane.
Fig. P 3-12
(a) Show that F(s) will be positive real if and only if
(1) Re (fc) = a > 0
(2) 4,> a or equivalently —[- > '-'
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
133
(b) Show that F(s) can be realized by one of the structures in Fig.
P 3-12(a) as an impedance and by one of those in Fig. E 3-12(b) as an
admittance.
(a)
(b)
Fig. P 3-12a, b
(c) Let (?(«) be a pr function having only simple complex poles. Show
that a Foster-like realization of G(s) (a series or parallel connection of
component networks like those in the previous two figures) can be obtained
if and only if conditions (1) and (2) above are satisfied at all the poles.
(d) Now let G(s) have simple real poles as well. Show that positiveness
of the residues at all the real poles is sufficient for a Foster-like realization.
Discuss the possibility of compensating for negative residues by borrowing
from the constant term in the partial-fraction expansion of G(s), if this
term exists.
3-13. In the previous problem a synthesis procedure is developed for
pr functions with simple poles. This requires certain conditions on the
residues. Suppose these conditions are not satisfied for a pair of complex
poles, and consider adding a constant k to the term representing such a
pair of complex poles. That is, let
F(s) =
+ Oo
+
bis
(a) Determine conditions on the numerator coefficients of F(s) and on
the value of k such that F(s) + k can be written as a sum of two pr func-
tions, one of which has the form km2/(m2 + n2). In case the conditions
in the previous problem are not satisfied at all the poles, but the con-
ditions just discovered are satisfied, then a Foster-like realization of a given
pr function will still be possible, provided the constant term in the partial-
fraction expansion is large enough to supply all the required constants.
(b) Obtain a realization of the following pr functions in the form
suggested in part (a).
Z(s) =
2s2 + 3s + 5
s2 + s + 2
s2 -f- s + 1
134
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
3-14. Let Z(s) be a pr function regular at the origin and having a finite,
nonzero value at infinity. Prove that
Zj(s) = Z(s) — 77- C a positive constant
has exactly a single simple zero in the right half plane.
3-15. Let Z(s) =
be a pr function (the constant term in
the numerator has been made unity by normalizing s.) Prove that Zi(s)
= Z(s) — Ks cannot have a triple zero in the right half plane by setting
the numerator coefficients equal to the coefficients of (s — fc)!.
3-16. Let Zi(s) and Z2(s) be RC impedance functions. Prove that
Zi(s)/Z2(s) is positive real.
3-17. (a) Obtain a Miyata realization of the function given in Eq.
(3-157).
(b) Choose a2 = 6 in Eq. (3-154), and obtain a Miyata realization of
the resulting impedance. Compare with part (a).
3-18. Let F(s) = m/(Km + n) be a positive real function. If F(s) is an
impedance, it can be realized by the network in Fig. P 3-18(a), while if
F(s) is an admittance, its realization will take the form of Fig. P 3-18(b).
Let either of these two networks form the termination of a ladder
each of whose branches consists of a single inductance or a single
capacitance. Let the impedance of the ladder be Z(s), and write Z(s) =
(mi + ni)/(m2 + n2). Show that either mi or ni and either m2 or n2 have
the factor m.
R=K
(c)
(d)
Fig. P 3-18
SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS 1 35
3-19. Let [/(—s2) be the even part of an impedance Z(s). Suppose
U(—s2) has a factor (s2 + w2,)2. This will prevent the application of the
Miyata realization procedure. Suppose the numerator and denominator of
Z(s) are multiplied by the surplus factor s + k, where A; is a positive num-
ber. Show that it is always possible to find a positive number k such that
either mi or n2 has the factor s2 + wjj, where m2 and n2 are the even and odd
parts of the denominator of the augmented Z(s) function.
3-20. Use the results of the previous two problems to show that, if
U(—82) has a factor (s2 + w2)2, then a modification of the Miyata pro-
cedure is possible in which the function Ua(—s2) is (s2 + <jo)2/D( — s2)
instead of 1/D(—s2) as in Eq. (3-130). The realization will consist of the
series connection of ladders such as those in Fig. P 3-18.
3-21. (a) Employ the technique of the previous set of problems to
obtain a realization for the positive real function
7Us = 3s3 + 5s2 + 4s + 6
w s3 + 2s2 + 2s + 1
(b) Obtain realizations for the minimum functions in Prob. 3-3, using
the same technique. Compare with the Bott-Duffin realization.
3-22. Let Y(s) be the admittance of an RC one-port. Prove that
arg F(s) < arg s for 0 < arg s < ir
3-23. The following functions are given as the real part of positive real
functions. Find the positive real functions, using the Gewertz and the
Bode methods.
(a) Re [Z0'«)] =
â– :\2
(1 ~ W2)
1+
,6
(b) Re [Z(i«)] = ]-^—i
I _ 2c2 + o;4
(c) Re [Z(jo,)] =
1 - 2w2 + u* + 4w8
3-24. In the text it is shown that the numerator and denominator of the
Richards function F(s) given in Eq. (3-97) have a right half plane factor
(s — k). Show that either the Richards function or the positive real
function Z(s) given in Eq. (3-99) in terms of the Richards function, must
have the factor s + k in both numerator and denominator.
3-25. If Z(s) = ■,,,''—r~r is a minimum function, show that the
s- + bis + b„
value of k in the Bott-Duffin realization is
fc = xSoVv XM >0
1 36 SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL PASSIVE ONE-PORTS
ft = -«oX(«o) *(«o) < 0
where Z(jwo) = jX(uo).
3-26. Let Z(s) be a pr function and U(— s2) its even part. Suppose
J7(— s2) has a factor (s2 — a2)2; that is to say, the real part of Z(ju) be-
comes zero at an imaginary value of u (a real value of s). By going through
a development similar to that of the Brune cycle, find a "section" which
will realize this factor in U( — s2).
3-27. Prove that whenever the ratio of two pr functions is real for
Re s > 0, it must be non-negative. Similarly for the product of two pr
functions.
4
Properties of Two-Port Functions
The previous two chapters were devoted to the study of networks having
a single pair of external terminals. We determined necessary and suf-
ficient conditions that the driving-point functions of such networks must
satisfy, and we established synthesis procedures by which functions satis-
fying the necessary conditions could be realized. We deferred the dis-
cussion of a very important general synthesis procedure (Darlington's)
because this procedure is intimately related with the method of realization
of a resistance-loaded lossless two-port.
The remainder of this book will be devoted to a study of networks
having two pairs of external terminals, two-ports. Before we start dis-
cussing two-port realization techniques, we shall spend the present chapter
in considering the properties of the functions that describe two-port be-
havior and in establishing necessary conditions satisfied by these functions.
4-1. Properties of general passive two-port functions
The functions which describe the external behavior of two-ports were
defined in Chap. 1. For a complete description of the behavior a set of
three functions is needed. The ones we shall use the most will be the open-
circuit parameters (z's) and the short-circuit parameters (y's). However,
the complete external behavior of a network is seldom specified. The
transmission properties are usually specified in terms of one of the transfer
functions. We shall be interested in determining the properties of all these
functions. We shall initially consider the general two-port, putting no
restrictions (other than the lumped, passive, bilateral ones) on the two-
ports under consideration, either from the structural viewpoint or from
the standpoint of permissible types of network elements.
137
1 38 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS Sec. 4-1
Let us first consider the z parameters. We can establish some rather
general properties of these functions by considering a theorem which we
proved in Chap. 1. There we found that the z matrix of a passive bilateral
two-port is positive real. This was expressed analytically in Eq. (1-66),
which we shall rewrite as
znx\ + 2znxix2 + znxl = Fo + sTo + —■= F(s) (4-1)
s
The quantities Fo, To, and Vo are the energy functions and hence are
never negative. The right-hand side of this expression is a positive real
function of s. Therefore the left-hand side is also pr for all real values of
Xi and x2. It should be clear that this requirement will place restrictions
on the permissible properties of the z parameters.
We already know that the z's are rational functions of s with real co-
efficients. The equation shows that a pole of any one of the z's will be a
pole of F(s). But since F(s) is pr, it can have no poles in the right half
plane. It follows that the z's are regular in the right half plane and any
poles on the ju axis are simple. Let kn, kn, and feu be the residues of zn,
Z22, and Zu, respectively, at a pole on the ju axis, and let k be the residue of
F(s) at this pole. We know that k must be real and nonnegative since F(s)
is pr. It follows that
k = fcuz? + 2fcuxix2 + fc22xl > 0 (4-2)
This equation expresses the fact that the quadratic form involving the
residues of the z parameters at a pole on the jw axis must be positive semi-
definite. Alternatively, we can state that the matrix of the residues of the z
parameters at poles on the ju axis is positive semidefinite.
In order to utilize this result, we need a theorem from matrix algebra.
This theorem states: Necessary and sufficient conditions that a nonsingular
matrix be positive semidefinite are that the determinant of the matrix and all
its principal cofactors be nonnegative. We shall not digress here to prove
this theorem; for a proof, refer to Guillemin (57).
When we use this theorem on the matrix of the quadratic form in
Eq. (4-2), we get the following result:
hi > 0 (a)
â– +. fc22>0 (b) (4-3)
kukM — fc?2 > 0 (c)
We already knew the first two of these, since zn and z22 are driving-point
impedance functions and hence positive real. The third expression is
Sec. 4-1 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS 139
something new. We shall refer to this as the residue condition. It plays an
important role in many synthesis procedures.
We established the residue condition by using the fact that the residue
of a positive real function at a j-axis pole cannot be negative. We should
expect that other properties of the positive real function F(s) should also
lead to restrictions on the z parameters. The outstanding property of a
pr function is that its real part is never negative anywhere on the ju axis.
This fact should lead to some condition on the real parts of the z para-
meters. Let us write
Re Zjk(ju) = Tjk (4-4)
With this notation the real part of Eq. (4-1) can be written
Re [F0«)] = rnx\ + 2rnxixt + r22xi > 0 (4-5)
This equation expresses the fact that the matrix formed by the real parts of
the z parameters on the ju axis is positive semidefinite. It follows, therefore,
that
r„ = Re OnO'w)] > 0 (a)
r22 = Re [z«(>)] > 0 (b) (4-6)
rnr22 - r?3 > 0 (c)
The last of these relationships expresses a fundamental restriction on
a set of functions which are to be the z parameters of a two-port. It was
first established by Gewertz (51). We shall refer to it as the real-part
condition.
We know the properties of two of the three z parameters, Zw and Z&,
rather completely, because they are positive real functions. The third one,
zu, is not necessarily positive real (but it may be). We do know that it is
a real rational function of s, regular in the right half plane. It is further
restricted by the real-part condition and the residue condition. There are
no restrictions on the locations of its zeros; these may lie anywhere in the
entire s plane.
The properties of the y parameters of a two-port may be established
in a completely similar manner. The starting point is the theorem, which we
established in Chap. 1, which states: The y matrix of a passive bilateral two-
port is positive real. Proceeding with the analytical expression of this
theorem, we shall find that the y parameters also satisfy the residue con-
dition at j'-axis poles and the real-part condition; we need only change the
notation appropriately in Eqs. (4-3) and (4-6).
A glance at the residue condition shows that, if fcu has a nonzero value,
then both kn and A:22 must be nonzero. That is, if zn has a pole on the jw
140
Sec. 4-1
PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS
axis, then both zn and 222 must have a pole there also. Similarly, if j/1u has
a pole on the ju axis, yn and 2/22 must also have this pole. On the other
v hand, each of the driving-point functions may have a pole on the ju axis
which the others do not have. As an illustration, consider the network
shown in Fig. 4-1 (a). There are impedances Zi and Z2 in series with the
ZI
ZZ
11
2 11 z22
*,2
yn y22
y/2
(a) (b)
Fig. 4-1. Effect of series or shunt elements on two-port parameters.
input and output terminals, respectively. Let the z parameters of the net-
work in the box be designated by primes, and suppose that they all have
the same poles. For the z parameters of the entire network we can write
zn = Zn + Zi
222 = 222 + ^2
2l2 = 2l2
(a)
(b) (4-7)
(c)
Thus Zi affects only zu, while Z2 affects only 222. We say that the poles of
\() U-, Zi are the private poles of zn. Similarly the poles of Z2 are the private poles
of 222. It may be possible that Zi and Z2 have some common poles, in
which case zn and 222 will have these poles, but not 2u. We label such poles
semiprivate poles of zu and 222. In an entirely similar manner we can easily
be convinced with the aid of Fig. 4-1 (b)
that yn and yn may have private poles
on the ju axis.
In the precedingdiscussion we started
by considering poles on the ju axis. We
found that, as a consequence of the
residue condition, it is not possible for
Z12 to have a pole on the ju axis which
is not shared by zn and Z22. Likewise, it
is not possible for yn to have a pole on the ju axis not shared by yu and j/22.
However, the same conclusion is not true for poles in other parts of the s
plane. As an example, consider the L network shown in Fig. 4-2. The
y parameters of this network are
o \r, \ m o
y2
O • O
Fig. 4-2. L network.
Sec. 4-1
141
PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS
-2/u
(a)
(b)
(4-8)
Suppose that YI and F2 are complementary admittances. This means that
YI + YI = G, a constant. It follows that 2/22 will not have any of the poles
of 2/u. (The residue condition at j-axis poles is not violated by this example
since YI and F2 cannot be complementary admittances if YI has poles on
the ju axis. See Sec. 6-6.)
Having examined the general properties of the z and y parameters, let
us now turn our attention to the transfer functions of two-ports under
various types of termination. We shall be interested in the transfer
impedance Zu(s), the transfer admittance Fu(s), the transfer voltage ratio
Tu(s), and the insertion ratio H(s). However, it is not necessary to single
out each of these for individual study. It is necessary to study only one
of these, say, Tu(s), since the others can be expressed rather simply in
terms of this one. For example, consider the sequence of networks in
Fig. 4-3. The box is the same in each case. The function Ea/Ia in the
N
M
Fig. 4-3. Equivalence of a transfer impedance and a transfer voltage
ratio.
second network is equal to the function Zu = E2/Ii in the first network,
by the reciprocity theorem. In the third network the current source has
been replaced by the voltage-source equivalent. The voltage transfer
ratio Ea/Eb is equal to Ea/RIa = Zu//?. We conclude that the transfer
impedance function has the same properties as a transfer voltage ratio.
The same conclusion is true for the other functions as well, t
The transfer voltage ratio can be expressed in terms of the z parameters
or the y parameters according to Eq. (1-18). It is also a rational function.
So we can write
t Note that in the case of ZU or Yu these statements apply only for a resistance-
loaded network, normalized so that the termination is unity. For other cases, the con-
stant multiplier of these functions is not restricted as the multiplier of Ta is. This is
obvious from Eqs. (1-19) and (1-20).
1 42 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS Sec. 4-1
T ( , _ amsm + am-ism-i + . . . + PIS + OQ
'':" -i
OP
(c)
ll 2S
We have written these three forms separately for ease of later reference.
In the second form the highest power coefficients in numerator and de-
nominator have been factored out and combined into a constant labeled
K. We shall refer to this as the gain constant.
The poles of Tu are composed of:
1. Zeros of zn which are not also zeros of Zu
2. Poles of Zu which are not also poles of zn
It follows that poles of Tl2(s) lie in the left half plane or on the jw axis.
Those on the ju axis can only be zeros of zn and therefore are simple.
[If a j-axis pole of Tu(s) is a pole of za without being a pole of ZH, the residue
condition will be violated.]
Let s = juo be a zero of zn (and a pole of Tu); then \/zn can be expanded
in partial fractions. We can therefore write Tu as
where \/zn combines all the rest of the terms in the expansion of 1/zn. It
is therefore regular at s = juo. If we now evaluate the residue of T« at
s = jUQ, we get
Residue of Tu at juo = kgZU(jua)
= fco[ru(<oo) + jXuM] (4-11)
where we have written the real and imaginary parts of zu(jua) explicitly.
Since s = jwo is a zero of ZH, the real part of zn is zero at s = jUQ. There-
fore, the real part of z^ must also be zero at that frequency; otherwise the
real-part condition in Eq. (4-6) will be violated. Hence the last equation
reduces to
Residue of TU|..M = jteM (4-12)
We can express the results of this discussion as follows: The poles of Tu(s)
on the ju axis are simple, and the residues there are imaginary.
As far as the behavior of Tu at zero and infinity is concerned, we can
easily establish that T« cannot have a pole either at zero or at infinity.
Take s = 0, for example. Suppose that zn has a zero at s = 0, while zu
Sec. 4-2 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS 143
has not. (This is the only way in which Tn can have a pole there.) If zn
is not zero at s = 0, it must either have a pole there or have a finite non-
zero value. In the first case the residue condition will be violated, while
in the second case the real-part condition will be violated. The same
argument will prove the condition at infinity, as well. In terms of the
polynomials in Eqs. (4-9), it follows that bo 9± 0 and n > m.
As for the zeros of Tn(s), they are composed of the zeros of zn (which
are not also zeros of Zn) and the private poles of zn- We have already seen
that the private poles of zn can be represented by a series impedance at
the input terminals. It is clear that a pole of such an impedance will
block transmission when the input is a voltage. We shall refer to a zero
of any one of the transfer functions of a two-port as a transmission zero. As
we have just seen, some of the zeros of transmission will depend on whether
the input is a current or a voltage. When necessary we shall refer to
voltage-transmission zeros and current-transmission zeros. Because the zeros
of Z12 are permitted to lie anywhere in the s plane, the same is true of the
zeros of Tu.
We shall conclude this section with a summary of the general properties
of the functions describing the behavior of passive bilateral two-ports.
1. Poles:
(a) No poles of zn, yn, and Tu can lie in the right half plane.
(b) In addition, no poles of Ty can lie at zero orinfinity.
(c) Poles of Z12 and yn on the ju axis are simple with real residues.
(d) Poles of T12 on the ju axis are simple with imaginary residues.
(e) The y parameters and the z parameters satisfy the residue
condition fcnA;m — fc?2 > 0 at all poles on jw axis.
2. The zeros of zn, 2/12, and Tn may be multiple and can lie anywhere
in the s plane.
3. The z and y parameters satisfy the real-part condition
rnrn - rfa > 0
or 0nff22 — g\i > 0
4-2. Two-ports with no magnetic coupling
The two-ports under consideration in the last section were restricted
only by the general requirements of being linear, lumped, passive, and
bilateral. Neither the structure nor the permissible types of elements
were restricted.
To see how the structure might affect the properties of the network
144 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS Sec. 4-2
functions, let us return to the consideration of pr functions for an instant.
The Brune realization of pr functions always has a ladder structure.
However, in some cases a transformer is needed in the realization. If we
restrict the network to contain no mutual inductance, then we see that
not all pr functions can be realized in a ladder structure. From a different
point of view suppose that we require a one-port which is to contain no
mutual inductance and which is to have a ladder structure. Then, clearly,
the impedance function of such a one-port must be restricted in certain
ways.
Similarly, if we require a two-port with no mutual inductance and
further require that it have a specific structure, we should expect the two-
port functions to have additional restrictions beyond the general ones
we established in the last section.
Let us now restrict ourselves to two-ports with no mutual inductance
and see what additional properties we can derive for the two-port functions.
Two-ports can be classified broadly as balanced or unbalanced. An un-
balanced two-port is characterized by having one terminal common to both
the input and the output, such as a ladder network. This may also be
called a common-terminal two-port. Any two-port which does not have
such a common terminal is classified as a balanced structure.
A. Unbalanced Two-ports
We shall initially concern ourselves with unbalanced two-ports such
as the one shown in Fig. 4-4. The noncommon input and output terminals
2
-O
0
Fig. 4-4. Unbalanced two-port.
are labeled 1 and 2, respectively, while the common terminal is labeled 0.
We wish to determine properties of the various two-port functions.
Suppose that we think of performing a tee-pi transformation at one
of the internal nodes as shown in Fig. 4-5. This node will be eliminated
from the network. The admittance functions of the branches of the
equivalent pi will be
Sec. 4-2
145
PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS
v YbYe
Y.
Ya+Yb + Y,
YaYc
Ya+Yb+ Yc
YaYb
Ya + Yb + Ye
(a)
(b) (4-13)
(c)
The original admittances Ya, Yb, and Yc are positive real functions so that
all their coefficients are positive. After the transformation the resulting
admittances are not necessarily pr, but their coefficients are still all positive
since the transformation does not introduce any negative signs.
Fig. 4-5. Tee-pi transformation.
If there are more than three branches connected to a node, the simple
tee-pi transformation cannot be performed. In this case we must resort
to the more general star-mesh transformation. This is a generalization of
the tee-pi transformation. For our purposes the important property of this
transformation is the fact that the coefficients of the branch admittances
are all positive since the transformation does not introduce negative signs.t
Following the procedure we have just outlined, it is possible to
eliminate all the internal nodes of an unbalanced two-port, leaving only
a pi structure between the three external nodes as shown in Fig. 4-6. All
t For a more complete discussion, see Guillemin (60).
I
O-
2
-O
Fig. t-6. Pi equivalent of two-port.
146 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS Sec. 4-2
coefficients of the branches of the pi will be positive. Identifying the
branches of the pi with the short-circuit parameters shown in the figure,
we observe that all the coefficients of —2/12, 2/11 + 2/12, and 2/22 + 2/12 are
positive. This assumes that no common factors have been canceled from
the numerator and denominator of the branch admittances.
We can state the conclusion at which we have arrived in a more formal
manner by considering the expressions for the short-circuit parameters
in terms of the loop-impedance determinant and its cofactors as given in
Table 1-2. Thus
A12 Qn + (ii* + â– â– . + ans" , v
_J,12=__ = - —_ (a)
2/22= f = h° + hs ±(;j • + 6"s" (b) (4-14)
An Co + Cis + . . . + cns" . .
2/11 = ~A = P(s) (c)
where P(s) is the polynomial obtained by clearing A(s) of inverse powers
of s. Since it is a Hurwitz polynomial, all its coefficients are positive.
Using these expressions, we can form the functions
~y" - P(s) (a)
y„ + yn = Si ~ ^ + fe ~ <"> + • ■■+ fe - afr (b) (4.15)
â– (go - ao) + (ci - aQs + . â– . + (cn - on)s" , .
2/11 + 2/12 = p^ (c)
According to the result we have established, none of the coefficients in the
numerators of these expressions will be negative. Hence
Oi > 0
bi > ai i = 0, 1, . . . , n (4-16)
d > a,
In words we can state: For an unbalanced two-port with no mutual inductance
the numerator coefficients of —yn, 2/11 and 2/22 are all nonnegative, the co-
efficients of —2/12 being no greater than the corresponding ones in yu or 1/22.
This is a very important result. It was first established by Fialkow
and Gerst (47), and we shall refer to it as the "Fialkow condition." The
result is valid only if common factors have not been canceled from A and
its cofactors in the expressions for the y parameters.! To emphasize this
t Fialkow and Gerst proved their theorem as a property of the cofactors of A in a
rigorous manner. An elegant proof using topological formulas is advanced by Seshu in
unpublished work. The proof given here was outlined by Lewis (78).
Sec. 4-2 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS 147
1/4 I
Fig. 4-7. Example to demonstrate Fialkow's condition.
fact, consider the network shown in Fig. 4-7. The y parameters of the net-
work can be written by inspection. They are
-2/i2 = 2/22 = —777 (a)
(4-17)
2s +! 2s +f
•?/n - s2 + 3s/4 + | ~ (s + J)(« + J)
As written, the constant terra in the numerator of — 2/« is unity and is
greater than the constant term in the numerator of 2/n. However, the de-
nominators of these two expressions are different, leading to the suspicion
that some cancellation of factors has taken place. If we form the loop-
impedance determinant and its cofactors, we shall find that A, Au, and
A2, have the common factor s + -J. This factor has been canceled from
2/i2 and 2/22- If it is restored, we shall get
2s
Vn =
The Fialkow condition is now satisfied.
A similar condition can be derived for the coefficients of the z
parameters. The pi structure in Fig. 4-6 can be replaced by its tee equiva-
lent, and the positiveness of the coefficients of the branch impedances
will be maintained. The branch impedances can then be related to the
z parameters. If we consider the left side of Eqs. (4-14) to be Zi2, zn, and
z22, respectively, the conditions in Eqs. (4-16) will again follow. Hence we
can make the following statement: For an unbalanced two-port with no
mutual inductance the numerator coefficients of Zu, zn, and z22 are all non-
negative, the coefficients of zu being no greater than the corresponding ones in
Zn or Zy2. Again, common factors. must not be canceled.
Let us now turn our attention to a consideration of the transfer function
of unbalanced two-ports with no mutual inductance. If we substitute the
1 48 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS Sec. 4-2
expressions for the y parameters in Eqs. (4-14) into the last form in Eqs.
(4-9), we shall get the first form in Eqs. (4-9), where now the a and b
coefficients have the significance of being the numerator coefficients in
— 2/i2 and 2/22, respectively. We conclude that, for an unbalanced two-port
with no mutual inductance, the numerator coefficients of the transfer function
are nonnegative and no greater than the corresponding denominator coefficients.
Let us now restrict s to real positive values. Each term in the
numerator of TU(iT) will be a positive number no greater than the cor-
responding term in the denominator. Hence the ratio can certainly never
exceed unity. This leads to the condition
Tu(v) < 1 for s = a > 0 (4-19)
Furthermore it is clear that not all the a coefficients can be exactly equal
to the corresponding 6 coefficients, since the transfer function would then
be identically unity. It follows that Tu(a) cannot attain its maximum
value of unity except possibly at s = 0 or at infinity, or both. This will
occur when ao = 6o or an = 6n, or both.
We can obtain further information about Tu(s) if we consider the
second form in Eqs. (4-9). It is clear that Fialkow's condition will put an
upper limit on the permissible gain constant K. The transfer function is
the product of K and P/Q. Hence, in order to satisfy the last equation,
K can, at most, equal the reciprocal of the largest value attained by P/Q
at any real positive value of s, including zero and infinity. Given a ratio
P/Q, we can easily determine the value of the ratio at s = 0 and infinity.
To see whether or not the value of P/Q evaluated at real positive values
of s ever exceeds the larger of these two values, we would have to find the
maxima of P/Q for positive real values of s. This involves differentiating
P/Q to find the critical points and then evaluating the function at these
critical points. We can express the condition on the gain constant analyti-
cally by writing
0 < K < Ka (4-20)
where l/Ko is the largest of the numbers
0(0) ~«
lim f( = 1 or 0 (b) (4-21)
.-.„ Q(s)
and the ai's are the positive roots of
Sec. 4-2 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS 149
m]-
ds
We have already seen that T^a) cannot equal unity anywhere but at
zero or infinity. Hence, if the third number in Eqs. (4-21) is the largest
(which means that Kp = Kp), then K must be less than Ko. But if one of
the other two numbers is the largest (which means that Ka = K/ao or
that Ko = 1) then K can equal Ko.
Although Fialkow's condition restricts the gain constant K as just
described, this restriction is not considered very important in many
synthesis problems, since amplifiers can normally be used. Most realization
techniques realize a given transfer function to within a constant multi-
plier with the expectation that the gain can be restored at a later stage.
Nevertheless, synthesis procedures which yield large values of the gain
constant are desirable in order to reduce the amount of subsequent ampli-
fication required.
Another important conclusion follows from Fialkow's condition. Since
none of the numerator coefficients of the transfer function are negative,
Descartes's rule of sign tells us that, for an unbalanced two-port with no
mutual inductance, none of the transmission zeros can lie on the positive real
axis. As a consequence, when attempting to find a realization for a given
transfer function, we should hope to find an unbalanced realization pro-
vided that no transmission zeros occur on the positive real axis.
However, it is possible that a desired transfer function originally has
some negative numerator coefficients, although it has no zeros on the
positive real axis. We saw in the last chapter that it is always possible to
make all the coefficients positive in such a case by the use of surplus
factors. Of course, the number of surplus factors needed will depend on
how close the zeros lie to the positive real axis.
We can summarize these results as follows: For unbalanced two-ports
with no mutual inductance
1. Transmission zeros may lie anywhere except on the positive real
axis.
2. For real positive values of s, the value of the transfer function lies
between 0 and 1. The maximum value of unity can be attained only at
zero or infinity, or both.
3. The numerator coefficients of the transfer function are positive (or
zero) and no greater than the corresponding denominator coefficients,
assuming no cancellations of factors.
B. Balanced Two-ports
Let us now turn our attention to balanced two-ports with no magnetic
PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS
Sec. 4-2
150
Fig. 4-8. Balanced two-port.
coupling. Consider the two-port shown in Fig. 4-8. Let us choose one
terminal as a reference and use double subscripts to designate voltages.
For the transfer voltage ratio we can write
E23
Eta
E\o
E3o
Em
(4-23)
Each of the two functions on the right side is the transfer function of an
unbalanced two-port. Because of the subtraction involved, some of the
numerator coefficients of the balanced transfer function may be negative.
However, the magnitude of a numerator coefficient is certainly no greater
than the corresponding coefficient in the numerator of either one of the
two functions on the right side. Each of these, in turn, is no greater than
the corresponding denominator coefficient. We conclude that, for the trans-
fer function of a balanced two-port, the numerator coefficients may be negative
but they can be no greater in magnitude than the corresponding denominator
coefficients.
If we again use Eqs. (4-14) to designate the y parameters of the two-
port, this discussion leads to the conclusion
bi > \a,\
i = 0, 1, . . . , n (4-24)
Ci > |a,|
(The second of these is obtained by considering the right-to-left transfer
voltage ratio, which is given by — 1/12/2/11-)
If we again restrict s to real positive values, we know that each of the
functions on the right side of Eq. (4-23) lies between the values of 0 and 1.
Hence for a balanced two-port we get the condition
-1 < Tn(a) < 1 for s = <7 > 0 (4-25)
It should again be clear that the extreme values cannot be attained except
at zero and infinity, by the same reasoning we used before.
We can summarize these results as follows: For balanced two-ports with
no mutual inductance
Sec. 4-2
151
PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS
1. Transmission zeros may lie anywhere, including the positive real
axis.
2. For real positive values of s the value of the transfer function lies
between — 1 and +1. The extremities of the range can be attained only at
zero or infinity, or both.
3. The numerator coefficients of the transfer function may be negative,
but they are no greater in magnitude than the corresponding denominator
coefficients, assuming no cancellation of factors.
C. Ladder Networks
In the previous parts of this section we observed in a very broad way
how the structure of a network affects the properties of the transfer
function. In particular, we found that the transmission zeros of an un-
balanced two-port are forbidden to lie on the positive real axis. If we re-
strict the network structure even further, we should expect additional
restrictions on the allowable locations of the transmission zeros.
Fig. 4-9. Ladder two-port with no mutual inductance.
One of the simplest and most important network structures is the
ladder, shown in Fig. 4-9. We shall now show that the transmissiojt^zeros
of a ladder network are identical wltrTpbles ofTlTie series impedances or
zeros of the shunt impedances.
In the first place consider the two-port formed by a shunt branch alone,
say, the last branch in the ladder. For this two-port ZH = Zn. Hence Zu
will be zero only where Zn = 0. Now consider the network in Fig. 4-10(b).
(a) (b)
Fig. 4-10. Finding transmission zeros of a ladder network.
152 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS Sec. 4-2
1
This is the ladder network with only two branches shown explicitly. The
z parameters of the rest of the network are labeled z'n, z2i, and z'n. The
Zn function of the entire network will be
*. - z,/£"+,;, <*-*»
(You were asked to establish this result in Prob. 1-2.) Our purpose is to
determine the zeros of Zu. The equation shows that zn can be zero in one
of three ways:f
1. At a zero of Zo, a shunt impedance;
2. At a pole of Z\, a series impedance;
3. At a zero of z[2
We can now repeat this procedure on the primed network and continue
doing so until the last branch is reached. At each step we shall find that
the zeros of the corresponding zu can occur only in one of these three ways.
For the last shunt branch we have already established that the zeros of
Zn occur at the shunt-impedance zeros. It follows that zn can be zero only
at shunt-impedance zeros or series-impedance poles.
Since the branch impedances of the ladder are positive real functions,
they will have no zeros or poles in the right half plane. It follows, then,
that the transmission zeros of a ladder network cannot lie in the right half
plane.
Let us return to the last equation and examine it in somewhat greater
detail. One of the ways in which 212 can be zero is for Zo to be zero. How-
ever, suppose that Zi + z'n is simultaneously equal to zero. There will then
be a cancellation, and 212 will not become zero. This condition, Zi + z'n = 0,
means that the impedance looking to the right beyond Zo becomes zero
at a zero of the shunt-branch impedance. There would then appear to be
two short circuits in parallel at the value of s in question, leading to a
current division between the two branches. Thus current transmission
will not be blocked. A network for which this is true is shown in Fig.
4-11(a). In this case z'n and z[2 are simply the output shunf>branch
impedance.
The second way in which zn can be zero is for a series branch Zi to
have a pole. But suppose that z[2 also has a pole at a pole of Zii. Then zn
will not have a zero there. Such a network is shown in Fig. 4-11(b). The
t It may appear that zn can also be zero if z'u has a private pole. But we have seen
that such poles represent series branches at the input of the (primed) network. Such a
branch, then, constitutes part of Zi.
Sec. 4-3
153
PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS
(b)
Fig. 4-11. Ladder networks which have no transmission zero at one
shunt-impedance zero (a), or at one series-impedance pole (b).
primed network is enclosed in the dotted box. In the notation of Fig. 4-10
we have
Zo = R
1
(4-27)
These considerations demonstrate that, although the zeros of za for a
ladder network necessarily occur at series-impedance poles or shunt-
impedance zeros, not all such poles or zeros will be zeros of Zu-
A similar development in terms of the y parameters will lead to similar
conclusions about the zeros of yu for a ladder network. The details are
left for you.
4-3. Lossless two-port functions
In the foregoing sections of this chapter we established the restrictions
imposed on the functions describing the behavior of two-ports by various
factors that influence this behavior. Thus the passive nature of the net-
works leads to the real-part condition on the z and y parameters and to the
residue condition at j-axis poles. The structure of the network imposes
restrictions on the permissible locations of the transmission zeros.
Let us now restrict ourselves to a consideration of lossless two-ports.
We should expect this restriction to lead to further modifications in the
154 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS Sec. 4-3
permissible two-port functions. The starting point is again Eq. (4-1), in
which the z parameters are related to the energy functions. The positive
real function on the right side of the equation is now a reactance function.
It follows that all the poles of the z parameters will be simple and will lie
on the ju axis. Of course, the residue condition will still be satisfied.
Since all the poles are on the ju axis, it is not possible for Zn to have a
pole which is not shared by zu and z22. The two driving-point functions
Zn and zn are, of course, reactance functions but not zu, since its residues
may be negative (without violating the residue condition). Nevertheless
Zuiju) must be imaginary at all frequencies; otherwise the real-part con-
dition will be violated. Hence zn must be an odd rational function, the ratio
of an even and an odd polynomial.
The numerator of Zn will be an even polynomial in s, aside from a
factor s when it is odd. Hence the zeros of zw will occur in quadrantal
symmetry according to the result we established in the last chapter. This
means that, if there are any zeros in the interior of the left half plane, there
must also be zeros in the right half plane.
In the case of an unbalanced two-port we already know that there can
be no zeros of Zn on the positive real axis. It follows that there can be
none on the negative real axis either, because of the quadrantal symmetry.
In the case of a ladder network we know that the transmission zeros
lie at the zeros of shunt impedances and poles of series impedances. The
branches of a lossless two-port are all reactive so that in this case the trans-
mission zeros must all lie on the ju axis. Recall, however, the discussion
in the last section in which we demonstrated that not all series-impedance
poles or shunt-impedance zeros are necessarily zeros of zn. We found that
there is no transmission zero at a shunt-impedance zero if the impedance
looking to the right beyond the shunt branch also has a zero there. We
also found that there is no transmission zero at a series-impedance pole
if the Zn function of the remainder of the two-port beyond the series branch
[that is, z[2 in the notation of Eq. (4-26)] also has a pole there. But, for a
lossless two-port, z[2 cannot have a pole without z'u also having the pole.
Hence we can say that there will be no transmission zero at a series-
impedance pole if the impedance looking to the right beyond the series
impedance also has a pole there. We shall find these ideas very useful when
synthesizing a ladder network.
So far we have talked about the zeros of Zu only. From Table 1-2 we
find
2/12 = -; -'" . (4-28)
Znzn — Zu
Sec. 4-3 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS 155
Let us see how the zeros of >/i2 can arise. It appears that ya will have a
zero at a zero of Zu, unless this coincides with a zero of zn or zw. In this
case this factor will cancel from the expression on the right. A zero of yu
will occur also at a private pole of zn or z22, as you can see. Suppose that
the z parameters have a common pole at s = juo. Then
Z» = o2 _L ...1 + z" (a)
+ z22 (b) (4-29)
+ z,'2 (c)
0 ~T" WQ
where the primed quantities account for the rest of the corresponding
functions. So
,
r
.3
,
1
s2 +
If the residue condition is satisfied with the equality sign (knkn — fc?2 = 0),
the first term on the right will vanish. Hence the function ZnZn — z\2 will
have only a simple pole at the pole of the z parameters. This means that
2/u will be regular and nonzero at s = juo. However, if the residue condition
is satisfied with the "greater than" sign, this function will have a double
pole, which means that yu will have a zero. Thus the zeros of 2/i2 are,
alternatively:
1. Zeros of z)2
2. Private poles of zn or Zn
3. Poles of the z parameters at which fcnfc2 2 — A;22 > 0
We shall use the residue condition very often in the following chapters.
There should be a simple way of designating whether the equality sign or
the inequality sign applies. We shall use the word compact^ to mean that
the residue condition is satisfied with the equality sign. The terms z com-
pact and y compact will have the obvious significance of referring to poles
of the z or the y parameters, respectively. We shall also use the term
compact pole in an obvious way.
It is pertinent to inquire into the significance of noncompactness.
Suppose that the z parameters of a two-port have a noncompact pole.
We can consider zn or z22, or both, to have some excess residue at the pole,
t The term was first introduced by Dasher (39).
156
Sec. 4-3
PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS
N
Non-compact
pole of z's at
N
Compact
pole of z 's at
LcfflnpJ
(a) (b)
Fig. 1-12. Significance of compactness.
more than enough to satisfy the residue condition with the equality sign.
Thus the noncompact network shown in Fig. 4-12 can be replaced by the
second network, in which the excess residue is accounted for by the anti-
resonant branches at the input and output. Actually only one of these
branches is enough. In the same way a two-port with a noncompact
admittance pole is equivalent to one with a compact pole, with resonant
branches in shunt at the input or output to account for the excess residue.
Return now to a consideration of the zeros of yu. We have seen that
noncompact poles of the z parameters can be represented by series branches
at the input or output. Likewise, private poles of zn or z22 are also repre-
sented by such branches. Hence we find that the zeros of ya are either zeros
of zu or poles of the input or output series-branch impedances.
Let us now turn to a consideration of the properties of transfer func-
tions. The general results developed in the previous section still apply, but
a few additional properties follow from the lossless character of the two-
port. The network shown in Fig. 4-13 is a lossless two-port terminated in a
—" 'I
t2"
•f
1 y-
Ef
LC
<,
Fig. 4-13. Resistance-terminated lossless two-port.
resistance. In our preceding discussions we used the transfer voltage ratio
function TU(s) as representative of all the transfer functions. However, if
we include the terminating resistance as part of the network, our two-port
will no longer be lossless. On the other hand, the TU function for a network
with no resistance, not even in the load, will be of only slight interest.
(One case of importance appears in the Fialkow-Gerst synthesis of RLC
two-ports in Chapter 8.)
Sec. 4-4 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS 157
The functions that are of much more interest are the transfer im-
pedance Za(s) = E2/Ii and the transfer admittance Yu(s) = I?/Ei, with
a resistance load. These functions are given by
(a)
222
(4-31)
where the z's and y's pertain to the lossless two-port not including the load
and where the load resistance has been normalized to unity.
The forms of these two expressions are the same. Since the z and y
parameters have similar properties, we should expect Zu(s) and Yu(s) also
to have similar properties. From the properties of the z and y parameters
we readily find that the denominators of Zu and Yu are strictly Hurwitz
and that the numerators are normally even or odd polynomials. However,
this condition on the numerator need not always be satisfied. It is possible
for one or more left-half plane factors of the denominator to cancel with
the numerator, thus leaving a polynomial in the numerator which is neither
even nor odd. We conclude that the numerator of ZU and Yu must be
either even or odd except for possible factors representing zeros in the right-
half plane.
4-4. Magnitude and angle functions
In the preceding sections of this chapter we have discussed the prop-
erties of two-port functions—driving point and transfer. Until now we have
assumed that the starting point is a rational function of s which is a
realizable network function, and our problem is to obtain a network
realization. In other words, we have not considered the approximation
problem. In a practical situation a problem is presented in the form of
some requirements on the behavior of the magnitude or angle (or both)
of the transfer function over some interval of the ju axis. The first problem
is to obtain a function of w satisfying necessary readability criteria for a
transfer function magnitude or angle, while at the same time approximat-
ing the prescribed behavior. After this a rational function of s must be
found whose magnitude or phase coincides with the desired function.
In this section we shall study the properties of functions which, on the
jw axis, are to be the magnitude or angle of realizable transfer functions.
We shall also establish methods of obtaining a realizable transfer function
from a given magnitude or angle function. The approximation problem is
1 58 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS Sec. 4-4
in itself a rather extensive subject. We shall defer a discussion of this
subject to a later chapter.
A. Magnitude Function
Let us designate by F(s) any one of the transfer functions Za(s),
YU(s), Tu(s), and H(s) (the insertion voltage ratio). The topics we discuss
will be applicable to any of these functions. We shall exclude from con-
sideration two-ports which include no resistance, not even in the termina-
tion. Let us designate the squared magnitude of F(joi) as G(w2). Then we
can write
G(w2) = \F(jia)\2 = F(ju)F*(j») = F(ju)F(-ju) (4-32)
Suppose that we now let s take on arbitrary values, rather than re-
stricting it to the ju axis. We then get
G(-s2) = F(s)F(-s) (4-33)
This function is an even rational function of s. It becomes the squared
magnitude of the transfer function when s is restricted to the ju axis, but
not for other values of s.
We shall refer to G(—s2) as the magnitude squared function. It is easy
to establish the properties of this function. Because both the numerator
and the denominator are even polynomials, both the poles and the zeros
of G( — s2) occur in quadrantal symmetry. There can be no pole at zero or
infinity. Any poles and zeros on the jw axis must be of even multiplicity,
the poles being no more than double.
The first step in forming the transfer function F(s) from a given G(w2) is
to replace w2 by — s2. Since F(s) can have no poles in the right half plane,
we must assign all the left-half-plane poles of G( —s2) to F(s). [Then all
the right half plane poles of G( —s2) will belong to F( — s).] Any poles or
zeros of G(—s2) on the ju axis must be split equally between F(s) and
F( — s), which requires that they be of even order in G( — s2). When we
come to the remainder of the zeros, we encounter some uncertainty. It is
possible for F(s) to have zeros in the right hah" plane. Hence we have some
flexibility in assigning the zeros of F(s).
Let us define a minimum-phase transfer function as one that has no
zeros in the right half plane. We shall discuss such functions in greater
detail in the next section. When the magnitude-squared function is given
to us, it may also be stipulated that the transfer function be minimum-
phase. In this case, the zeros of F(s) can be uniquely assigned. It is usually
easier to synthesize a minimum-phase transfer function than a nonmini-
mum-phase one. Hence, if no stipulation is made, it is more advantageous
to choose all the zeros of F(s) in the left half plane.
Sec. 4-4 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS 159
B. Angle Function
Let us now turn to a consideration of the angle function. We can write
(4_34)
F(-ju) = F*(jui) = \F(ju)\ e~*M
where #(w) is the angle of F(ju). Let us define a new function A(ju) as
follows:
This function has a magnitude of unity and an angle which is twice the
angle of F(ju). If we now let s take on arbitrary values rather than values
on the ju axis only, the above equation becomes
(4-36)
The function ih(s) is an odd function of s. It is not equal to the angle of
F(s). However, when s = ju, it reduces to jiti(u). We shall refer to A(s)
as the A function and to it>i(s) as the angle function.
In order to determine the properties of A(s), let us write the transfer
function as the ratio of two polynomials and substitute into the last
equation. Thus
(«) = £g
(4-37)
11 -
If either of the polynomials PI(s) or P2(s) has zeros on the ju axis, these
will also be zeros of Pi( — s) and P2( —s), respectively. Hence A(s) will
have no zeros or poles on the ju axis. The zeros of A (s) which are con-
tributed by P2(—s) will lie in the right half plane. Those contributed by
PI(«) may lie in the right or left. If PI(s) has zeros in the left half plane,
then the corresponding zeros of Pj(—s) will lie in the right half plane.
This means that A(s) may have poles in the right half plane. In summary
each zero of A (s) is the negative of one of its poles. The A function will
have zeros in the right half plane, and it may also have poles there.
The angle function <ti(u) is not a rational function of w. We usually deal
with the tangent of 0(«), which is a rational function. We shall refer to
tan #(w) as the tangent function. To get a relationship between A (ju) and
tan iti(u), we write
160 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS Sec. 4-4
«~* cos iti — j sin 0
= !+^Pt (4-38)
1 — j tan ^
Suppose that tan 4i is given as a function of w and we want to find the
transfer function F(s). The first step is to form the right-hand side of
the last equation and then set s = ju. This gives us A(s). We next con-
sider the poles of A («); some of these are in the left half plane and some
in the right. In the notation of Eq. (4-37) it may be possible that all the
left-half-plane poles of A(s) are zeros of P2(s), the right-half-plane poles
being zeros of Pi(— «). The negatives of the latter are zeros of Pi(s).
The transfer function, being Pi(s)/P2(s), is thus determined. However, it
is not necessary that all the left-half-plane poles of A(s) be the zeros of
P2(s) ; some of them may be zeros of PI(— «). The negatives of these, which
lie in the right half plane, will be zeros of Pi(s), indicating that the transfer
function is nonminimum-phase.
To illustrate these ideas, suppose that it is desired to find the transfer
function when the following tangent function is given.
The first step is to obtain A(jui) according to Eq. (4-38). Thus
1 + j tan iti 2u< - lOo,2 + 2 - jl&a + jl
~ i -j tan it> 2w4 - 10w2 + 2 3 (
Replacing ju by s yields
2s* - 13s3 + 10s2 -13« + 2 (2s2 - s + 2)(s2 - 6s + 1)
W ~ 2«4 + 13s' + 10s2 + 13s + 2 ~ (2s2 + s + 2)(s- + 6s + 1)
(4-41)
After obtaining ^l(s) a computational problem exists: we must find the
poles and zeros. This involves factoring a high-order polynomial. (Only
the denominator polynomial need be factored since the zeros of the numer-
ator are the negatives of those of the denominator.) The result is shown
on the far right of the last equation. There are two real poles and zeros
and a pair of complex ones. All the zeros are in the right half plane while
all the poles are in the left. We can assign any combination of the poles
of A(s) to P2(s), so long as the resulting transfer function has no pole at
infinity. (Of course the complex pair must be kept together.) Any one
of the following five alternatives can be obtained.
Sec. 4-4 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS 161
(2s2 + s + 2)(s2 + 6s
In the second and third of these we have written s + a and s + 6 for the
factors of s2 + 6s + 1 .
These transfer functions have the same angle for all s = ju, but the
behavior of their magnitudes is quite different. The values of the gain
constants permitted by Fialkow's condition will also be different. The
second and third ones have a positive real transmission zero so that they
require a balanced structure for their realization, while the other three
might be realized by an unbalanced network. All these considerations will
affect the choice in the formation of a transfer function from a given
tangent function.
C. Magnitude and Angle Functions of a Resistance-loaded Lossless Two-Port
Since we shall be dealing to a considerable extent with the realization
of resistance-terminated lossless two-ports, it will be worthwhile to discuss
the additional restrictions imposed on the magnitude and angle functions
by the lossless requirement. In the last section we observed that the
transfer function of such a network has a Hurwitz denominator and an
even or odd numerator. Hence we can write
„.. , ,„.,
where m and n are the even and odd parts of a Hurwitz polynomial and
NII is an even or an odd polynomial. The magnitude-squared function
can then be written
G(-0 = F(,)F(-s) = ^^ (4-44)
In this expression the minus sign applies when Na is odd, since in this case
Nu( — s) = —Nu(s). It is clear that, for the type of network under con-
sideration, all the zeros of G( — s2) are of even multiplicity. Hence, when
162 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS Sec. 4-4
G( — s2) is given, we divide its zeros equally between F (s) and F(— s).
As we mentioned in the last section, the zeros of the transfer function of a
resistance-loaded lossless two-port will occur in quadrantal symmetry.
Hence the only way in which F(s) can be minimum-phase is to have all
its zeros fall on the ju axis.
Turn now to the A function. With F(s) from Eq. (4-43) substituted
into Eqs. (4-37), we get
The minus sign applies when Aru is odd. We see that A (s) and F (s) have
the same poles. The poles of A (s) are all in the left half plane, while the
zeros are all in the right.
To establish the requirements on tan <ti for a lossless two-port, turn
again to Eq. (4-38). If we solve this for j tan 0 in terms of A and sub-
stitute Eq. (4-45), we get
• 4. A — I n t \T
j tan iti = . . 1 = -- for YVi2 even
j tan 0 = Ar=-l = -— for NU odd (4-46)
A -p i n
Since m + n is a Hurwitz polynomial, we can state that, for a resistance
loaded lossless two-port, j tan iti must be the negative of a reactance function.
It is clear from this expression that the positive sign in Eq. (4-45) will
apply when tan <ti is zero at u = 0, while the negative sign will apply when
tan iti is infinite there. You can demonstrate this result for the numerical
example given in Eq. (4-39). The A function given in Eq. (4-41) has the
form shown in Eq. (4-45). As predicted, if we assign all the poles of A(s)
to F(s) we obtain a transfer function which is realizable as a lossless two-
port with a resistance load. (At least, it satisfies necessary conditions of
realizability in this form.) This is the first function in Eqs. (4-42).
Suppose that we start with a prescribed tan it> function and the stipula-
tion that the corresponding network is to be a lossless two-port with a
resistance load. Of course, the given function must have one of the forms
given in Eqs. (4-46). We form A(s) according to Eq. (4-38), and then we
assign all its poles to F(s). We know whether or not the numerator of
F(s) is even or odd from the zero-frequency value of the given tan «£,
according to Eqs. (4-46). However, the tangent function is not affected
if we assign additional zeros to F(s), provided that they have quadrantal
symmetry. Thus we have a certain amount of control over the zeros of
F(s) without affecting the angle. Of course, there is a limit on the number
Sec. 4-5
163'
PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS
of zeros we can insert in this manner since the final F(s) should have no
pole at infinity.
Fig. 4-14. Right half plane zeros
and their images.
4-5. Minimum-phase and all-pass function
While discussing magnitude and angle functions in the last section, we
encountered minimum- and nonminimum-
phase transfer functions. The distinction
between such functions is based solely
on the permissible locations of the zeros.
Thus we define a minimum-phase transfer
function as one that has no zeros in the
right hah" plane.
Let us compare the effects on the
magnitude and phase of a transfer func-
tion from a pair of conjugate right-half-
plane zeros and the pair in the left half
plane which is the mirror image of the former. A quadruplet of such
zeros is shown in Fig. 4-14. Let us write
Pa(s) = (s - so)(s - sS) (a)
P6(«) = (s + so)(s + sS) . (b)
Pa has the two right-half-plane zeros, while Pb has the two left-half-plane
zeros. When s = ju, the magnitudes of these two polynomials are the same,
as evidenced by the figure. Using the notation in the figure, we find the
angles of the two polynomials to be
arg Pa(ju) = (•*• - on) - (T + «2) = -(«i + a,) (a)t
arg Pb(ju) = ai + a2 (b)
For positive values of w it is clear from the figure that ai + 02, the angle
contributed by the left-half-plane zeros, is always positive, ranging from
zero at « = 0 to ir at infinity. It follows from Eqs. (4-48), then, that the
angle of Pa(ju) is always negative for positive values of w.
Consider the following two transfer functions:
Fl(s) = (s - so)(s - sS)F(s) (a)
F,(«) = (s + So)(s + s'o)F(s) (b)
These two functions differ by the fact that Fi(s) has a pair of complex
(4-47)
(4-48)
(4-49)
t We have chosen to write the angle of « — sc* as — (T + az) rather than T — aI
order that the angle contributed by the complex pair be zero at w = 0 rather than
For a more complete discussion see Balabanian and LePage (3).
1 64 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS Sec. 4-5
zeros in the right half plane, while in F2(s) these are replaced by their left-
half-plane images. Both functions may have additional zeros in the right-
half plane which are not explicitly shown. If we multiply and divide the
first one by (s + so)(s + s'o), we shall get
- FMF,M <4-5o)
From the results of the preceding discussion it is clear that the mag-
nitude of Fai(jui) is unity. Its zeros are in the right half plane, while its
poles are in the left half plane, being mirror images of its zeros. Let us
define an all-pass function to be a transfer function whose zeros are all in
the right half plane and whose poles are the negatives of its zeros. Then
Fai(s) in Eq. (4-51) is an all-pass function. Using Eqs. (4-48), we easily
find that
arg FaiO«) = -2(a! + a2) < 0 w > 0 (4-52)
Thus the angle of the all-pass function is never positive for positive fre-
quencies.
Using Eqs. (4-50) and (4-52), we can now write
arg F i(jw) = arg F2(ju) + arg Fai(jw) = arg F2(ju) - 2(ai + a2)
< arg F2(jw) for all w > 0 (4-53)
In words, at positive frequencies the angle of the function having right-
half-plane zeros is less than that of the function in which one pair of such
zeros is replaced by its left-half-plane image.
This procedure of expressing a transfer function as the product of two
others may now be repeated. At each step a pair of complex zeros or a
real zero from the right half plane may be replaced by their left^half-plane
images and the resulting function multiplied by an all-pass function. A
sequence of functions, of which FI and F2 are the first two, will be obtained.
Each member in the sequence will have fewer right-half-plane zeros than
the preceding one. The last member in this sequence will have no right-
half-plane zeros, and we shall label it Fm(s), the subscript implying
"minimum-phase." From Eq. (4-53) and similar results for the other
functions, we can write
arg Fi(ju) < arg F2(jw) < arg F3(jw)
< . . . < arg F.(j«) w > 0 (4-54)
Each of the transfer functions in this sequence will have the same mag-
Sec. 4-5 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS 165
nitude, but the angles will become progressively larger. The minimum-
phase function will have the largest angle of all.
At each step in the above procedure a second-order or first-order all-pass
function is obtained (the order refers to the number of poles). Let us
designate by Fa(s) the product of all these all-pass functions. Then the
original nonminimum-phase function can be written
F,(s) = Fm(s)F.(s) (4-55)
Thus a nonminimum-phase function can always be written as the product
of a minimum-phase function and an all-pass function.
A word of explanation is necessary about the terminology. We have
seen that the angle of a minimum-phase function is larger than that of a
corresponding nonminimum-phase function. Why, then, do we call it
mtm'>/mm-phase? In this book we have denned all transfer functions as
ratios of an output quantity to an input quantity. We could, instead,
define them as ratios of input to output. The angle of the latter will be
the negative of the angle of the former. Hence, in Eq. (4-52) the negative
sign would be absent, and the inequality would be reversed. Similarly
the inequalities in Eq. (4-54) would be reversed, and the minimum-phase
function would have the smallest angle. The concept of minimum-phase
and nonminimum-phase originated with Bode (16), who does, indeed,
define transfer functions as ratios of input to output quantities. We shall
continue to use this terminology since it is so well established, in spite of
the apparent contradiction of the words "minimum phase" by the property
of largest angle.
Since the zeros of an all-pass function are the negatives of its poles,
such a function can be written as
P.W - (4-50)
where m and n are the even and odd parts of a Hurwitz polynomial. If
we glance back at Eq. (4-45), we shall find that an all-pass transfer function
has the same form as the A function of a lossless two-port.
Let us inquire whether or not an all-pass function can be the transfer
function of a resistance-terminated lossless two-port. The last equation
shows that the numerator is not an even or an odd polynomial. However,
all the zeros are in the right half plane. In Sec. 4-3 we found that such a
situation is possible if left-half-plane zeros of the transfer function have
been canceled. Thus an all-pass function satisfies the necessary conditions
for being the transfer function of an LC two-port with a resistance load.
166
PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS
PROBLEMS
4-1. Figure P 4-1 shows a two-port at each pair of terminals of which
an ideal transformer is connected. The secondaries of the transformers are
connected in series. Show that the driving-point impedance looking into
the series-connected secondaries is
Z(s) = z?zn
where xi and x2 are the turns ratios of the ideal transformers. This interpre-
tation of the quadratic form on the right was first suggested by Brune.
'2 A/.7 -»//
Fig. P 4-1
4-2. Show that the residue condition for the z parameters of a trans-
former will be satisfied with the equality sign if the coefficient of coupling
is unity. In analogy with a close-coupled transformer Dasher introduced
the term compact two-port to refer to any two-port for which the residue
condition is satisfied with the equality sign.
4-3. (o) Let the z parameters of a lossless two-port have a compact
pole at s = 0. Show that the y parameters will also have a pole at s = 0.
(b) Repeat if the pole is at infinity.
4-4. Show that any zeros of zu and of 2/« of a lossless two-port that
are not shared by both must lie on the ju axis and must be either simple
or double.
4-5. Given two real rational functions Zu and
Zn = ZM, both regular in the right-half s plane. Show
that if the real-part conditions in Eqs. (4-6) and the
residue conditions in Eqs. (4-3) for all j-axis poles
are satisfied then the impedances Za and Z6 of the
symmetrical lattice shown in Fig. P 4-5 realizing
these functions are positive real. This establishes
the fact that a symmetrical lattice will realize
Fig. P 4-5 any given set of realizable symmetrical z para-
meters.
4-6. Let N represent a two-port which is both structurally and elec-
trically symmetrical with z parameters Zu = z« and zi2, and y parameters
L
PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS
167
*llh
N_
2
N_
2
N_
2
(a) (b)
Fig. P 4-6. Bartlett's bisection theorem.
yn = 2/22 and ^«. Consider bisecting the two-port at its structural line of
symmetry. At the junction of the two halves some terminals will be
created. Assume that, before the bisection, none of the leads, from which
these terminals are formed, were crossed. Now consider the two cases
shown in Fig. P 4-6, in which these terminals are left open and are short-
circuited, respectively. Designate by znh and T/HA the input impedance and
the input admittance in the two cases (the subscript stands for half).
Prove that
1
2/iu
T zl2 S ~ = Zll —
or
1
— = 2/n + 2/i2 ; 2/iu = 2/n — 2/12
Recalling the expressions for the arm impedances of a symmetrical lattice,
this leads to the result
1
2/m
if the original network is to be equivalent to a symmetrical lattice. One
method of proof, due to Brune,j consists in first applying voltages Ei =
E2 = E at the terminals of the original network and then EI = —E2 = E.
These correspond to the two cases above.
4-7. Let F(ju) = \F(ju)\ej* be a transfer function. The following
tangent functions are given. Find the corresponding F(s). If there is more
than one choice, find all of them.
tan it> =
(b) tan iti =
(c) tan it> =
- 24
-w3
- 4w2 + 24
t O. Brune, "Note on Bartlett's Bisection Theorem," Phil. Mag., 14, p. 806, Nov.
1932.
168 PROPERTIES OF TWO-PORT FUNCTIONS
(d) tan it> = -———-
4-8. (a) Figure P 4-8 shows an L network. Assume that there is no
magnetic coupling between the arms. Let Tu(s) = E2/Ei. Prove that for
Re s > 0, whenever Tu(s) is real, it must be positive and no greater than
unity.
Fig. P 4-8
(b) Using this result, prove the same condition for a ladder network
which has no magnetic coupling between branches. Assuming that any
minimum-phase TU function can be realized as a ladder network (this will
be shown in Chap. 8), this establishes the result that whenever a minimum-
phase transfer function is real for any righHialf-plane values of s, it must
be positive and no greater than unity.
4-9. Let F(s) be the transfer function of a passive two-port with no
positive real zeros but with complex zeros in the right half plane. It has
already been proved that l/^s) | < 1 for real positive values of s. Show that,
if F(s) has n poles, then |F(s)| < 1 for arg s < ir/2n.
4-10. Show that if a shunt-branch impedance of a ladder network is
zero at s = 0 or infinity, then the open-circuit transfer impedance of the
network must also have a zero there, even though the impedance looking
to the right beyond the shunt branch also is zero at s = 0 or infinity,
respectively.
4-11. Let
„
'- !i
+ &n_iS-i + . . . + 6,« -f 6o
be a minimum-phase transfer function. Show that the net change in angle
as w goes from zero to infinity is (m — n)2r/2. This is also — ir/2 tunes the
sum of the order of the zero of F(s) at zero and that at infinity.
5
Realization of Lossless Two-Ports
In the previous chapter we concentrated on establishing necessary con-
ditions for realizability of the various functions describing the behavior
of two-ports in general and of lossless two-ports in particular. We saw
how the structure of the network affects the behavior. We are now ready
to discuss the problem of realization, assuming that the prescribed func-
tion (or functions) satisfies the necessary conditions of realizability. We
shall discuss the realization problems in increasing order of complexity.
5-1. Symmetrical two-ports
An often occuring problem, and one which is relatively easy to handle,
is the following: We are asked to provide a coupling network to be inserted
in the plate circuit of a pentode amplifier tube, its output feeding into the
grid circuit of a second tube. Making the usual approximations, we con-
sider the first tube to be a current source and the grid to ground imped-
ance of the second tube to be infinite. So the response that is prescribed
for the coupling network is the ratio of open-circuit voltage to input cur-
rent, 2ij.
If the coupling network is to be lossless, the prescribed Zn will be re-
quired to have simple poles restricted to the ju axis and its residues will
have to be real. Since zn and z22 are not prescribed, we shall have great
latitude in choosing these functions. They must, of course, be reactance
functions, and they must be chosen to satisfy the residue requirement.
One simple solution to the problem is to assume that the network is
symmetrical (zn = 222). In the case of a symmetrical lossless two-port the
residue condition reads
fe?i - fo = (fcn - feu) (fa + kn) > 0 (6-1)
169
170
Sec. 5-1
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
where kn is positive, while kn may be positive or negative. This condition
can be satisfied only if kn > |fcu|.
In the given problem only zn is prescribed. It remains for us to find
zn = 222 such that the residue condition is satisfied. In the preceding
chapter we established that noncompactness leads to an extra series
branch at the input or output. Such a branch is redundant as far as Zn is
concerned, since Zu will in no way be affected. For this reason it is better
to choose a compact set of z parameters. We go through the following pro-
cedure, then, in synthesizing a lossless two-port for a prescribed zu func-
tion: We first expand the given function in partial fractions; some of the
residues km will be positive, some negative. The partial-fraction expan-
sion of zn will be the same as that of zn, but with the negative residues
made positive, that is, km = \km\. Analytically, let us write
2l2 = Z\lp — Zl2n (5-2)
Here we have grouped all the terms in the expansipn of zn with positive
residue in 212p and all those with negative residue in —zub- Note that zup
and Zun are individually reactance functions. Now we write
Z22 = zn = ziup + 2un (5-3)
We now have a set, Z12 and zn = 222, which satisfies the necessary
realizability criteria for a symmetrical lossless two-port. It is easy to show
that a symmetrical lattice will realize any given set of realizable symmet-
rical z parameters (see Prob. 4-5). Such a lattice is shown in Fig. 5-1. It
1 ^a
Zb 1
1 Zb'
1 T, t
Zo
t
/
/
zb
/
/
0—
(a) (b)
Fig. 5-1. Symmetrical lattice.
is usually drawn in the second form to avoid confusion. The z parameters
of the lattice are given (see Prob. 1-3) by
zn = z22 = \(Zb + Za)
zn = \(7i\ — Za)
If we solve this set of equations for Za and Zb, we shall get
(5-4)
Sec. 5-1
171
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
Za = zn — ZH
Zf c = Zn + Zu
Finally, using Eqs. (5-2) and (5-3), these become
(a)
(b)
(5-5)
(5-6)
Thus Za and Zb will be realizable reactance functions which we can realize
in any of the equivalant forms discussed in Chap. 2. Note that the two
lattice arms have no common poles. If we had not satisfied the residue
condition with the equality sign at one of the poles, then this pole would
have appeared in both Za and Z6, leading to more complicated lattice arms.
As an example of this procedure, let the prescribed function be
2s s , s _ 2s
"'"' (s2 + l)(s2 + 2)(s2 + 3) s2 + 1 "•" s2 + 3 s2 + 2 ^'
This function has simple poles restricted to the ju axis, and its residues
are real. Incidentally the zeros are at zero and infinity, and so they are
also on the ju axis. We now form zn and the lattice impedances.
s s . 2s
Z. = ZH — Zu = -j-
4«
1/4
(5-8)
2s
Z6 - zn + zi2 - «, + 1 + s2 + 3
The resulting network is shown in Fig. 5-2.
-K
1/4
8 t/16,
,—rmnp—1(/
(a) (b)
Fig. 5-2. Realization of numerical example.
The main disadvantage of this realization is the balanced structure of
the resulting network. It is usually desirable to have an unbalanced net-
1 72 REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS Sec. 5-2
work. This leads us to inquire into the possibility of converting a lattice
into an equivalent unbalanced two-port. We know that this will not always
be possible because unbalanced two-ports cannot have transmission zeros
in parts of the s plane where balanced two-ports can. Nevertheless, when-
ever a conversion is possible, it would be well to have procedures for carry-
ing out the conversion.
5-2. Conversion of symmetrical lattice to unbalanced form
In the preceding section we discussed the synthesis of a prescribed loss-
less Z12 function in terms of a symmetrical lattice. A symmetrical lattice
arises in other synthesis techniques as well, such as in the design of all-pass
networks and in conventional filter design. The disadvantage of such a
balanced structure can be overcome if an unbalanced equivalent of the
lattice can be found. Our purpose now is to discuss ways of breaking down
the lattice step by step until the entire lattice is unbalanced. We should
not expect this to be possible in all cases since the lossless lattice is the
most general symmetrical lossless two-port. We have already taken the
first step in this direction; we showed in the preceding chapter that the
transmission zeros of a lossless ladder must lie on the ju axis. If the zeros
of the prescribed 212 are not all on the ju axis, we should at least not expect
to find a ladder equivalent of the lattice.
Furthermore, the Fialkow-Gerst theorem gives us necessary conditions
for the realizability of more general unbalanced two-ports. Thus, if the
given Z12 has real transmission zeros, no unbalanced equivalent of the
lattice will exist. As a matter of fact, even if there are no real transmission
zeros, we might not be able to find an unbalanced equivalent of the lattice
because the sufficiency of the Fialkow-Gerst theorem has not been demon-
strated for the problem under consideration here.
Let us now embark on the task of converting the lattice to an equivalent
unbalanced form. Suppose the two arms of the lattice have a common
series impedance, as illustrated in Fig. 5-3. Let us form the tee equivalent
of the lattice (see Prob. 1-4). The tee equivalent, shown in the second part
of the figure, will not necessarily be physically realizable since it involves
a subtraction in the shunt branch. However, the central tee in the figure,
omitting the two Zo's, can be converted back into a realizable lattice. The
result is shown in Fig. 5-3(c). By this process any impedances which the
series and crossarms of the lattice may have in common can be removed
and placed in series at the input and output terminals, leaving a central
lattice with simpler arms.
Sec. 5-2
173
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
Fig. 5-3. Decomposition of lattice—
series arm removal.
(c)
Fig. 5-4. Decomposition of lattice—
shunt arm removal.
The situation dual to the one we just discussed immediately comes to
mind. Suppose the two arms of the lattice have a common shunt admit-
tance, as illustrated in Fig. 5-4. Let us form the equivalent of the lattice,
as shown in the second part of the figure. Again this involves a subtrac-
tion in one of the branches and, hence, may not be physically realizable.
Nevertheless a realizable network is obtained when the central pi, not
including the Fo's, is converted back into a lattice. The result is shown in
the last part of the figure. In this fashion any admittances which the arms
of the lattice may have in common can be removed and placed in shunt at
the input and output terminals, leaving a central lattice with simpler arms.
After the completion of either one of these steps, it may be that condi-
tions are right for the application of the other step. In such a case these
two steps may be applied alternately until the complete lattice is unbal-
174
Sec. 5-2
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
o o—t-nnnp-H
2
-nnnr^-t—o
Fig. 5-5. Unbalancing a simple lattice.
anced. The resulting two-port will be a ladder. Of course, this requires
all the zeros of the original zu to lie on the ju axis.
In the numerical example given in Eq. (5-7) the transmission zeros
occur at zero and infinity, and so we should expect that a ladder realiza-
tion is possible. Let us see if we can obtain such a realization by applying
the two steps we have just discussed. In the second form of the lattice
realization given in Fig. 5-2 the capacitance C = $ that appears as a
parallel component of both arms may be removed and placed in shunt
across the terminals, as in Fig. 5-4. The remaining impedance in the cross-
arm can then be converted to the first Foster form. The result is shown
in Fig. 5-5(a). The algebra involved proceeds as follows: Storting with
the crossarm impedance in Eqs. (5-8), we write
2s , 2s 4s(s" + 2)
y.__^
b — r*
1 + s2 + 3 (s2 + l)(s2 + 3)
(s' + l)(s2 + 3)
4s(s2 + 2)
s/8 2s2 + 3
(5-9)
H-7.-J.-1 +
_, 1 4s(«2 + 2)
4s(s2 + 2)
2s
Y( 2s' + 3
The crossarm and the series arm now have a common series inductance
which can be removed as a series branch, as in Fig. 5-3. Since this induct-
ance constitutes the whole of the lattice series arm, a short circuit will be
left when it is removed, placing the remaining crossarms in parallel. Sub-
tracting 2s from Z( yields
= Z( - 2s =
(a)
(b)
(5-10)
The complete ladder equivalent is shown in Fig. 5-5(b).
S«c. 5-2
175
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
Primed o
Double
primed
Fig. 5-6. Decomposition of lattice.
Suppose that at a particular stage of the development neither of the
two steps in Fig. 5-3 or 5-4 is possible. Consider Fig. 5-6(a), and recall the
expressions for yn and yu of the symmetrical lattice (see Prob. 1-3). These
can be written
yn
y'a
(5-11)
The primed and double-primed parameters refer to the networks in Fig.
5-6(b). The parallel connection of these two networks will be equivalent
to the original. However, if they are connected in parallel directly as in
Fig. 5-7 (a), then the series arms of the lattice will be short-circuited.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5-7. Incorrect and correct methods of parallel connection.
Hence the over-all y parameters of this parallel connection will not be the
sum of the y parameters of the individual networks. This difficulty can
be overcome by the use of a 1:1 ideal transformer as shown in part (b) of
176
Sec. 5-2
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
the figure. On the face of it this last figure does not leave us very confident
that we have gone far toward obtaining a practical unbalanced equivalent
of the lattice. But let us assume that we are now able to unbalance the
remaining lattice (possibly as a ladder). Then the need for the ideal trans-
former will no longer exist because the two networks can be paralleled
directly without causing any difficulty. A redrawing of the figure will
look like Fig. 5-8(a).
(a) (b)
Fig. 5-8. Steps in unbalancing a lattice.
Another equivalence can be established from a consideration of Fig.
5-9 and the expressions for the z parameters of the lattice (see Prob. 1-3).
These may be written
+ Z.) = z'n + z{(
— =
(5-12)
The primed and double-primed parameters refer to the two-ports of Fig.
5-9(b). The series connection of these two will be equivalent to the orig-
inal. However, if this connection is made directly as in Fig. 5-10(a), one
of the series arms of the lattice will be short-circuited so that it will not be
u — «
*a
•%*
s
primed
s
s
/
/
1
£*/
Primed
z
1
n
(a) (b)
Fig. 5-9. Alternative decomposition of lattice.
Sec. 5-2
177
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
permissible to add the individual z parameters in order to obtain the over-
all z parameters. Again the difficulty is overcome by the use of an ideal
transformer as in Fig. 5-10(b). If it is possible to replace the remaining
oo
oo
(a) (b)
Fig. 5-10. Incorrect and correct methods of series correction.
lattice with an unbalanced equivalent, there will then be no need for the
ideal transformer and so it can be removed. The resulting network, after
redrawing, looks like Fig. 5-8(b).
We have now presented four distinct steps that can be used in convert-
ing a lattice into an equivalent unbalanced form. These are illustrated in
Figs. 5-3, 5-4, and 5-8. For future reference let us renumber these steps
in a different order from that originally presented.
Step 1. Removal in shunt of any common admittance of the lattice
arms as in Fig. 5-4
Step 2. Removal of a bridging branch as in Fig. 5-8(a)
Step 3. Removal in series of any common impedance of the lattice
arms as in Fig. 5-3
Step 4. Removal of a branch as the leg of tee as in Fig. 5-8(b)
After the application of any one of these steps, conditions may be
appropriate for the application of any one of the others. Some ingenuity
may be required in the application of this procedure in a practical situation.
As a simple example, consider the lattice shown in Fig. 5-11. This
lattice occurs quite frequently in network synthesis. Let us contemplate
the removal of the capacitance Ci as a bridging element. Anticipating
that the rest of the lattice will eventually be unbalanced, we can dispense
with the ideal transformer. The remaining lattice shown in the second of
the figures has series inductance in both arms. Suppose we remove Li
according to step 3. The series arm of the remaining lattice will now be a
short circuit, thus placing the remaining crossarms in parallel. The com'
178
Sec. 5-2
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
C
° If
C,/2
ifr
Lg /Cg
Lg /Cg
/
/
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5-11. Simple lattice.
plete equivalent is the bridged tee shown in Fig. 5-12(a). This will involve
a negative inductance unless L\ < L2. In any case the tee of inductances
can be replaced by an equivalent transformer.
Alternatively we can remove the inductance L\ as a bridging element.
The remaining lattice can now be converted to an equivalent tee with
Cf/2
(a) Lf>L,
(b)C,>C2
Fig. 5-12. Bridged tee equivalents of simple lattice.
capacitance C\ in the two series arms. The result is shown in Fig. 5-12(b).
This will be possible only if d is larger than C2.
Let us now consider a moderately complicated illustration of the j
process of unbalancing a lattice. The lattice shown in Fig. 5-13 has the
branch impedances
2s(4s2 + 1)
+ 6s2 + ]
2 + l)(s2 -
s(3s2 + 1)
4s4 + 6s2 + 1
(4s2 + l)(s2 + 1)
(a)
(b)
(5-13)
Sec. 5-2
179
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
8 1/2
\
1/2
/Z
12
Fig. 5-13. Lattice to be unbalanced.
If we compute the open-circuit transfer impedance, we shall find
2(4s3 + l)(s2 + 0.238) (s4 + 0.762s2 + 1.069) ,.,..
Zi2 = •(3«' + 1)(4«4 + 6s2 + 1)
This is seen to have no zeros on the real axis so that an unbalanced reali-
zation is not out of the question. On the other hand, not all the zeros are
on the ju axis. Hence we should not expect the possibility of a ladder
equivalent.
The lattice impedances do not behave the same at zero and infinite
frequency. Suppose that we write
s 3s2 + 1
and remove ZM/2 according to step 4. Both arms of the remaining lattice
will now have an impedance zero at s = 0. Their reciprocals can be written
,1/2
,
f
'
i
E
i2
-R —
1
/
1 If
0 • \l i
o— t n •
*-](-.
4
3?
1
I
4
-T2
n1
Fig. 5-14. Decomposition of lattice.
1 80 REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS Sec. 5-2
F.
4s4 + 6
S2 + 1
1
, «(2s2
+ 1)
2s(4s2
3s2 +
+ 1)
1
1,
1 4s2
s
+1
Yb,
~ 2s(2s2 H
- 1) ~
2s'
2(2s2 -4-
1)
"'"
r , „
~ "' ''"'
Both admittances have a pole at s = 0 with the same residue. This permits
removal of a shunt inductance according to step 1. The partial decomposi-
tion of the lattice takes the form shown in Fig. 5-14(a). The ideal trans-
former is omitted in anticipation of a complete decomposition. Both re-
maining admittances, Ya3 and KM, now have zeros at s = 0. Their recip-
rocals can be written
4s2 + l 1 2s
1) - « 2s2 + 1 .3 a4
„ 2(2s2 + 1) 1 , 4s2 + 1 „
^M = - = -- 1 -- — = ^65 -h Zfce
o So
The residue of ZM at s = 0 is larger than that of Za2. The form of Eqs.
(5-17) now suggests removal of a series branch according to step 3. This
will be a capacitance of value unity.
The remaining admittance Ya\ has a pole at infinity which the remain-
ing crossarm admittance YM does not have. We can consider removing
this pole as a bridging branch according to step 2. Thus
0,2 _L I I
The bridging element is a capacitance of value £ (not of value unity since
the bridging impedance is to be 2Zai). At this stage the decomposition is
shown in Fig. 5-14(b).
The impedances of the remaining lattice are now
ZM = 2s
(5-19)
ZM = 4s2 +1 = 2s + 2*2 + 1
The removal of a series branch consisting of an inductance of value 2
according to step 3 now leaves a short circuit in the series arm, thus plac-
ing the two crossarms in parallel. The complete unbalanced equivalent
of the lattice then takes the form of Fig. 5-15.
On the surface, the procedure we went through was straightforward.
However, it was by judicious choice of the steps that we came to a success-
ful conclusion. Note that the original lattice arms both have an admit-
tance pole at s2 = — \. Thus we may be tempted initially to carry out
Sec. 5-3
181
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
,,1/2
12
2
1
m \l <
M-
Fig. 5-15. Unbalanced equivalent of lattice.
step 1 and remove a series-resonant circuit at the start. You can easily
show that, starting in this manner, the decomposition eventually will be
blocked.
In a later chapter we shall discuss a realization procedure of a sym-
metrical two-port which was 6rst advanced by Ozaki in connection with
RC two-ports. It applies equally well to the lossless case. This procedure
is related to the lattice unbalancing which we have discussed in this sec-
tion, but all the guesswork is eliminated.
5-3. Synthesis for a prescribed Y^, ZU, or Ti2
In Sec. 5-1 we considered the problem of realizing a given open-circuit
transfer impedance. We shall now consider the more important and more
complicated problems illustrated in Fig. 5-16. The problem is to synthesize
Fig. 5-16. Synthesis problems.
a lossless network to be inserted between a resistive load (normalized to
1 ohm) and a voltage source or a current source. The prescribed functions
are yU = l2/Ei or E?/li = Zu. The expressions for Fu and Zu in terms
of the z and y parameters, respectively, are
1 82 REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS Sec. 5-3
(a)
(5-20)
To be specific, let us consider only the first problem. We should expect
the second problem to be handled in a similar manner, since the forms of
the two equations are so similar.
We already established in the preceding chapter that the denominator
of FII is a Hurwitz polynomial, while the numerator is an even or an odd
polynomial. Thus we can write
— l2 \
m(s) + n(s)
where Nu is an even or odd polynomial, while m and n are the even and
odd parts of a Hurwitz polynomial, respectively. This equation can be
rewritten in two ways, depending on whether Nu is even or odd. Thus
l+n/m ~u
Nu odd (5-22)
v
Yl2 ~
m/n ~'2 n
Ar« even (5-23)
m
Vn = n
The identification with the y parameters is made by comparing these
equations with Eq. (5-20). In either of these cases, from the given Ya we
are able to determine two of the y parameters. Our problem is now re-
duced to the realization of a lossless two-port when two of the y parameters
are prescribed. The procedure to be used will depend on the locations of
the zeros of N^.
The case of a prescribed transfer impedance Zu can be handled in a
completely similar manner. Again two cases will result; Eqs. (5-22) and
(5-23) will apply just as well to zu and z22- Again the procedure to be fol-
lowed in the realization will depend on the locations of the transmission
zeros.
For completeness we shall include a consideration of the open-circuit
voltage transfer function, although this problem is not so important as
the previous two in the case of lossless two-ports. For the network of Fig.
5-1G(c) the prescribed function is
Sec. 5-3 REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS 183
(5-24)
_ Ej _ _Vn _ Z12
m Nn/n =
m/n
1 12 — =
m
2/22
m
El t/m 2ll
From the properties of the z or y parameters we can establish that Tn(s)
is an even rational function all of whose poles are simple and lie on the ju
axis, all the residues being imaginary. The zeros are not restricted except
for the quadrantal symmetry requirement. Thus we can write
Tn(s) = *M (5-25)
m(s)
where both Nn and m are even polynomials.
If a function Tn satisfying these necessary conditions is prescribed,
we need to divide both numerator and denominator by an odd polynominal
and identify, say, the y parameters yn and y^.
(5-26)
The polynomial n must be chosen so that its zeros are simple, lie on the
j0> axis, and separate the zeros of m. This will ensure that the ratio m/n
will be a reactance function.
We are now at the same stage in the solution of this problem as we were
in the solution of the previous two. We have two z or y parameters pre-
scribed. Again the realization procedure will depend on the locations of
the zeros of Nn.
A possible realization procedure is to assume a symmetrical network.
However, two of the three z or y parameters are now prescribed, rather
than just zxi or yu. We must first determine, whether or not a symmetrical
network is possible under such conditions.
Let us carry out the discussion in terms of a given Yu(s); similar results
follow when Zu or Tn is the given function. In most problems the absolute
transmission level is not of vital importance. That is to say, we shall be
satisfied to realize the given Yu(s) to within a constant multiplier, counting
on our ability subsequently to raise the transmission level by means of
amplifiers. Nevertheless it is desirable to obtain as high a gain constant as
possible in order to reduce the amount of amplification that must be
supplied.
From the given transfer admittance J'u(s) we form the functions yn and
184 REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS Sec. 5-4
2/22, as already described. Suppose the residue ku is greater in magnitude
than fe at one of the poles. Then, in order to satisfy the residue condition,
kn must be larger than kn- This means that the network cannot be sym-
metrical. However, if it is permitted to sacrifice transmission gain, the resi-
due of 2/12 can be made as small as we please by reducing the constant
multiplier of Yn(s). Thus we can always achieve the result A»2 > |A-u| at all
the poles. The residue condition can now be satisfied by choosing fcu = fc22.
This leads to a symmetrical network—and we have already discussed a
realization technique for symmetrical networks.
With such a technique the transmission gain (constant multiplier of
F12) is determined from the start, a fact which is not true for some other
techniques, as we shall see. The method has two serious disadvantages.
One of these, the low transmission level, we have already mentioned. The
second disadvantage develops from the fact that a symmetrical network
normally requires more elements than a nonsymmetrical one, although it
is not possible to state this in a quantitative way.
5-4. Transmission zeros on jct f axis—ladder development
In the previous section we described how to determine two of the three
z or 2/ parameters from a given transfer function. It remains now actually
to realize a lossless two-port from these two functions. Since the per-
missible locations of the transmission zeros of a two-port depend on its
structure, we should expect to need different realization techniques, de-
pending on the locations of the transmission zeros. In this section we
shall consider the case in which all transmission zeros lie on the jw axis.
For defihiteness let us assume that we have jju and 2/22 as realizable
functions of s. Both functions have the same poles, and in addition 2/22 may
have private poles as well. The zeros of these functions will, in general, be
different. Since the transmission zeros lie on the ju axis, we shall seek a
ladder realization. For a ladder network the transmission zeros necessarily
occur at series-impedance poles or shunt-impedance zeros.
In Chap. 2 we discussed the Cauer ladder development of a reactance
function. The procedure consisted in removing, completely, the pole at
infinity, thus forcing the remaining function to have a zero at infinity.
This zero was then completely removed by inverting and removing the
pole of the reciprocal function. Suppose that, instead of forcing a zero of
the remaining function to occur at infinity, we wished to force this zero to
occur at some other point on the ju axis. Would we be able to do it? To
answer this question, consider the sketch of a susceptance function shown
Sec. 5-4
185
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
Fig. 5-17. Plot of susceptance.
in Fig. 5-17. This is the same function as Yb given in Eq. (5-9). The
function has one internal pole and two internal zeros. Suppose that this
is to be the 2/22 function of a two-port. We can write
2/22W — ,„/„, . Os — , s + . , „ „,
4s(s2 + 2) 4 '4s(s2 + 2)
(5-27)
The pole at infinity has a residue of $. If we remove this pole completely,
the zero which was at u = v 3 will move out to infinity, as Eq. (5-27)
shows. The zero which was at w = 1 will also move and will now fall at
w = V|. Suppose, instead, that we remove only part of the pole at
infinity; i.e., suppose we subtract from 2/22 a quantity fcs, where 0 < k < %.
In terms of Fig. 5-17 we subtract the dotted line whose slope is k from the
susceptance curve. The zeros at w = 1 and V§ move to the locations «i
and w2. Figure 5-18 (a) shows the variation of wi and w2 as we change the
amount of the pole that we remove. (Not to scale.)
This figure shows that by partially removing the pole at infinity we
ff
I
and utg
k —
(a)
k,-
(b)
3_
8
Fig. 5-18. Shifting of zeros.
186
Sec. 5-4
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
can shift a zero anywhere in the range from « = v3 to infinity and any-
where in the range from w = 1 to Vf. In the ladder development of yn
these zeros are realized as poles of impedance by means of an antiresonant
series branch. Thus, if we are required to have a transmission zero in one
of the above ranges, this procedure will realize the required zero, provided
that the pole of impedance is completely removed. The partial network will
look like Fig. 5-19.
[—<TnriP—
=T=*
Fig. 5-19. Partial realization of ladder.
You might wonder whether or not the shunt capacitance of value k will
give a transmission zero at infinity. The answer is "no." Even though this
shunt impedance has a zero at infinity, the impedance looking beyond that
point into the network also has a zero at infinity, since this capacitance
constitutes only a partial removal of the admittance pole. The phenomenon
now becomes clear: when we partially remove a pole and realize this as a
branch of the ladder, this serves to shift the zeros and no transmission
zero is created. A transmission zero is created when a pole is completely
removed.
At this point we are still a little unhappy because, in the example under
consideration, there is a finite frequency range to which we are not able to
shift a zero. But we have not exhausted all avenues of procedure. We
considered the partial removal of the pole at infinity only. Suppose that
we consider removal of part of the pole at zero. In the previous case we
saw that, when we removed part of the pole at infinity, both zeros moved
toward infinity. It was as if the zeros were sucked toward the pole which
was being partially removed. As a matter of fact, complete removal of the
pole would suck one of the zeros right into the position previously occupied
by the pole (infinity). We might expect that partial removal of the pole
at s = 0 would move the zeros toward the origin.
Let us now subtract from yn the term ki/s where ki is no bigger than
the residue of yn at the origin, which is f. The remaining function will be
y22 = yn - - = 4s(s2 + 2) (5-28)
The locations of the two zeros will depend on the value of ki. Figure 5-18(b)
Sec. 5-4
187
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
shows how these locations move toward zero, one of them actually reaching
w = 0 when the pole is completely removed. However, the combination
of partially removing the poles at zero and at infinity still leaves a frequency
range (from V| to Vf) to which a zero cannot be shifted. This range falls
on both sides of the internal pole at w = V2. Based on our recently
acquired experience, if this pole is now partially removed, the zeros will
shift toward the pole, thus tending to cover the range not previously
attainable. We can write
= 2/22 -
fco«
+ 4(1 -
+3
(5-29)
s2 -f 2 4s(s2 + 2)
The largest possible value of k2 is y, which is twice the residue of 2/22- You
can easily determine that varying the value of fc2 will cause the zero at
w = V3 to be shifted as far as the pole at w = V2. The zero at w = 1
will be shifted as far as w = Vf. Thus there will still be a range,
Vf < w < "S/2, to which no zeros can be shifted by partial removal of
any of the poles. We seem to have met an impasse.
What we have been doing is to shift an admittance zero by removal of
a shunt branch. This zero has then been realized by a series branch. But
why not shift the zeros by means of a series branch and then realize them
by means of a shunt branch? Why not, indeed; let us do so. Formally,
Fig. 5-20. Sketch of reciprocal of susceptance in Fig. 5-17.
we take the reciprocal of 7/22- This is shown plotted in Fig. 5-20. Suppose
that we partially remove the pole at w = 1. Then we can write
/ 2 , 8 - 3fc,\
2) k# (4-k3)\s r 4-fcJ
2/22(s) (s2 + l)(s2 + 3) s2 + 1 ~ (s2 + l)(s2 + 2)
where the maximum value of k* is 2, which is twice the residue of 1 /y« at
s = jl. As &3 goes from 0 to f , the internal zero of l/!/22 moves from
<o = V2 to w = V f , thus covering the range to which we were previously
unable to shift a zero.
We can summarize the procedure we have been describing as follows:
188 REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS Sec. 5-4
We start with one driving point and one transfer function from the set of
y or z parameters. The driving-point function is developed into a ladder
in a special way. A pole (or possibly more than one) of the driving-point
function or of its reciprocal is partially removed, thus forcing a zero of
the remaining function to occur at one of the prescribed transmission
zeros. The reciprocal of the remaining function will have a pole at this
transmission zero. The transmission zero is realized by completely re-
moving this pole. The process is now repeated until all the transmission
zeros are realized. The yu (or zU) function will automatically have the
correct pole locations. Another way of describing this is to say that the
procedure consists in removing series and shunt branches which alternately
shift the zeros and then realize them. The over-all yu (or Zu) will have
the prescribed zeros and poles, but we have no control over the gain con-
stant; we have to accept whatever gain constant the procedure gives us.
In many cases the zero shifting step will not be necessary. This will
be true whenever a driving-point function (either the original one or one
of the intermediate functions in the ladder development) has a zero at one
of the transmission zeros. For instance, there may be a transmission zero
at infinity. If the original driving-point function has a pole at infinity,
this may be completely removed, leaving a remainder function with a
zero at infinity, which is precisely the location of the transmission zero.
The transmission zero is realized by taking the reciprocal of this remainder
function and completely removing its pole at infinity.
When there are several transmission zeros, the network we obtain will
depend on the order in which these transmission zeros are realized and also
on which poles we use to do the zero shifting. Consider again the example
of Eq. (5-27), and assume that we want to shift a zero to a point between
w = 1 and o) = Vf. To do this, we can use either the pole at infinity (as
we did in the example) or the pole at w = V2. The first will give a shunt
capacitance in the network, while the second will give a resonant shunt
branch. There is no clear-cut criterion for deciding which pole to use
except for the fact that zero shifting with a pole at zero or infinity will
require but a single element, whereas shifting with an internal pole will
require two.
To illustrate these ideas, let it be required to synthesize a lossless two-
port which, when terminated in a resistance load (normalized to unity),
will have a transfer impedance
- (s2+ 4)(«2 +9)
Sec. 5-4
189
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
Since the numerator is an even polynomial, we divide numerator and
denominator by the odd part of the denominator. Then we identify Zi2 and
z22 according to Eqs. (5-23). The result is
-3)
s(s2
zl2 =
4)(s2
5)
9)
(a)
(b)
(5-32)
s(s2 + 2)(s2 + 5)
(Note that the Fialkow condition requires K < Ti5 for an unbalanced
network.) There are two pairs of finite j-axis transmission zeros and one
at infinity. Suppose we begin by realizing the one at infinity. Since z22
has a zero at infinity, its reciprocal yi — 1/222 will have a pole there.
Complete removal of this pole will realize the desired transmission zero.
The remainder admittance function will be
s(s2
5)
7)
,. _ ,, _ , _ »v«- -r *Aa T- <>) «io«--r i) . fr w
~ (s2 + l)(s2 + 3) "(s2 + l)(s2 + 3) (°"""
The partial network realization is shown in Fig. 5-21 (a). We next want to
fa} (b)
Fig. 5-21. Partial ladder development of numerical example.
realize the transmission zero at s2 = —9 (or u = 3). We shall do this by
partially removing the pole of z2 = l/2/2 at infinity in the form of a series
inductance L, such that the remainder z3 has a zero at s = j3.
r Z3(s) = z2(s) — Ls
z303) = 3,(j3) - j3L = 0
3'(j3) (s2 + l)(s2 + 3) 4
L=
J3s(3s2 + 7)
15
(5-34)
With this value of L we find the remaining impedance to be
z3(s)
(s2 + l)(s2 + 3) ± (s2 + 9) (3s2 + 5)
s(3s2 + 7) "15S" 15s(3s2 + 7)
This has a zero at the desired location. Its reciprocal will have a pole
which we can completely remove, leaving a remainder y*.
190
Sec. 5-4
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
7)_ W, , H«
2/3
J/4
z4 =
15s
(5-35)
The removed pole is realized as a resonant shunt branch. The realization
up to this point is shown in Fig. 5-21 (b).
The remaining transmission zero is at s = j2. In order to shift a zero
to this point, we evaluate 24(j2) and set this equal to Lns, also evaluated
at j2, where Li represents the partial removal of the pole of z* at infinity.
*(J2) - j2Li = 0
Li.
= z4(5) -
= s' + l T7_ U(s- + 4)
2/6 =
ii«
30S/11
180
36s
(5-36)
After a series inductance of value TVu is removed, the remaining impedance
has a zero at s = j2. This is removed as an admittance pole. The complete
ladder development is shown in Fig. 5-22.
O_
77/180
|
4/15
s
p
"36
p
11
150
J-
_£
S/
P
9
IS0
T
II
T
99
(c)
*• V
Fig. 5-22. Complete realization of numerical example.
In this problem the series branches of the ladder were used to remove
a pole partially, while the shunt branches removed poles completely.
Removal of the series branches were just zero-shifting steps, while removal
of the shunt branches were zero-producing steps. We can vary the procedure
by interchanging the roles of the series and shunt branches.
Sec. 5-4
191
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
Let us start again by considering yi = \/zM. Figure 5-23 shows a
sketch of this function. We wish to shift the zero from s = jVs to s = j2
Fig. 5-23. Plot of susceptance.
by partial removal of the pole at s = j3. We start by evaluating yi (j2).
5)
.4
«->'2
(s2 + l)(s? + 3)
We now set this equal to ks/(s* + 3), when s = j2. This determines k.
ks
= yiO'2) = -j
(5-37)
The zero-shLFting step now requires a resonant shunt branch. The element
values are
r __
Ll ~ k ~ 2
r -L -2
Cl ~ 3L, ~ 9
(5-38)
The remainder function will be
+ 4) (3s2 + 7)
«2 + 3 3(s2 + l)(s2 + 3)
3(s2 + !)(s2 + 3) As 3(1 Is2 + 15)
"s(s2 + 4)(3s2 + 7) s2 + 4 "*" 20s(3s2 + 7)
(5-39)
The zero of y2 at s = j2 is completely removed as an impedance pole,
leaving a remainder
9s/20 _3(lls2 + 15)
s2 + 4 20s(3s2 + 7)
(5-40)
192
Sec. 5-4
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
(b)
C3 = 100/63
C, = 40/147
L, = 49/120
d = 32/21
Fig. 5-24. Alternate realization of numerical example.
The partial realization is shown in Fig. 5-24(a).
Let us now realize the transmission zero at s = j3 by partially removing
the pole of 7/3 = 1/23 at infinity, thus shifting the zero that appears at
s = jV£ to s = jZ. The following steps are self-explanatory.
vim =
20,s(3s2 + 7)|
3(1 Is2 + 15)U3
sCi\,-j3 = yiijZ) = j
100
21
100
21
y*(s) = 2/s(s) -
100s
63
100
63
160s(s2 + 9)
63(lls2+ 15)
z,(s) =
63(1 W + 15) 147s/40 . 21
160s(s2 + 9) s2 4- 9
+
32s
(5-41)
The zero is shifted to s = j3 by removal of a shunt capacitiance C3. It is
then realized by removing a resonant series branch. There remains an
impedance zB = 21/32s which has a zero at infinity, and this is precisely
where the remaining transmission zero is. The zero is realized by removal
of a shunt capacitance of value C* = ff. The complete realization is
shown in Fig. 5-24(b).
We have now obtained two different realizations of the original transfer
function. This by no means exhausts the possibilities. Other realizations
are possible by changing the order of removal of transmission zeros and
by changing the poles used for zero shifting. The number of circuit
Sec. 5-4 REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS 193
elements needed will not be the same for all cases, as a count of the elements
in Figs. 5-22 and 5-24 will show.
It is a simple matter to determine the gain constant achieved without
calculating Zu from the network. It is enough to find the asymptotic value
of Zu as s goes to zero or infinity. For example, Fig. 5-24 (b) reduces to a
parallel connection of Ci, C3, and C6 at .low frequencies. Thus,
zl2^ = as *-i0
From Eq. (5-32) we see that Zu — i 36/C/10s as s — » 0. Hence the reali-
zation of Fig. 5-24 (b) will give a constant multiplier K = fa. If we check
the realization of Fig. 5-22, we find that this also gives the constant multi-
plier fa, which is the maximum value permitted by the Fialkow condition.
In the synthesis procedure we have been discussing, only two of the
three parameters are prescribed. The realization process we go through
gives us no control over the third parameter; we must accept what we
get. The third parameter may even have poles not contained in the other
two. In the realization of Fig. 5-22, for example, we can readily see that
Zn has a pole at infinity, whereas the prescribed functions z22 and zi-i have
no pole at infinity. Similarly in the alternate realization of Fig. 5-24 we
shall find that zn has a private pole at s2 = —3. (This is most easily
established by evaluating each branch impedance at s2 = —3 and then
calculating zn.) Note that in this realization the first zero-shifting step
was performed by partially removing an admittance pole at s2 = —3.
Similarly in the first realization a zero-shifting step was performed by
using an admittance pole at infinity. In both cases the resulting zn has
a private pole at the admittance pole used in the zero shifting. This is
not an accident but a general condition.
In addition to the introduction of extraneous poles in the far-end
driving-point function, the ladder development does not guarantee that
the residue condition will be satisfied with the equality sign at all the
poles. As an exercise you can find the zn functions in the two-ports of
Figs. 5-22 and 5-24. The residue condition is satisfied with the equality
sign at all poles in the first case, but not in the second.
There is one major difficulty with the Cauer ladder development we
have just discussed. This has not become apparent in the examples we
have used because of the simple numerical values involved. Because many
of the steps involve subtraction of two quantities, extreme accuracy is
required in the numerical values. Significant figures are lost as we progress
toward the end of a problem. Thus, even though the final answer is re-
194
Sec. 5-5
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
quired to only two or three digits, we must know the initial coefficients
in the prescribed function to many more places. You will become aware
of this peculiarity of the method as you gain some experience in the
realization technique.
5-5. Parallel-ladders realization
In the last section we described a complete synthesis procedure for a
prescribed transfer function whenever the transmission zeros are on the
ju axis. Let us now turn our attention to the realization of a network when
the transmission zeros are not restricted to the ju axis (but do have quad-
ran tal symmetry). We shall require only that there be no zeros on the real
axis in order that we can seek an unbalanced realization.
Specifically the starting point is a transfer-admittance function
Yu(s) = h/Ei. The yu and 2/22 functions are formed from the given
function according to Eqs. (5-22) and (5-23). Again we have two of the
three y parameters, but now the transmission zeros are not on the ju axis.
Since we know a realization procedure for transmission zeros restricted
to the ju axis, we might try decomposing the given y parameters into
components so that the transmission zeros of each component lie on the
jdi axis. The components can then be realized individually and inter-
connected to give the over-all realization. With this idea in mind, consider
the parallel connection of two-ports shown in Fig. 5-25. The over-all 2/22
2/iu + Vim
1, h. ,
,. — ,f T
Fig. 5-23. Parallel connection of two-ports.
function is equal to the sum of the y^ functions of the individual two-ports,
and similarly for the yu function. This statement is quite evidently also
true when more than two networks are connected in parallel. The broad
outlines of a realization procedure become clear: we should break the given
functions into the sum of several functions. If each of these components
Sec. 5-5 REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS 195
has transmission zeros only on the ju axis, we can obtain a ladder realization
for each. The parallel combination of these ladders will give us the desired
realization. This procedure was first developed by Guillemin (56).
Let us examine this process in detail. For definiteness, let yu be the
ratio of an even to an odd polynomial. Then we can write
OP
Oo . , ,
"" "* r n(s)
or 2/l2 = oo2/i2a + ai2/u6 + . . . + 2/m*+i) (5-42)
The original 2/l2 is written with a gain constant of unity. The component
2/u's are also defined with a gain constant of unity, since the a coefficients
are shown explicitly. The particular breakdown of — yu that we have
indicated ensures that all the zeros of each component is on the jw axis —
in fact, they are all at zero or infinity. If each of the components ajym
is to be realizable, we must require the a coefficients to be positive. Suppose
that we let the 2/22 function which is to be associated with each component
be a fraction of the original 2/22, say, yw = Ajy«. Since the yn function
of a parallel combination of two-ports is the sum of the individual 2/22
functions, the fractions must be chosen in such a way that their sum is
equal to unity. That is,
A. + A* + ... +.4,+i = 1 (5-43)
We already know how to develop each of the component two-ports in
a ladder, since all the transmission zeros of each are on the jw axis. How-
ever, as we noted in the previous section, we have no control over the
constant multiplier that we achieve for each yu. These will undoubtedly
be different from the a coefficients that we had at the start. Hence, if
we connect these ladders in parallel, the over-all >/i2 function will be quite
different from the original one.
Let us designate the y parameters of the realized networks by primes,
and let the gain constant of the jth ladder which is obtained by the
realization be Bj. In this notation we have y'i21 = B,-2/«,-. We can change
the gain constant of each ladder to the value we desire by appropriately
changing the admittance level of each. But this will also change the 2/22
of each ladder so that the sum in Eq. (5-43) will no longer be unity. It
really will not greatly concern us if, instead of realizing the original yu
exactly, we realize it to within a constant multiplier. This flexibility, then,
provides us with one additional parameter, which we can adjust to achieve
1 96 REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS Sec. 5-5
the result we want. Thus, after realizing each ladder, let us change the
admittance level of the jth one by Kaj/Bj, where K is still unknown. We
can now write the over-all 2/12 function which we have realized as
2/i2 (realized) = -5- yUa + -5- ym + ■■■+ „— 2/i2u+i,
Da £>(, £>l+l
= K1/u (prescribed) (5-44)
Just as we mentioned, changing the admittance level will change the 2/22
of each ladder also. The over-all 2/22 function becomes
y22 (realized) = -5- 2/22 + -jj- 2/22 + . . . + r— 2/22
= K (%+%,+• • •+ih)Vm (prescribed) (5^5)
Since we want the realized function (2/22) to equal the prescribed function
(2/22), we must require
Let us now summarize the procedure we have just described.
1. Write the numerator of the given yn as a sum of terms each of which
has zeros on the ju axis only. Designate the gain constant of the jth term
by aj. These terms will form the numerators of component 2/12 functions,
the denominators of which are the same as the denominator of the original
2/12.
2. Develop the prescribed 2/22 into several ladder networks, each one
of which realizes the zeros of one of the component 2/12 functions.
3. Calculate the gain constant of the realized 2/12 function of each
ladder; label the jth one Bj.
4. Compute the quantity
K-!+!+-+*b (M7)
5. Change the admittance level of the jib. ladder by Kctj/Bj.
6. Connect the ladders in parallel at both input and output.
This procedure will realize the original transfer admittance to within
a constant multiplier K. The number of ladders we shall need will depend
on the degree of the numerator of 2/12- In the decomposition we have dis-
cussed, a ladder is needed for each power of s, the total number being one
more than the degree. This is extremely wasteful of elements. However,
this decomposition is not the only one possible. The only criterion is to
write the numerator polynomial of yn as a sum of polynomials each of
which has zeros only on the ju axis. One possible breakdown, for instance,
Sec. 5-5 REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS 197
is to group the powers of s in the numerator of 2/i2 in pairs. This will reduce
the number of ladders by a factor of 2 (slightly less when there are an odd
number of terms in the numerator).
As an example of this procedure, suppose the prescribed functions are
3 s/2
s(s' + 2) ~ 2s f + 2
(5-48)
s4 -f 3s2 + 5 / , 5 _3s/2_
_
2/22 -
To satisfy the Fialkow condition, K must be no larger than f. The nu-
merator of 2/i2 can be written as the sum of several terms, each of whose
zeros are exclusively on the ju axis, in many ways. A few are listed here.
& + 3s2 + 5 = (s2 + l)(s2 + 2) + 3
= (s2 + i)2 + v
= (s<) + (3s') + (5) (5-49)
The last breakdown will lead to three ladders, while the others require
only two.
The first breakdown illustrates a simplifying technique which is quite
useful. The two component 2/i2 functions will be
, (5-50)
— 2/l26 = , , 1 2) $)
Note that the multiplier of — 2/i2a is 1, while that of —2/i2* is 3. In each of
these, one of the poles of the original 2/i2 is missing. Thus 2/i2a does not have
a pole at s2 = — 2, while 2/i26 does not have a pole at infinity. This means
that in the corresponding ladders these will be private poles of 2/22a and 2/226,
respectively, and so each ladder will be simpler. Such a simplification
will result whenever it is possible to decompose the numerator of 2/i2 such
that some of the terms in the decomposition have one or more factors
which are also factors of the denominator. These factors will then cancel
in the corresponding yi2j.
Let us now develop the two ladders. As already mentioned, the pole
at s2 = —2 is a private pole of 2/22 in ladder a. We can remove it com-
pletely from 7/22. Thus
i. Oi,2 _i_ Q
oo ^O T <J /c C1 \
yi = J/22 - . , 9 = —5;— (5-51)
o "T" * ^"
The only transmission zero of ladder a occurs at s2 = —1. We can shift
198
Sec. 5-5
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
the zero of yi to this point by partial removal of the pole at s = 0." Thus
A;
/•IN 1 k
2/i01) = 35 -
or
J_
2s
Upon complete removal of this pole as a series branch the ladder is com-
plete. It is shown in Fig. 5-26(a).
1/6 t/2
o—nnnr>—•—nnnp—»•
(b)
Fig. 5-26. Component ladder realizations numerical example.
The transmission zeros of ladder 6 are all at infinity so that the formal
Cauer division process will give these zeros. However, we shall carry
through the steps as alternate zero shifting and zero removal to emphasize
this concept. Since yn has a private pole at infinity, we can remove this
initially. The following steps are self-explanatory:
2s2 + 3
2/3 = 2/22 — S =
+ 2)
2)
=
3"
2s2 + 3
s
;, - 2 =
zero removal
+ 1) = 4s + -
o
2/6 = 2/4 - 4s = -
o
s
«6 =6
zero removal
zero removal
The resulting ladder is shown in Fig. 5-26(b).
Sec. 5-5
199
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
We are now ready to perform the third step in the procedure, which
involves the determination of the gain constants of the ladders. For this
purpose it is not necessary to compute the entire yn function. It is neces-
sary to determine only the asymptotic behavior as s goes to zero or infinity.
For ladder b assume a 1-volt source applied to end 1 and the output
short-circuited. As s —»0, the ladder consists essentially of the series in-
ductances only. Thus — y'i2b —> 3/2s. In Eq. (5-50) —ym approaches l/2s
as 8 —* 0. Hence Bb = 3. In a similar manner w,e easily find Bn = 1.
The next step is to compute K from Eq. (5-47). Thus
K = i (5-52)
Finally we change the admittance levels of the ladders as follows:
Ladder o. Multiply C's and divide L'a by | • \ = J.
Ladder b. Multiply C's and divide L'a by J • | = \.
When this is done and the two ladders are connected in parallel,
Fig. 5-27 results.
Fig. 5-27. Parallel-ladders realization of numerical example.
Let us now turn to a consideration of the requirement that the numer-
ator coefficients of — yn be positive. If the originally given yn does not
satisfy this requirement, we can always use surplus factors to achieve this
form, as discussed in previous chapters, provided only that yn has no real
zeros. For our present application the surplus factors will be of the form
s2 + w?. The number of factors needed will depend on how close the zeros
of 2/12 are to the real axis.
As an illustration, let us consider the polynomial P(s), having the zeros
illustrated in Fig. 5-28. It can be written as
200 REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS Sec. 5-5
O
O
o
Fig. 5-28. Zeros of P(«).
P(s) = (s2 + 2as + a- + 62)(s2 - 2as + a2 + 62)
= s4 + 2(62 - o2)s2 + (a2 + 62)2 (5-53)
All the coefficients of P(s) will be positive if 62 — a2 > 0, which means
6 > 45°.
Suppose that 6 < 45° so that P(s) has a negative coefficient. Let us
multiply P(s) by PI(s) = s2 + «?, which is an even polynomial with one
pair of j-axis zeros. Then
P(«)Pi(«) = s« + [w? - 2(a2 - V)]s*
+ [(a2 + 62)2 - 2w2,(a2 - 62)]s2 + w?(a2 + 62) (5-54)
In order to have no negative coefficients, we must satisfy the condition
2(a2 - &') < w? < g±T^ (5-55)
Thus we require o;2, to fall within a certain range. For this range to exist,
the right-hand side of the inequality must be greater than the left-hand
side. That is,
Cn2 4.7,21 2
vO T o ) -> 2/2 _ ,«
2(a2 - 62) 2 A°
or - = tan fl > —7=
a ~ V3
or, finally, 0 > 30° (5-56)
We conclude that, if the original quadruplet of zeros lies no closer to the
real axis than lines making 30°, then multiplication of P(s) by s2 + i4
will result in all the coefficients becoming positive, the value of w? lying
in the range given by Eq. (5-55). If the zeros lie closer to the real axis
than 30°, we shall need a higher-order multiplying polynomial. In this case
we can try PI = (s2 + uS)(s2 + w2). We shall find that this will permit the
original zeros to lie closer to the positive real axis, the range being 6 > 24.2°.
It is not difficult to appreciate that the closer the zeros of P(s) are to the
positive real axis the more multiplying factors s2 + oi? are needed to make
all the resulting coefficients positive. If there are any zeros of P(s) on
the positive real axis, no finite number of such factors will be enough.
Sec. 5-5 REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS 201
A disadvantage of the use of surplus factors is that the degree of the
numerator of 2/i2 is increased, thereby necessitating a greater number of
ladders in the realization. Furthermore, the order of 7/22 is also increased,
thus increasing the complexity of each ladder. Both these effects lead to
an increase in the number of elements.
You will wonder whether a realization similar to parallel ladders is
possible when the prescribed function is Zu(s). You would expect the
analogous realization to be a series connection of ladders. Unfortunately,
this is not possible, except for some trivial cases, unless we admit ideal
transformers. The trouble is that a series connection of two unbalanced
two-ports is not an unbalanced two-port unless at least one of them is a
tee network. If we admit ideal transformers, then a series-ladders realiza-
tion can be obtained in a completely analogous manner. As a matter of
fact we may perform the impedance-level adjustment by varying the turns
ratios of the ideal transformers.
There are at least two other major synthesis procedures that we could
very well discuss at this stage. Both these were initially developed for
RC networks but apply equally well to the lossless networks under dis-
cussion here. One of these procedures, due to Dasher (39), may be viewed
as an extension of the ladder-network realization for j-axis transmission
zeros. The two-port is obtained as a cascade connection of sections each
of which realizes one pair of complex transmission zeros. The individual
sections are bridged tees, twin tees, or bridged twin tees. The method is
restricted to transmission zeros which lie no closer to the real axis than
lines making an angle of 45° with the real axis.
The second procedure is due to Ozaki (94) and applies to symmetrical
two-ports. The transmission zeros are restricted to the same part of the
plane as in the Dasher method. The realization consists in alternate re-
movals of branches from both ends of the two-port, similar to the steps
in the decomposition of the lattice which we discussed in Sec. 5-2. We
shall discuss both these procedures in the chapter on RC two-ports. It
will there become evident how they apply to the lossless case as well.
PROBLEMS
5-1. Discuss the realization of a lossless two-port when the three
parameters yn, yn, and yu are prescribed under the special conditions that
AH > ku and fc22 > ku, where the k'a are residues of the corresponding y's.
Illustrate by means of an example.
202
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
\(c,
L< 1
L, «''
xC9
s*
n4
5-2. Consider the symmetrical lattice of Fig. P 5-2.
(a) Compute the z and y parameters.
(b) Show that they are compact.
(c) Show that Fialkow's condition will be satisfied under any one of
three conditions:
(1) £>1
(2) §>1
(3) f2 + £>l
tn 1*1 Fig. p 5.2
5-3. The unbalanced equivalents of the lattice for the first two con-
ditions in the previous problem were given as the bridged-tee networks in
Fig. 5-12. To obtain an unbalanced equivalent if the third condition is
satisfied, decompose the y parameters that you found in the previous
problem into two sets. Assign a fraction k < 1 of the finite pole together
with all the pole at the origin to one set, and assign the remainder of the
finite pole together with the pole at infinity to the other set. Show that
each set can be realized as a tee network so that the twin-tee network of
Fig. P 5-3 results. Determine the range of values of A;. Is there a preferred
value for fc?
Ct
Fig. P 5-3
5-4. The following functions are the squared magnitudes of the trans-
fer admittance of resistance-loaded lossless two-ports. Obtain a ladder or
parallel-ladders realization of each two-port.
(a) |Fi2(>,)|2
(b) |1
(c) |>
2w4 -
1 +M«
- 4w'
- 2w2
(w4 - o)2 + 1)'
04 - 6M2 + 8)2
REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS 203
Z|l
Zl2 =
5-5. The following two z parameters are given:
16s4 + 9s2 + 1
s(26s4 + 21s2 + 3)
(4s2 + l)(s2 + 1)
s(26s4 + 21s2 + 3)
(a) Obtain a ladder realization in which the zero shifting is done with
the series branches and the zero removal with shunt branches. This will
be a so-called "mid-series" ladder.
(b) Obtain a ladder realization in which the zero shifting is done with
the shunt branches and the zero removals with the series branches. This
is a "mid-shunt" ladder.
5-6. Obtain a ladder realization for the following sets of functions.
The transmission zeros may be realized in any order.
(s2 + 4)(s2 + 16) s(s2 + 16) (s2 + 36)
W zn ~ s(s' + 9) (s2 + 25) !" (s2 + 1) (s2 + 25)
(s2 + l)(s2 + 36) s(s2 + 4)
Zi2 s(s2 + 9)(s2 + 25) Zl2 (s2 + l)(s2 + 25)
5-7. Suppose the functions given in Prob. 5-6 are yn and — yu. Ob-
tain ladder realizations.
5-8. The open-circuit transfer impedance of a lossless coupling net-
work is given as
= s4 + s2 + 1
«" s(s2+ l)(s' + 3)(s2 + 5)
(a) Obtain a symmetrical-lattice realization.
(b) Obtain an unbalanced equivalent of the lattice.
5-9. The following function is to be the transfer impedance of a loss-
less two-port terminated in a resistance:
7 K(s2 + 4)(s2 + 9)
"W ~ s6 + s4 + 7s3 + 4s2 + 10s + 3
For a suitable value of K obtain a symmetrical network realizing this
function. Compare with the realizations given in Sec. 5-4.
5-10. Obtain a realization of the following nonminimum-phase transfer-
admittance function in the form of a resistance-loaded lossless two-port:
5-11. The transfer admittance of a resistance-terminated lossless two-
port is given as follows:
(s2 + 9)(s4 + 3s2 + 5)
=K
(s2 + l)(s2 + 3)(s2 + 5) + s(s2 + 2)(s2 + 4)
204 REALIZATION OF LOSSLESS TWO-PORTS
There is a pair of transmission zeros on the ju axis, as well as a quadruplet
of complex zeros. The normal way of obtaining a parallel-ladders realiza-
tion involves expanding the numerator and taking consecutive pairs of
terms as the numerators of the component yu's. In this case three ladders
will be required.
(a) Obtain a parallel-ladder realization by first breaking down the
quartic factor into two terms with zeros on the ju axis. The numerators
of the two component yu's will then be these terms multiplied by s2 + 9-
This realization will require two ladders.
(b) Obtain a realization by first removing the j-axis transmission zeros
as in a ladder development. The remainder is then realized as a pair of
parallel ladders.
(c) Compare the number of elements required in the two realizations,
and discuss the general applicability of these special procedures.
6
Insertion-Loss Synthesis
In the previous chapter we considered the realization of lossless two-ports
for problems of increasing complexity. The first problem was that of a
prescribed open-circuit transfer impedance. The problem of next greater
complexity involved the specification of the transfer admittance Yu(s) or
the transfer impedance Zu(s) of a resistance-loaded lossless two-port. No
realization procedure was discussed in the latter case for transmission
zeros not restricted to the ju axis. (Discussion of the Dasher procedure
was deferred.)
Normally the Zn(s) or Yn(s) functions are not prescribed; these are
obtained from the specification of a desired magnitude or angle function.
However, when the prescribed behavior is the magnitude function, a dif-
ferent realization technique will become available if we do not compute
Zu(s) or Yu(s) from the prescribed magnitude. Instead, from the fact
that no power will be dissipated in a lossless network, the transfer-function
magnitude squared can be related to the real part of the driving-point
function. This will eventually lead to the open-circuit or short-circuit
parameters of the two-port. The same technique applies when there is a
finite load resistance at both the input and the output.
6-1. Darlington synthesis
Consider the network shown in Fig. 6-1. This is a lossless two-port
terminated in a resistance. We shall often refer to such a network as a
Darlington network. Since the network is lossless, the real power input
to the network must equal the power delivered to the load resistance for
sinusoidal driving functions. If we equate the expressions for these two
quantities, we get
205
204
Sec. 6-1
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
Tb
o'
Re
R
Finally, normalizing with respect to R, we can write
In words, this result says that the magnitude squared of the transfer
impedance of a lossless two-port terminated in a 1-ohm resistance is
Fig. 6-1. Darlington network.
numerically equal to the real part of the driving-point impedance at all
frequencies. This is a very important result. We already know how to
find an impedance function when its real part is given. Hence, from a
prescribed |Zu(jw)|2 for a Darlington network, we can find the input
impedance Z(s). The problem is now reduced to the realization of a posi-
tive real function. However, the methods of synthesis of pr functions,
which we discussed in Chap. 3, are not useful in this problem because we
require that the whole network be lossless except for the terminating re-
sistance. We need a new method. The realization procedure we shall now
discuss is due to Darlington (35).
Darlington's idea is marvelously simple. Consider again Fig. 6-1. At
this stage it is the driving-point impedance Z(s) which is known. Glance
back at Eq. (1-23), which gives an expression for the driving-point im-
pedance in terms of the z parameters of the lossless network. Using Table
1-2, we can replace \z\ by Zn/yn so that we can rewrite this expression as
y(e\ -
'
ml
. „.
At the far right we have written the impedance in its usual form in
terms of the even and odd part of its numerator and denominator. This
can be rewritten in one of two ways as follows.
H2 1 + ni2/li2
case A
(6-3)
Sec. 6-1 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS 207
Z(s) = ^ j + m'/ni caseB (6-4)
m2 1 + n2/m2
Both these equations look something like Eq. (6-2). We can formally
make the identifications
Cose A Case B
mi ni . .
'" - ^ z" ' m, (a)
We know that mi + ni and m2 + n2 are Hurwitz polynomials, so that
mi/ni and Jn2/n2 (and their reciprocals) are reactance functions. But zn
in Eqs. (6-5) is the ratio of the odd part of one polynomial to the even part
of the other. We have not yet established whether or not this is a realizable
reactance function. We shall now digress in order to do this.
Consider again the bilinear transformation in Eq. (3-17), which is
illustrated in Fig. 3-4. The right half of the Z plane is mapped into the
TF-plane unit circle. When s = ju, Z takes on values in the right half
plane or on the jX axis, and these fall inside, or on the circumference of, the
W-plane unit circle. Thus, if Z(s) is pr, we can write
\W(ju)V < 1 (a)
7 _ (6-6)
where W(s) = ^—^ (b)
We can see that the poles of W(s) are the zeros of Z(s) + 1. These cannot
lie in the right-half s plane, since this would require Re Z(s) to be negative
for a value of s with positive real part.
The converse property is also true. If we had a W(s) which was regular
in the right-half s plane and satisfied Eqs. (6-6), then the Z(s) obtained
from the transformation would be pr [for otherwise Eqs. (6-6) would be
violated, contradicting the assumption].
Using the expression involving m's and n's for Z, we can write W as
W7, . (mi — m2) + (ni — n2) , ..
W(8) = , ; r—;—,—— r W
(mi T m2) 1 (Jii 1 w2y
(6-7)
mt
"ii + ni . .
: „ + 1
z + W2
(mi 'iil) \ifi m/ ^ ,
(m, + m2)2 - (n,
208 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS Sec. 6-1
Now consider the function
Here the odd parts of the two polynomials in Z(s) have been interchanged.
(The subscript stands for mixed.) If we use this function in the trans-
formation of Eqs. (6-6), we shall get a new W function which we shall call
Wm. This function will have the same denominator as W, and the square
of its magnitude for s = ju will be identical with Eq. (6-7b). You can
verify this by carrying out the required operations. Thus Wm will be
regular in the right-half s plane, and its magnitude will be less than 1 ?or
s = ju. Hence Zm(s) is positive real. It follows from this that both mi + n2
and m2 + ni are Hurwitz polynomials. Therefore mi/n2 and m2/ni, and
their reciprocals, are reactance functions.
We have now established that all the functions in Eqs. (6-5) individually
are realizable reactance functions. However, this set is a mixed one in-
volving both the z and y parameters. We need to find zu in order to have a
complete set of parameters. Let us first find an expression for |z|. Two
different expressions will result, depending on whether we use the forms
appropriate for case A or those for case B. Thus
|z| = *U = R 2i casc A (a)
2/22 * (64)
\z\ = R — case B (b)
mi
Using this expression for |z| and Eqs. (6-5) for zn and z22, we can now
find z«.
Zu = Vznz22 —
VR
z = V-(mlm2-n.nt) = V-N(-s-)
Here we have used the notation AT( — s2) for the numerator of the even
part of Z(s), as in Chap. 3.
We can also obtain expressions for i/n and yu, using the relationships
between the y and z parameters. The complete results are tabulated in
Table 6-1.
Consider the expression for Zu. We know that Zu must be a rational
function. This means that the polynomial ±Ar( — s2) must have zeros, in
terms of s2, of even multiplicity only. Since Z(s) is a positive real function.
Sec. 6-1
209
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
Table 6-1
Case A
No pole or zero of Z(s) at s = 0
wii
zn = —
mi
Vu - —
ni
222 m-2
Site = -
R Tl2
zn VWtffl. — n\nl
Vr ~ n,
ni
nin2
Case B
Pole or zero of Z(s) at s = 0
ni
zn = —
n2
zg Tla
R mt
Ttll
2u V — (m,m2 — mnj)
_/7T V-(OT,m,
— nin,)
V/fyij -
»ll
we are guaranteed that any real negative s2 zeros occur with even multi-
plicity. The requirement of a rational zn forces us to demand that all
other zeros occur with even multiplicity also. This statement does not
apply to a zero at the origin because, if s2 is a factor of Ar( —s2), taking
the square root will not lead to an irrational function. For an arbitrary
positive real function there is no guarantee that all the zeros of Ni^—s1)
will be of even multiplicity. The situation is remedied by multiplying
numerator and denominator of Z(s) by a Hurwitz polynomial Po = mo + no
just as we discussed in connection with the Miyata realization in Chap. 3.
Thus
mi + ni w0 + no
Z(8) =
(6-12)
m2 + n2 wo + no
If we now form the revised polynomial N( — s2), we find
N(—s*) = (mjmj — nin2)(tno — n§) (6-13)
It is now clear how to choose the polynomial m% — n\; all the factors
of the original N( — s2) which occur with odd multiplicity will be factors
of ml — n2,. We already know that, to find the Hurwitz polynomial
mo + no from the polynomial m% — nl, we take all the left-half-plane zeros
of the latter and assign them to mo + no.
The question arises as to the significance of the two cases A and B,
When should you use the one or the other? The denominator of zn is
210
Sec. 6-1
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
odd or even, respectively, in cases A and B. Hence the numerator must
be even or odd, respectively, because za is an odd rational function. If
the original N(—s2) has s2 as a factor, then case B will be appropriate,
otherwise case A. In terms of Z(s) this means that case B applies when
Z(s) has a pole or zero at s = 0; otherwise, case A.
To illustrate these results, consider the impedance
7 (8) = s' + « +!
''' S2 + « + 4
JV(-s2) = s4 + 4s2 + 4 = (s2 + 2)2
= v/^VJvT=7) = v^sM12
Zl2
Here N(—s2) does not have a factor s2, so that case A applies. As a second
example, take
s3 + 4s2 + 4s
*2W - s, + 5s' + 8s + 4
tf(-s2) = -s2(«2-4)2
m2 t)s2 + 4
In this case N(—s2) does have a factor s2, so that case B applies. Further-
more it has a negative sign, so that — N is a positive quantity, as it should
be. No auxiliary polynomial is necessary in these two cases.
Let us assume now that the impedance functions under considera-
tion have been augmented by appropriate auxiliary polynomials, so that
N(—s2) (or —N) is a complete square. We now have a complete set of
z or y parameters, and it remains to determine whether this set satisfies
the conditions of realizability of a lossless two-port. These conditions are
that zn and zn must be reactance functions and the residue condition
&ll&22 — A;22 > 0 must be satisfied at all the poles. We have already estab-
lished the first condition. It remains to look at the residue condition.
One way of finding the residue of a rational function is to evaluate the
numerator divided by the derivative of the denominator at a pole of
the function. For the z parameters of case A and case B given in Table 6-1,
we get
Case A Case B
t - —'
^2 ni-0
kn=='
m-O
na - 0
mi-O
(a)
ku =
VR
(b) (6-14)
(c)
Sec. 6-1 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS 21 1
where the primes indicate differentiation with respect to s. These ex-
pressions show that the residue condition is satisfied with the equality
sign at all finite poles. This compact nature of the two-port is an out-
standing characteristic of the Darlington procedure. The formulas we have
used for the residues do not apply to a pole at infinity; hence the residue
condition at infinity must be investigated independently. You can readily
verify the same result for the y parameters.
In Chap. 4 we showed that, at a compact nonzero pole of the z pa-
rameters, |z| = ZnZzz — z?2 will have only a simple pole. By going through
a similar process you can show that, if the z parameters have a compact
pole at infinity, then |z| will be regular there. Now consider again Eq. (6-2)
for the driving-point impedance. If all the poles of the z parameters are
compact, then Z(s) will be regular at these poles on the ju axis. If Z(s)
has a finite nonzero j-axis pole, say, at s = ji#i, then s2 + oft will be a
factor of both m2 and n2 and hence will be a private pole of zn, according
to Table 6-1.
To determine whether the residue condition is satisfied at the pole at
infinity, consider case A in Table 6-1. The residue of ZH at infinity will be
the ratio of the coefficients of the highest-power terms of mi and n2; that
of ZM will be the corresponding ratio of m2 and n2. If both zn and z22 have
a pole at infinity, mi and m2 are of the same degree and they are of higher
degree (by 1) than n2. There are two cases to consider. (1) ni is of the
same degree as n2; then Z(s) is regular at infinity, and the degree of nln2
is lower than the degree of mim2. In this case, looking at the expression for
zu shows that the pole at infinity will be compact. (2) ni is of higher
degree than n2; it will also be of higher degree (by 1) than mi and m-..
Thus Z(s) will have a pole at infinity, and this pole will not be compact.
Similar conclusions follow for case B.
Table 6-1 shows that in case B the z and y parameters consist of the
ratio of an odd to an even polynomial. Superficially, then, it would appear
that s = 0 will be a zero of these functions, and not a pole. However, in
case B, Z(s) has a pole or a zero at s = 0. This means that the constant
term in either the denominator or the numerator of Z(s) will be missing.
Thus either m2 or mi will have a factor s2. Suppose it is m2; then, instead
of having a zero at s = 0, the z parameters will have a pole there. Let us
examine the residue condition in this case. We can write
i i . 2 _ "" /.*
fCn/L22 ~~~ .^l2 — '^ *^
>?i'2
mi-O
Rmim2l
mi = 0
212 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS Sec. 6-1
At all the other zeros of m2 this reduces to zero. However, since m2 has a
factor s2, m2 has a factor s. Hence the above result will be nonzero. Writing
we shall find
I. I. !.2 _ fi'"l(0)
In a similar manner suppose that m< has a factor s2. Then, evaluating
the residue condition for the y parameters, we shall find that there is a
noncompact pole at s = 0.
In summary: (1) If Z(s) has a pole at s = 0, the z's have a noncom-
pact pole there. (2) If Z(s) has a zero at s = 0, the y's have a noncompact
pole there. (3) If Z(s) has neither a pole nor a zero at s = 0, then both
the z's and the y's will have a compact pole there. The same statements are
true if we replace the point s = 0 by the point s = «». (See Sec. 6-5.) .
We can summarize the discussion in this section as follows: The
squared magnitude of the transfer impedance, |Zu(jw)|2, of a resistance-
loaded lossless two-port is specified. This implies the real part of the
driving-point impedance. The driving-point impedance Z(s) is constructed
from the real part by the Gewertz or Bode procedure. From this the
z parameters of the two-port are constructed. It is guaranteed that these
are compact at all the poles except possibly the pole at infinity and the
pole at the origin. The pole at infinity will be compact if Z(s) is regular
there. If Z(s) has any j-axis poles, these will be private poles of zn.
An exactly analogous procedure can be carried out, starting with the
driving-point admittance. An expression for Y(s) in terms of the y pa-
rameters will be the same as Eq. (6-2), with y's replacing z's and G replacing
R. It is
(6-15)
A development similar to the one just presented will again lead to Table
6-1, but with the z's and y's interchanged.
At this point it will probably be worthwhile to illustrate some of the
ideas we have been discussing. Suppose that we are to find the lossless
two-port realizing a given \Zu(ju)\2 when terminated in a unit resistance.
The given function is
This is equal to the even part of Z(s) when we replace w2 by — s2. Hence
l| _ <l2 I _ o2
w r f JV J.I 1C ,„ | -
(~s' ~ 1 + s2 + s4 = (1 + s + s2)(l - s + s2) l
Sec. 6-2 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS 21 3
The denominator is easily factored and the left-half-plane poles of U( — s2)
found. Using the Gewertz or the Bode method, we find Z(s) to be
Our next step is to determine the z parameters according to Table 6-1.
However, N( — s2), the numerator of the given U(-s-), is not a complete
square, as it should be to make Zi2 rational. To make it a complete square,
we multiply numerator and denominator of Eq. (6-17) by 1 — s2. This
reduces to
r/- * - «' 1 - s2 (1 - s2)2
'
The auxiliary polynomial ma + «o is easily found from the factor 1 — s2
to be mo + wo = s + 1, so that the modified Z(s) is
9o -4-1 Q -U 1 9«2 _1_ On I 1
*« = •. + 7+i 7+4 - f + w + 2,+ > (6-20)
Since N(—s2) does not have a factor s2, case A applies. From Table 6-1
we get
o~*> 11 1 a~
(a)
(b) (6-21)
o^o "j~ t*) AC o T A
-v/iv?
•&i2 *^ ^" A o A 3** / \
\/l= ~«r = s(s2 + 2)= ^ ~ -, L °!'
We see that zn = z22//?. With ft = 1 the two-port will be symmetrical.
In such a case we already know a realization procedure in terms of a
symmetrical lattice. There are two transmission zeros on the real axis
so that an unbalanced realization is not possible. The partial-fraction
expansion shows that both poles are compact, as they should be.
6-2. Prescribed insertion ratio
One of the most important problems in network synthesis involves the
realization of a two-port to be inserted between a resistive load and a
physical source with a finite nonzero source resistance, as illustrated in
Fig. 6-2. The function that describes the behavior of the two-port is the
ratio of the load voltage £2 to the source voltage Eo, T(s) = E2/Eo (or its
reciprocal). However, as discussed in Chap. 1, it is sometimes more con-
venient to deal with the insertion voltage ratio, H(s) = E2/Eyi, or the
214 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS See. 6-2
Fig. 6-2. Lossless two-port inserted between source and load.
transmission coefficient, H'(s) = Et2/E%,. The relationship among these
functions, which was given in Eq. (1-40), is repeated here for convenience.
They differ from each other by a multiplicative constant which depends
on the termination. For equal terminations H and H' are equal, and they
are equal to twice T(s). In discussing general procedures for which the
multiplying constant is unimportant, we shall refer to these three functions
interchangeably. The function which is usually prescribed is the insertion
loss, defined as one-half the logarithm of the insertion power ratio. If we
write for the insertion voltage ratio
H(ju) = f1 = f—W-*W (6-23)
then the insertion loss is a. Prescribing the insertion loss amounts to
prescribing the magnitude of H(jw). In a later chapter we shall discuss
the approximation procedure involved in getting an even rational function
in w, which |//(jw)|2 must be, from specifications of the desired loss. For
the moment, let us assume that we have an \H(jni)\2 satisfying the necessary
condition given in Eq. (1-34).
The expression for T(s) in terms of the z parameters of the two-port
involves these parameters in a very complicated way, as shown in Eq.
(1-24). With a given T(s) we shall not be able to recognize the z parameters,
as we did in the last section. However, if we can obtain the impedance
Z(s) from the prescribed \T(jw)\2, we can use the results of the Darlington
procedure to obtain the z parameters of the two-port. Our purpose, then,
is to find the driving-point impedance Z(s) from the prescribed \T(ju)\2.
The necessary steps become clear if we glance at the expressions involving
the insertion ratio, the reflection coefficient and the driving-point im-
pedance first given in Chap. 1. These are repeated here for convenience
Sec. 6-2 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS 21 5
P + ^IJWI'-! (a)
Irfg (b) (6-24)
I-P , .
«, r=nrp
The squared magnitude of the reflection coefficient is determined from
the prescribed insertion power ratio, using the first of these expressions.
We must then determine p(s), whereupon Z(s) follows from the last
expression. Finally Table 6-1 gives the z or y parameters of the two-port.
Let us now consider in detail the procedure we have outlined. By con-
sidering the expression for the voltage transfer function T(s) = E2/Ea as
given in Eq. (1-24), it is easy to establish that it is the ratio of an odd or
even polynomial to a Hurwitz polynomial. Let us write
(6-25)
where Ari2(s) is either even or odd and the minus sign applies when Ar«(s)
is odd. The constant fl2/4/?i is included here in order to simplify subse-
quent expressions. In Eq. (6-24a) let us replace u2 by — s2 and substitute
the last equation. The result will be
p(«)p(-«) = 1 - jjf T(s)T(-s) = 1 =F J^i (6-26)
Now the reflection coefficient can also be written as a ratio of two poly-
nomials,
>« - trf (6-27)
If we consider the expression for p(s) in terms of the input impedance,
we can see that the poles of p(s) are the zeros of the positive real function
Ri -+- Z(s) and, hence, they lie in the left-half « plane. However, its zeros
are the zeros of Ri — Z(s), and consequently they do not necessarily lie
in the left half plane. Thus the numerator polynomial of p(s) is not neces-
sarily Hurwitz.
Using the last equation, we can form the function p(s)p( — s) and equate
it to the preceding equation. Thus
m2r-n2 _ N\2 = m2 - n2 =F Afc
m2 — n2 m2 — n2 m2 — n2
216
Sec. 6-2
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
Starting from a prescribed T(s)T( — s) function in the form of the ratio
of two even polynomials as in Eqs. (6-25), we form the right-hand side of
Eq. (6-28). This gives us p(s)p( —s). From this we need to find p(s). The
denominator presents no new problems: we need to find the Hurwitz
polynomial m + n from the polynomial m2 — n2, whose zeros occur in
quadrantal symmetry. The zeros of the numerator also occur in quad-
rantal symmetry. However, since the zeros of p(s) are not necessarily in
the left half plane, we have some flexibility in choosing them. Any j-axis
zeros of p(s)p( — s) must be divided equally between p(s) and p( — s), and
so there will be no choice in these. There will be a choice in assigning the
complex zeros of p(s)p( —s). From a quadruplet of zeros we can assign
either the right-half-plane pair or the left>half-plane pair to p(s).
Besides the zeros and poles we must choose the multiplying constant
of p(s). Of course, this will be the square root of the multiplying constant
of p(s)p( —s). But we have a choice of the plus sign or the minus sign. A
glance at Eq. (6-24c) shows that a reversal of the sign of p(s) simply inverts
the driving-point impedance function. The network corresponding to one
choice of sign will be the inverse of that corresponding to the second choice
of sign.
Having determined p(s), we now determine Z(s) from Eq. (6-24c).
The result is
(m — mr) + (n — nr) _ mi -f- ni
m,)
Z(s) =
(6-29)
(m + mr) + (n + nr) m2 + n2
We can now use Table 6-1 to calculate the z or y parameters. As a matter
of fact, we can rewrite that table in terms of the even and odd parts of the
numerator and denominator of p(s), which are related to mi, m2, ni, and
n2 through Eq. (6-29). The result is shown in Table 6-2. We have used
Eq. (6-28) to simplify the expressions for Zu and 2/i2. Also, R in Table 6-1
becomes fl2 in Table 6-2.
Table 6-2
CMC A
JVU(«) even
Case B
ATU(«) odd
1
zu"
m - m.
l m + mr
n - n.
Vl l"
l n -f- n.
I
n + n.
Ri n — nr
m -j- Mr
Ri m — m.
"'T^nT
l m — mr
I n -n.
CD"
yn = R, n - nr
m -f- nir
Ira -
R2 m — mr
1
. Vt«
l Ni,
Aru
i
-V,.
ni"
"' n + nr
VftTF.n-n,
m + riir
ini -
Vftft"
There are two very important special cases that are worth considering
separately. An important type of two-port is a symmetrical one. This is
Sec. 6-2 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS 217
(a)
(6-31)
(b)
characterized by zn = 222 or yu = 2/22, and we obviously also require that
Ri = R2. A glance at the table shows that this requirement will be met
only if mT = 0 in case A and nr = 0 in case B. Using this fact in Eq.
(6-28), we get
m2 -n2 = (N*n - n?) Nn even (a)
m2 _ n2 = (-N*l + m*) Nu odd (b)
Finally, putting these into Eq. (6-25b), we get
7W(-«)-4['~(ivf.)'] N"m"
ni^j^i'-fe)'] »-•«
In either case the reciprocal of T(s)T( — s), aside from a constant multi-
plier, is 1 minus the square of an odd rational function of s. If we had used
the insertion ratio instead of T(s), the constant would have been 1.
Using the conditions mr = 0 for case A and nr = 0 for case B in Eq.
(6-29), we find that the driving-point impedance is
Z = Ri , ,—;—'-{; case A, symmetrical (a)
m + (n + nr)' 'J'
V' (6-32)
Z = Ri (^ + â„¢j _|_ " i case B> symmetrical (b)
These expressions show that, for a symmetrical network, either the even
parts (case A) or the odd parts (case B) of the numerator and denominator
of the driving-point impedance are the same.
Another type of important two-port is the one we shall label anti-
metrical (Darlington called this an "inverse-impedance network"). The
distinguishing characteristic of this two-port is the fact that the open-
circuit input impedance at one port is the reciprocal, with respect to R1R2,
of the short-circuit impedance at the other port. That is,
*y = ^ = RlR2
2/22 I/ll
Using Table 6-2, this equation leads to
R1R2 ^-r^ = fli^ case A (a)
n + nT
R1R2m T â„¢r = R1Rl case B (b)
(6-33)
m + m.
These equations can be satisfied only if nr = 0 in case A and m, = 0 in
case B. With these conditions substituted into Eq. (6-28), we can solve
for m2 — n2. Finally, using this result in Eqs. (6-25), we shall get
21 8 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS Sec. 6-2
4ff,r (m, VI .. ..
-1 + Ar"even (a)
(O~O"x )
1 4ft, r /nrVl „ ,» ^
Al20dd (b)
Thus, for an antimetrical two-port, the reciprocal of T(s)T( — «),. aside
from a constant multiplier, is equal to 1 plus the square of an even rational
function of s. In the case of equal terminations the constant becomes 4,
which is the same as the constant in the symmetrical case.
For the driving-point impedance, we find that Eqs. (6-32) are valid in
the antimetric case as well, except that case A and case B are interchanged.
For these two cases, the symmetrical and antimetrical, we can con-
solidate the above results and write
*(•>'] (6-35)
In the symmetrical case K = 4, # is an odd rational function, and the
minus sign applies. In the antimetrical case K = 4Ri/R2, ifi(s) is an even
rational function, and the plus sign applies.
Let us illustrate some of the topics we have been discussing by means
of an example. Suppose the squared magnitude of a voltage ratio is given
88
Assume that the two terminations are equal. Analytically continuing this
function and putting it in the form of Eq. (6-35), we get
Thus the given function is appropriate for a symmetrical two-port, so
that mr = 0. In addition A'i2(«) = 1, and n, = s3. Hence, aside from a
choice of sign, the numerator of p(s) is determined. It remains to deter-
mine the denominator. Formally, using Eq. (6-26), we get
p(«)p(-«) = 1 - 4T(«m-«) = 1 - r-L^; = ~^-s (6-38)
1 o I ~~ s
Hence the numerator of p(s) is either 's3 or — s3. To find the denominator,
we must find the factors of 1 — s« and assign all the left-half-plane factors
to p(s). In this simple case the factors are easily found.
1 - s« = [(1 + «)(! + s + «')][(! - «)(! - s + s2)] (6-39)
Finally „(.) = . . (6-40)
Sec. 6-2
219
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
Using this, we can form Z(s) and the z and y parameters. The results are
s3 + 2s2 + 2s + 1 =F s3
Z(s) = ft,
zn =
s3 + 2s2 + 2s + 1 ± s1
„ 2s2+1
s3 + 2s ± s3
zi2
ft,
s3 + 2s ± s
2/n = 2/22 =
+1
ft, s3 + 2s =F s3
2/i2 ~
(a)
(b) (6-41)
(c)
+ 2s
If we choose n, = «', the y parameters will simplify, while if we choose
n, = — s3, the z parameters will simplify. Thus
nr = «'
11
2/i2 = ~
nr = —
ft,,
Zi2 =
In this simple case the realization is obtained by recognizing these expres-
sions as the y and z parameters of a symmetrical pi and symmetrical tee,
respectively. The result is shown in Fig. 6-3.
Ri 2R«
(a) (b)
Fig. 6-3. Realization of numerical example.
This figure serves to point out a practical consideration in the choice
of the sign of p(s). The realization in part (a) of the figure is desirable
because of the shunt capacitances at the input and output. These capaci-
tances can be adjusted to take account of any stray capacitances in the
physical realization. We can always guarantee a shunt capacitance at the
input terminals whenever the reflection coefficient has a magnitude of
unity at infinity. This possibility becomes clear from a consideration of
Eq. (6-24c). If the plus sign is chosen for p(s), then p(«) = +1 and so
220
Sec. 6-3
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
Z(s) has a zero at infinity, which is realized as a shunt capacitance. On
the other hand, choice of the minus sign will cause a pole of Z(s) at infinity.
6-3. Cauer realization oF lossless two-ports
In the previous two sections we discussed the procedures for obtaining
a complete set of z or y parameters of a lossless two-port starting from a
prescribed \Zu(ju)\2 or |yi2(jw)|2 or \T(ju)\2. We are now faced with the
problem of realizing a lossless two-port when a realizable set of z or y
parameters is given. The procedure we shall discuss in this section is due
to Cauer (32).
Suppose we are given a set of three rational functions, zn, ZM and ZK,
all of whose poles are simple and lie on the ju axis. The residues kn and
fc22 are positive, but the residues ki2 are not necessarily positive. Neverthe-
less, the residues satisfy the condition fcnfc22 — fc?2 > 0. We have already
shown that these conditions are necessary if zn, ZM, and Zu are to be the
z parameters of a lossless two-port. Our present purpose is to show that
these conditions are sufficient as well. We do this by constructing a two-
port from the given functions.
Cauer's realization procedure was developed as an extension of Foster's
synthesis of reactance functions. The first step in the Foster synthesis is
to expand a given reactance function in partial fractions. Each term in
the expansion is realized as a component network, the over-all network
being the series or parallel connection of these components. In the present
case we have not one function but three. Again we expand each one in
partial fractions. The poles lie at zero, at infinity, or at finite points on
the ju axis. We can write the partial-fraction expansion of a typical set
of z parameters as
r 2fc<,v«
zn
-
R2
zi2
kj$_
s
fciT's
w?
2k® s
(6-42)
/?2 is the terminating resistance. The brackets merely serve to group the
terms having the same poles and have no other significance. Only one pair
of finite j-axis poles has been explicitly shown; any more such poles merely
add to the complexity of the algebra but do not affect the procedure in
any way.
Sec. 6-3 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS 221
In case zn = ZM the two-port can be realized as a symmetrical lattice.
We have already discussed this case and the possibility of obtaining an
unbalanced equivalent of the lattice. Let us now consider the general
case. If we can realize the parameters in each of the brackets as a two-
port, the complete realization can be obtained as a series connection of
these components. You will remember that in Chap. 5 we discussed the
fact that a series connection of unbalanced two-ports may require ideal
transformers. Keeping this in mind, consider Fig". 6-4, in which Z is a
capacitance, an inductance, or an antiresonant circuit and the transformer
is ideal. The z parameters of the two-port are given in the figure.
Zn = £t
za = n'Z
zu = nZ
if one dot
position is
reversed.
Fig. 6-4. Component two-port for compact pole.
We see that the sign of zu will depend on the relative winding directions
of the transformer windings. Alternatively, we may, by convention,
always take the dots as shown in the figure but consider the turns ratio n
to be an algebraic quantity. Thus a negative turns ratio will mean that
one of the dots should be reversed.
In order to discuss all three of the poles of Eqs. (6-42) simultaneously,
let g(s) represent one of the following three functions:
g(s) = { (a)
O
g(s) = s (b) (6-43)
*« = *T3 («>
The parameters in any one of the brackets in Eq. (6-42) can now be rep-
resented as
zn = A-n0(s) (a)
zn = fc2tf(s) (b) (6-44)
«U = fcl20(s) (c)
If these parameters are to be realized by the two-port in Fig. 6-4, they
should be equal to the corresponding ones given in the figure. Thus
222
Sec. 6-3
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
kng(s) = Z
fatf(s) = n2Z
kug(s) = nZ
By taking the ratio of these last equations in pairs we find
(a)
(b) (6-45)
(c)
/.-,
= n'
in
hn
r- = 71
Kit
(a)
(b)
(6-46)
For these two values of n to be equal, we must have knkn — fc?2 = 0. This
requires all the poles of the z parameters to be compact.
For the Darlington network we showed that all the poles of the z param-
eters, except possibly the poles at infinity and zero, will be compact. Thus
we see that the present procedure will apply. The case of a possible non-
compact pole will be discussed shortly. Hence a series connection of three
networks like that in Fig. 6-4 will realize Eqs. (6-42) when all the poles are
compact. This realization is shown in Fig. 6-5.
Kig. 6-5. Cauer realization.
The value of n for each component two-port is computed from Eqs.
(6-46). You can see that the sign of n for a particular transformer will be
the same as the sign of kn for the component two-port. In case the original
z parameters have more poles, there will be one additional component two-
port for each pair of j'-axis poles.
The realization we have obtained is not very appealing because of the
presence of the ideal transformers. However, note that, except for the
Sec. 6-3 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS 223
case of the pole at zero, which requires just a capacitance, the other trans-
formers have one side shunted with an inductance. Figure 6-6(a) shows
(a) Ideal (b) Perfect
Fig. 6-6. Perfect transformer and its equivalent.
an ideal transformer with a shunt inductance LI on one side. From the
second pair of terminals this looks like an inductance n2Li. But this is
precisely the relation between the primary and secondary inductances of
a perfect (unity coupling) transformer. Hence this figure is equivalent to
the perfect transformer shown in part (b) of the figure. Thus the ideal
transformers in Fig. 6-5, together with their shunt inductances, can be
replaced by physical transformers having unity coupling coefficient and
a primary inductance equal to the corresponding shunt inductance. This
leaves only one ideal transformer in the realization.
There would be no need for even this ideal transformer, which is asso-
ciated with the pole at zero, if the corresponding n were equal to unity.
For this to be true, Eqs. (6-46) show that we must have kn = fc22 = feU for
the pole at zero. So far, we have behaved as if the terminating resistance
had a value of 1 ohm. Let us return to Eqs. (6-42), keeping R2 arbitrary.
Equating the first terms in the three equations after multiplying the
second and third one by R2 and V7^, respectively, we shall get
ft = fr «^7)
If the pole at zero is compact, this value of R2 is also equal to fen/fc22.
If this were the termination presented to the two-port, the ideal trans-
former could be eliminated. However, for a terminating resistance of 1
ohm to appear as the value given in this equation will require an ideal
transformer at the output. The secondary-to-primary turns ratio of this
transformer must be the square root of the reciprocal of the value of R2 in
Eq. (6-47). But this is precisely the turns ratio of the transformer we just
eliminated, according to Eq. (6-46b). Thus the net effect has been to
remove the ideal transformer from the interior of the network and to
place it at the output.
224
Sec. 6-3
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
Let us briefly summarize the procedure to be followed in this realiza-
tion of a lossless two-port when the three z parameters are specified:
1. Expand the z-parameters in partial fractions.
2. Compute the transformer turns ratio for each component two-port,
using Eq. (6-46b). The ideal transformer belonging to the pole at zero is
moved to the output.
3. Compute the value of the capacitances from
pole at s = 0
^' = ow« poles at s = ±j
4. Compute the value of the inductances from
Ltx = fciT* pole at oo
LIi = —\f- poles at s =
Wj
The complete realization for any number of finite poles, in addition to
poles at zero and infinity, is shown in Fig. 6-7.
Fig. 6-7. Cauer realization of lossless two-port.
Up to this point we assumed that the z parameters with which we were
dealing were obtained from a given magnitude squared function so that
the poles were compact. It may happen that a set of z parameters arises
in a different manner so that all the poles may not be compact. In other
words, we may have knkn — fc?2 > 0 at some of the poles. The method
Sec. 6-3 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS 225
just discussed can still be used with some modification. We can assume
that the excess in the residue condition is due to an excess in fcn from the
2ll = (.4 + })Z
ZM = n2Z
Ziz — nZ
O
Ideal
Fig. 6-8. Component two-port for noncompact pole.
value needed to make the pole compact. Consider the component two-port
shown in Fig. 6-8. Instead of Eqs. (6-46), we shall have
&22 n2 / \
*-**
from which we find
kiikn - A& = Ak2i2 > 0 (6-49)
The first two steps of the previous procedure for compact poles will
remain unchanged. Before proceeding to the third step we must determine
the value of A at each pole. This is accomplished with the aid of Eq.
(6-48a). The fraction of the total residue kn at each pole that belongs to
the shunt branch in Fig. 6-8 is I/(.A + 1). To compute the element values
in step 4, then, the same relationships can be used if kn is replaced by
kn/(A + 1).
The complete realization will look like Fig. 6-5 except that there will
be additional elements in series with the input port representing the
excess of the residues of zn. This is shown in Fig. 6-9. If the pole at infinity
is not compact, then there will be an inductance in series with the input
port. If we add a fraction of this inductance to the primary inductances
of each perfect transformer, the coupling of each will be reduced from
unity. In such a case, except for the transformer at the output, this
realization requires only physical transformers with less than perfect
coupling (in addition to inductance and capacitance) and, hence, loses
some of its objectionable properties.
A completely analogous procedure could be followed if a set of three
y parameters were specified. Again these would be expanded into partial
fractions and a grouping into components made. The realization would
be obtained as a parallel combination of the component two-ports. Perfect
226
Sec. 6-4
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
Fig. 6-9. Cauer realization for noncompact poles.
transformers would again be involved. As a matter of fact, from a given
set of z parameters we could construct the corresponding y parameters,
using the relations in Table 1-1. Even though the two-port realization is
z-compact, it may not be ^-compact. Thus, although the transformers in
the first realization are perfect, those in the second realization need not be.
The details of the realization of a set of y parameters are left to you.
The realization procedure ive have just discussed constitutes a
sufficiency proof for the realizability of a set of z or y parameters which
satisfy the necessary conditions stated at the beginning of this section.
However, it is not a desirable realization both from the point of view of
network structure and because of the necessity of such a large number of
transformers.
6-4. Darlington realization of a lossless two-port
In the previous section we discussed a realization procedure which
showed that a given set of three z or y parameters satisfying necessary
conditions of realizability can always be realized. However, the realization,
at best, needs as many physical transformers as there are pairs of poles.
At worst, these transformers must be perfectly coupled, except for one
at the output, which must be ideal.
An alternative realization has been given by Darlington (35). The
procedure is an extension of the ladder-development idea discussed in
Chap. 5. The starting point is the input impedance of the resistance-
loaded lossless two-port. The transmission zeros of the two-port are the
Sec. 6-4
227
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
same as the zeros of the even part of Z(s), as clearly seen in Table 6-1.
Suppose that all the transmission zeros lie on the ju axis. We know that,
when only two z parameters are specified (say, z22 and zu), a ladder
realization can be obtained by the zero-shifting technique. However,
when all three z parameters are prescribed, as in the present case, a ladder
realization may not be possible even though all the transmission zeros lie
on the ju axis. This will be clear if you recall that we had no control over
the far-end impedance, say, zn, when using the zero-shifting procedure.
In addition to this consideration is the fact that there may also be
other transmission zeros, not on the ju axis. Darlington's procedure,
which we shall now discuss, utilizes more complicated sections, other than
series or shunt branches, to realize the transmission zeros. Four types of
section are needed; these are shown in Fig. 6-10. The branches in the
(a) Type A
Perfect
(b) TypeB
Perfect
(c J Type C (d) Type D
Fig. 6-10. Darlington canonic sections.
first two types consist of single inductance or capacitance, or series-tuned
circuits or parallel-tuned circuits. The third type of section is a Brune
section, while the fourth type is a generalization of this. The type C
section realizes transmission zeros on the ju axis and on the real axis (see
Prob. 3-26), while type D sections realize complex zeros.
Starting from a given Z(s), we know that sections of type A and type
B can be removed to realize poles and zeros of Z(s) on the ju axis. After
all such poles and zeros have been removed (including any at zero and
infinity), we are left with a positive real function. The even part of this
228
Sec. 6-4
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
function will have three types of zeros: real, imaginary, and complex. A
typical even part will be
(If the real and complex zeros are not initially double, we use surplus factors
to achieve this form.)
We must now show that removal of a type C section with appropriate
element values will leave an impedance of lower rank and with an even part
having the same zeros as before, except for a pair of imaginary ones or a
pair of real ones which are realized by the section. Finally we must show
that removal of a type D section will leave an impedance of still lower
rank and with an even part which is missing a quadruplet of complex
zeros. Successive removals of such sections will reduce the rank of the
original impedance to zero, and the result will realize all the transmission
zeros.
We have already seen in Chap. 3 that removal of a type C (Brune)
section will leave an impedance of lower rank. We need to show that the
even part of the remainder function will have the same zeros as the original
function (except for the pair realized).
Let Z(s) in Fig. 6-11 be a positive real function whose even part, has
at least one pair of zeros on the ju axis.
L,L, + L,L> + L2L2 = 0
Fig. 6-11. Removal of type C section.
If we solve for Zi(s) in terms of Z directly from the figure, we shall get
1
(6-5!)
Z(s) - sLi
Recall from the discussion of the Brune realization in Chapter 3 that
is chosen to produce a zero of Z — sLi at s = juo. Hence, writing
m, + n,
Sec. 6-4 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
we see that both the odd and even parts of the numerator on the right m^
have the factor s2 + wo-
Now let us rewrite Eq. (6-51) as the ratio of two polynomials, using
Eq. (6-52). The result is
+ [(L2Cs2+l)n2-sC(mi-Lisn2)]
(6-53)
The m's and n's belong to Z(s). After considerable algebraic manipulation,
we shall find the even part of this expression to be
"12 ~
The numerator is the same as that of the even part of Z(s). However, we
can show that each term in parentheses in the denominator has a factor
s2 + wo- To see this, remember that Z(s) — sLi has this factor so that its
reciprocal has a pole at s = jua. Return to Eq. (6-51). In the denominator
of the first term L2 is chosen so that this pole is completely subtracted,
leaving a result which is regular at s = juo. Let us write an expression
for that denominator, using Eq. (6-52) and the value of w2,.
1 sC _ _ ml -f n? _ sC
Z — LIB s'L2C + 1 (mi — sLin2) + (ni — sLim2) s2L2C + 1
(mi — sLin2) + (ni — sLi?re2)
We have already established that each term in the denominator has the
factor s2 + wo- Hence, since the entire expression is to be regular at
s = juo, each term in the numerator must also have this factor. But these
terms are the same as those in the denominator of Eq. (6-54), which
proves the statement we made.
We see, then, that a factor (s2 + wo)2 will cancel from the numerator
of Eq. (6-54). This shows that the even part of the terminating impedance
Zi(«) has the same zeros as the even part of the original impedance,
except for the double zeros at s2 = — W0, which are realized by the type C
section.
The previous argument will be unchanged if we set W0 = — a2. Hence
the type C section will realize a pair of zeros on the real axis as well. Since
the product L2C of the shunt-branch elements in Fig. 6-11 is equal to l/wo,
the condition «o = — o2 will require L2 or C to be negative. However, a
230 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS See. 6-5
negative L2 does not cause any difficulty. You can easily show that the
inductance tee network of the type C section is equivalent to a perfectly
coupled transformer in this case, as well as when L\ or L3 is negative. In
the present case one of the winding directions will be reversed.
We must go through a similar process to show that a type D section
will realize a quadruplet of complex transmission zeros, leaving an im-
pedance of reduced rank whose even part has the same zeros as the original
one except for the quadruplet. This is a straightforward procedure, but
the algebra becomes extremely laborious. The details are left to you as
an exercise.
In this fashion an arbitrary positive real function will be realized as
a lossless two-port, consisting of a cascade connection of the four types of
section, terminated in a resistance. In view of the fact that the input
impedance of such a two-port can be uniquely formed from a given set of
three z parameters, the Darlington procedure constitutes an alternative
general realization technique when all three z parameters are specified.
Whereas the Cauer technique requires perfectly coupled transformers in
every case, the Darlington synthesis may avoid transformers in certain
fairly important cases. (We shall discuss these in the next section).
Furthermore, since the transmission zeros are realized separately by
separate portions of the over-all network, adjustments of the element
values of one section in a practical realization can be made without
affecting the alignment of the other sections.
6-5. Low-pass ladder realization
Having discussed general realization techniques in the previous two
sections, let us now discuss some special cases, which nevertheless are
important. Let us restrict ourselves to transmission zeros lying on the
ju axis only. Generally it will not be possible to obtain a ladder realization
(type A and B sections only) when all three z parameters are prescribed
even though all transmission zeros are on the ju axis. However, we have
already seen in Chap. 3 that, when the even part of an impedance (and,
hence, Zn) has zeros only at^zeTOT-orinfinltyy-orieth,Tt ladder realization*
caiTbe75btainect^The arrn^corrsistmgef-single L's and (?'*. Thus; to obtain
a ladder realization, it is sufficient that the transmission zeros He at zero
or infinity. But this is not a necessary condition. In this section we shall
^ttiscTissfiiecessary and sufficient conditions for the realization of special
kinds of ladder networks.
The words passband, low-pass, high-pass, etc., have an intuitive
Sec. 6-5 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS 231
significance in filter theory. In image parameter filter theory a passband
is said to exist when the image attenuation is zero and the image impedance
is purely real. Of course, the actual attenuation (not the image attenu-
ation) is not zero in the passband. It seems intuitively true that the
character of a response will not be drastically changed if the poles and
zeros of the z parameters are displaced slightly from the positions demanded
by the above definitions. Thus, for slight changes in the locations of the
critical points, we should expect a low-pass network to remain low-pass.
We do not wish to restrict the significance of a passband to filter
functions alone. The magnitude of the transfer function or its angle may
be arbitrarily prescribed over an interval of the ju axis. We shall call this
interval the passband no matter what the shape of the prescribed function.
Very roughly, the property that distinguishes a low-pass network from
another is that low-frequency sinusoids are transmitted (with their
amplitude or angle modified in a prescribed way), while high-frequency
sinusoids are not (or are transmitted much less). Thus a low-pass two-
port should have no transmission zero at s = 0. Although it is desirable
to have a transmission zero at infinity, this is not necessary. That is, some
transmission can be tolerated at infinite frequency, but this transmission
should be small compared with the transmission at low frequencies.
In the above discussion no restriction is made on the structure of the
two-port. If we restrict ourselves to a ladder network, we can make more
precise definitions of low-pass and high-pass. In a ladder network there
is only a single path from the input port to the output. Hence, for a low-
pass ladder, if we are to have no transmission zero at s = 0, we must
require that the series arm impedances have a zero at s = 0. This means
there should be no series capacitance in the series branches. Thus, the
series branches can consist of a single inductance or of any reactive net-
work shunted by an inductance, e.g., an antiresonant circuit. Also, we
must require that the shunt arm impedances have a pole at s = 0. This
means there should be no parallel inductance in the shunt branches. Thus,
the shunt branches can consist of a single capacitance, or any reactive
0 'TJfflr*-
-o o
-o o-
-o o-
(a) Series arms (b) Shunt arms
Fig. 6-12. Series and shunt arms of low-pass ladder.
232
Sec. 6-5
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
network in series with a capacitance, e.g., a resonant circuit. Some simple
permissible branches are shown in Fig. 6-12.
Based on this discussion, we can give the following definition: A low-
pass ladder is one that has no transmission zero at s = 0 and zn or yn (or both)
have at least a simple zero at infinity. We have already seen a special case
when all the transmission zeros are at infinity; the ladder has only in-
ductance in the series arm and only capacitance in the shunt arm, each
element realizing one of the transmission zeros.
Two other special low-pass ladders are shown in Fig. 6-13. The first
is called a mid-series ladder; it has the characteristic that all the series
(^(i"HLHfJr
o o-
(a) (b)
Fig. 6-13. Mid-series and mid-shunt low-pass ladders.
branches are single inductances. Thinking in terms of the Cauer ladder
development, the_serie^ranche£serye_to shift the zeros by partial removal
of^an impedancejol^at infinity. The transmission ^erosare then realized
by the shunt branches.
The second ladder is the dual of the first and is called a mid-shunt
ladder. It is characterized by each shunt branch being a single capacitance.
The shunt capacitances serve jo shift the zeros by partially removing an
admittanee^pole at infinity. The transmission zeros are then realized by
the series branches. The general low-pass ladder is a mixed mid-series
and mid-shunt type.
Similar to the definition of a low-pass ladder, we can give the following
definition: A high-pass ladder is one that has no transmission zero at infinity
and zx2 or yu (or both) have at lead a simple zero ats = 0. Each branch of a
high-pass ladder will be the inverse of a branch of a low-pass ladder. Mid-
series and mid-shunt high-pass ladders can also be defined in a similar way.
Darlington (35) in his classical work gave a sufficient condition for
the realization of low-pass ladders. This condition requires all the trans-
mission zeros to lie on the ju axis and farther from the origin than all the
poles of the z parameters. However, this condition is not necessary. It
remained for Fujisawa (50) to state necessary and sufficient conditions
for the realization of such ladders. We shall now discuss these conditions.
Sec. 6-5 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS 233
Consider the consequences of the definition of a low-pass ladder."
Since there is to be no transmission zero at s = 0, Table 6-1 shows that
case A will apply. A glance at the table shows that both the z and y
parameters will have a compact pole at s = 0. This means that the input
impedance Z(s) can have no pole or zero at s = 0. The zeros of the even
part of Z(s) must all lie on the ju axis since these are the transmission
zeros. Hence we can write
Ni-s1) = mwi - nxni = tf(s2 + w2)V + <Af . . . (s2 + «1)2 (6-56)
Let us examine various types of impedance function to determine
whether their even part can have this form. We see that the degree of
N(—si) is a multiple of 4. We quickly find that, when the numerator and
denominator of Z(s) are of the same degree, either the degree of Ar( — s2) is
not a multiple of 4 or ziu and yn both have a pole at infinity. We conclude
that the input impedance of a low-pass resistance-loaded ladder cannot
be of the same degree in numerator and denominator. It remains to
consider impedances having a pole or zero at infinity.
A glance at the expression for Z(s) in terms of the z parameters will
show that there are two ways in which Z(s) can have a pole on the ju axis:
(1) The z's have a noncompact pole or (2) zn has a private pole. Since all the
poles of the z parameters except the one at infinity are compact, Z(s) can
have no pole on the finite ju axis due to the first reason, but it may have
one at infinity. From the relationships between the z and y parameters
we can determine that all the y's will have a zero at infinity if the z's have
a noncompact pole there. Thus, even though eu has a pole at infinity,
t/12 will have a zero there, satisfying the condition for a low-pass ladder.
In this case Table 6-1 will show that wii and m2 are both of lower degree
than ni so that the highest power of s in the numerator of Z(s) is odd. For
the second alternative, if zn has a private pole at infinity, the relationships
among z's and y's show that 2/22 will also have a private pole at infinity.
Thus both zu and yn will have a zero at infinity, and the condition for a
low-pass ladder is satisfied. Again Table 6-1 will show that in this case
both ni and n2 are of lower degree than m\ so that the highest power in
the numerator of Z(s) is even.
Let us examine N(—s1) when Z(s) has a pole at infinity and the highest
power in the numerator is even. The simplest case is a second-degree
polynomial over a first degree.
_. , s2 + Qis + Qo , v
8 + b" (6-57)
N(-s*) = (6„ - aOs2 + aob„ (b)
234 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS Sec. 6-5
Since N is only quadratic, it cannot have a double pair of roots on the
finite ju axis. This means that we must have at = bo.
The next higher-order impedance of this type will be a fourth-degree
polynomial over a third degree. In this case N(—s2) will be of the sixth
degree, and so it can have only one pair of double zeros on the ju axis.
Again the coefficient of the highest power of s in N must vanish. This co-
efficient is equal to the difference between a*_i and bk-i, where k is the
degree of the numerator. Continuing in this fashion, we shall always find
that, when the highest power in the numerator of Z(s) is even, the coefficients of
the next to the highest power in the numerator and the denominator are equal
(assuming the highest powers are written with the same coefficient). You
can verify this fact for higher-order impedances.
For Z(s) to have a zero at infinity, Y(s) must have a pole. In this
case Eq. (6-15) shows that either (1) the y parameters have a noncompacl
pole at infinity or (2) yn has a private pole at infinity. By reasoning similar
to the above, we find that, in the first case, all the z's will have a zero at
infinity and the highest power in the denominator of Z(s) will be odd.
When yn has a private pole at infinity, so does z22 and the highest power
in the denominator of Z(s) is even. In both cases the condition for a low-
pass ladder is satisfied.
The preceding discussion, by the very nature of the subject under
consideration, has involved a considerable amount of detail and may have
appeared laborious. Let us summarize the pertinent results for the purpose
of consolidating our ideas.
Low-pass ladder—Definition:
1. No transmission zero at s = 0.
2. Either z]2 or yu (or both) has at least a simple zero at infinity.
Consequences:
1. Z(s) has neither a pole nor a zero at s = 0.
2. Z(s) has either a pole or a zero at infinity.
3. With pole of Z(s) at infinity:
(a) If degree of numerator is even, then:
(1) Zn and yn have a private pole at infinity.
(2) Coefficients of next to highest-power terms in numerator
and denominator are equal.
(b) If degree of numerator is odd, then:
(1) z parameters have a noncompact pole at infinity;
y parameters have a zero at infinity.
Sec. 6-5 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS 235
(2) Coefficients of next to highest-power terms in numerator
and denominator may or may not be equal. If they are
equal, this implies that Zn and z22 have a semiprivate pole at
infinity.
4. With zero of Z(s) at infinity:
(a) If degree of denominator is even, then:
(1) J/n and z22 have a private pole at infinity.
(2) Coefficients of next to highest-power terms in numerator
and denominator are equal.
(b) If degree of denominator is odd, then:
(1) y parameters have a noncompact pole at infinity;
z parameters have a zero at infinity.
(2) Coefficients of next to highest-power terms in numerator
and denominator may or may not be equal. If they are
equal, this implies that yn and yn have a semiprivate pole
at infinity.
The consequences listed under 3(b)(2) and 4(b)(2) in this summary
were not developed in the preceding discussion. Demonstration of their
validity is left to you as an exercise.
From the discussion just completed we find that a necessary con-
dition for the driving-point impedance Z(s) of a low-pass ladder network
is: Z(s) has a pole or a zero at infinity. An additional useful condition
can be stated, utilizing the definition of a low-pass ladder. Looking at
Table 6-1, we can state that, since zu or yu must have at least a simple
zero at infinity, then ni or n2 (or both) must have at least one more zero
(counting the one at s = 0) than there are finite transmission zeros.
Both the conditions just given are necessary for the realizability of a
low-pass Darlington ladder, but they are not sufficient. On the other hand,
we mentioned that a sufficient condition is for all the transmission zeros
to be greater in magnitude than all the finite zeros of n2, but this condition
is not necessary. It remained for Fujisawa to discover a condition which,
combined with the others discussed above, forms a set of necessary and
sufficient conditions. We shall list all these conditions for easy reference.
Necessary and suff,cient conditions for the realizability of a low-pass resistance-
terminated lossless ladder network:
1. Transmission zeros [zeros of N(—s2)] restricted to the ju axis.
2. Z(s) has a pole or zero at infinity.
3. ni or n2 (or both) have at least one more zero than there are finite
transmisSion zeros.
236
Sec. 6-5
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
4. Let the transmission zeros be denoted s, = j«i, and write
ui < w2 < . . . < w*. Then, if ni satisfies condition 3, any value u,
has at least i zeros of mi between the origin and itself; and if n"
satisfies condition 3, wi has at least i zeros of m2 between the origin
and itself. Stated differently, this condition says that one or both
of the polynomials mi and m2 have at least i zeros on the positive ja
axis which are no larger in magnitude than the transmission zero w,,
for any value of i.
We have yet to prove that the last condition is necessary and that,
given functions satisfying all four conditions, a low-pass ladder can be
realized.
r^nnp-.
°^KTI
4= I
^o
I -C
o
(c)
lit i
Fig. 6-14. Simple low-pass ladders.
Consider the simple low-pass ladders shown in Fig. 6-14. You can
easily show that the realizability conditions are satisfied for these simple
cases. Fujisawa used a proof by mathematical induction to show that the
four conditions which we listed are necessary for realizability. Thus
suppose that the conditions are satisfied for the network shown in Fig.
6-15(a). It suffices to show that the conditions are still satisfied if we
Z(s)
o—»—o
O i——O
-o o
fa)
(b) (c) (d)
Fig. 6-15. Branches of low-pass ladder.
(e)
cascade at the input the other networks shown in the figure. We shall
demonstrate the method when the section in part (d) is cascaded at the
input of the two-port. The procedure will be identical when the other
sections are cascaded.
Sec. 6-5
237
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
Z(s) =
Z'W =
Fig. 6-16. Notation for cascade connection.
m, +
m, + n,
m,' + n,'
m2 + n2
Let us designate by primes the quantities involved after the cascade
connection. The notation is shown in Fig. 6-16. Let wo be the resonant
frequency of the shunt branch. Then
A <S) '-
ks
1
fa
• W2 4" i2
s2 + wg
h Z(s)
S2 + o
o)m, + .
'0 "*i "f" ^i
(s' + W
[n2(s2
(6-58)
and Ar'(-s2) = mi'ni2 - nX = (s2 + w?)2(mim2 - nin2) (6-59)
The shunt branch does not affect the behavior of the network at infinity,
so that the behavior of Z' is the same as the behavior of Z at infinity.
The first two conditions are thus satisfied. If the numerator and de-
nominator of Z' have no common factors, n{ and n£ have one more zero
on the positive ju axis than ni and n2, respectively, and there is one ad-
ditional transmission zero on the positive ju axis, so that condition 3 is also
satisfied. Since the new transmission zero coincides with the new zero of
m(, condition 4 is also satisfied for m{ if it was originally satisfied for mi.
If the numerator and denominator of Z'(s) have a common factor, this
factor must be s2 + w2,, which we can cancel. Then
Z'(8) =
"( — s-) =
+ HI
+
2 '^2 J
mi + n^, (6-60)
(6-61)
Thus conditions 3 and 4 are satisfied in this case also.
The details of the proof when the other sections are cascaded at the
input are left to you.
We have now established that the four realizability conditions are
necessary. It remains to prove that, when a driving-point function is given
satisfying the above four necessary conditions, we can always construct a
low-pass lossless ladder two-port terminated in a resistance which realizes
238
Sec. 6-5
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
the given impedance. In the process of doing this, of course, we must out-
line a realization procedure.
The realization procedure we shall use is again a zero-shifting technique,
but the shifting is consistently done with an impedance or admittance pole
at infinity. Furthermore the order of realization of transmission zeros is
not completely arbitrary because we must ensure that the removal of a
branch leaves an impedance which satisfies the necessary conditions.
To start with, suppose that Z(s) has a pair of conjugate j-axis poles.
We have already shown that this can result only from a private pole of zu.
Hence we can realize this pole as a branch in series with the rest of the
network as shown in Fig. 6-17(a). Since the pole is to be completely re-
(a) (b)
Fig. 6-17. Steps in the realization of a lossless ladder.
moved in the scries branch, this pole of Z(s) will become a transmission
zero. The remaining impedance will be
Z'(«) = Z(s) -
fea
s- +
I ° T "'<I
T ITT ~ 2
S- + Wj)
>>! 2
>12
m+n
ml + n2
(6-62)
and
A<'(-s2) =
(6-63)
(s- + wg)2
In Eq. (6-62) we have divided both numerator and denominator by s2 + <^
because we know that Z'(s) has no pole at s = juo. Z'(s) has the same
behavior at infinity as Z(s). The remaining transmission zeros are on the
ju axis. n£ has one fewer zero on the positive ju axis than n2, but then
there is one fewer transmission zero there also, m? obviously satisfies
condition 4 if m2 does. Thus Z' satisfies the four necessary conditions, and
it is simpler than Z(s).
Next assume that Z(s) has a pair of conjugate j-axis zeros. This is
possible only if yn has a private pole, which can be realized as a resonant
branch in parallel with the input terminals, as shown in Fig. 6-17(b).
Sec. 6-5 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS 239
Following the pattern above, you can show that the remaining impedance
satisfies the necessary conditions.
These two steps have been zero removals. After all finite j-axis poles
and zeros of Z(s) have been exhausted, we come to the necessity of zero
shifting. Suppose that Z(s) has a pole at infinity. We know that this is
possible under two conditions, and we shall treat these separately.
Case A. The highest power in the numerator is even.
Then Zn has a private pole at infinity, which means that there is a
transmission zero at infinity. This pole can be completely removed as a
series inductance whose value is the residue of Z(s) at infinity. You can
see this by looking at Eq. (6-2), which shows that Z(s) —> zn as « ap-
proaches a private pole of zn-
Suppose that we remove an inductance L from Z(s). Then
- Ls = l ~ 2 i ~ 2 = _l (6-64)
m2 + HI m2 + n2
(6-65)
The remaining impedance has the same finite transmission zeros, and so
condition 1 is satisfied. If L is less than or equal to the residue of Z(s) at
infinity, Z'(s) is positive real. In the present case L is equal to the residue
of Z(s) at infinity. Recall that the coefficients of the next to the highest-
power terms in the numerator and denominator must be equal in this case.
This ensures that, when we subtract the entire residue at infinity, Z'(s)
will have a zero there, so that condition 2 is satisfied. The denominator
has not changed, which means that the highest power in the denominator
of Z' is odd, which in turn means that the new y parameters have a non-
compact pole at infinity. Recalling the expression for yu in Table 6-1, we
see that n{ does not satisfy condition 3. However, n% = n2 does, so that
condition 3 is satisfied. Since m£ = m2, condition 4 is also satisfied.
To summarize, when Z(s) has a pole at infinity and the highest power
in the numerator is even, we remove the pole as a series inductance whose
value is equal to the residue of Z(s) at infinity. This shifts a zero of Z'(s)
to the transmission zero at infinity.
Case B. The highest power in the numerator of Z(s) is odd.
Then the z parameters have a noncompact pole at infinity. In this case
Z(s) — > 1/2/n = zn — z?2/Z22 as s approaches a noncompact impedance pole.
Again we remove a series inductance L, but its value will depend on the
transmission zero to which we want to shift. Equations (6-64) and (6-65)
will still apply, but the value of L is still to be determined. The remaining
240
Sec. 6-5
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
impedance, Z'(s), will still have a pole at infinity so that conditions 1 and 2
are again satisfied. Also, n£ = n2 still satisfies condition 3; but now n[
also satisfies this condition since its order is not reduced from that of fii.
So we must determine whether m[ satisfies condition 4. (We already know
that mi = m2 does.) Write
m( = mi — Lsrii = n2 (— — Ls ) = n2(zn — Ls)
(6-66)
Except for common zeros of mi and n2 (if any), the zeros of m'\ will be those
of Zn — Ls. A sketch of a typical zn is shown in Fig. 6-18. The squares
Fig. 6-18. Sketch of - znUu>).
J
indicate the locations of transmission zeros. In this particular case only
two finite transmission zeros are possible on the positive u axis. Notice
that we have made mi satisfy condition 4, but just barely. The value of L
to remove from Z(s) becomes apparent from a consideration of the figure.
If we subtract the solid line with slope L\ from zn, we cause a zero of the
curve to shift to wi. Subtracting the dotted line with slope L2 will cause
another zero of the curve to shift to w2. But the first zero will now move
beyond «i, thus causing condition 4 to be violated. Therefore the value of L
needed is the smallest value that will cause a zero of zn to shift to one of
the transmission zeros. That is, zn should equal Ls, evaluated at one of the
transmission zeros. However, according to Prob. 6-3, the value of Z(s) is
equal to that of zn at a transmission zero. The process is thus clear:
Evaluate
at all the transmission zeros jw;. The value of L desired is
L = minimum L,- (6-68)
Any larger value of L will cause condition 4 to be violated.
L,=
(6-67)
Sec. 6-5 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS 241
When condition 4 is satisfied with a greater margin of safety than in
this illustration, we can relax the choice of L given by the last equation.
Thus, if «i in Fig. 6-18 is moved out beyond the last zero of mi, then we
can use either value of L as computed from Eq. (6-67) without violating
condition 4. This means that the transmission zeros can then be realized
in either order.
Based on this discussion, we can readily appreciate that, the larger the
magnitude of the transmission zeros relative to the magnitude of the zeros
of mi, the greater the flexibility in the order of realization of the trans-
mission zeros. In the limit, when condition 4 is satisfied but with no margin,
as in the illustration, there is a unique order in which the transmission zeros
must be realized. This completes the discussion of zero shifting when Z(s)
has a pole at infinity.
After the completion of the previous step we shall have generated a
zero of Z'(s) on the finite ju axis. This is then removed as a series-resonant
branch in parallel with the rest of the network. However, after the removal
of the inductance in case A (i.e., when the highest power in the numerator
of Z(s) is even), Z(s) (we have dropped the prime since we are treating it
as a fresh impedance) will have a zero at infinity. Furthermore, the y
parameters will have a noncompact pole at infinity. If we take the re-
ciprocal and talk about Y(s), we shall have the exact dual of case B (i.e.,
when the highest power in the numerator of Z(s). is odd). The discussion
there will apply intact merely by an interchange of symbols, y's for z's,
subscripts 1 for 2 on the m's and n'a, and vice versa, C for L. Equations
(6-67) and (6-68) will also apply, with these replacements, so that the value
of shunt capacitance that should be removed is calculated from
,
jUi . (6-69)
C = minimum d (b)
We have seen that the following sequence takes place: If Z(s) has a
pole at infinity and the highest power in the numerator is even, we remove
an inductance equal in value to the residue of Z(s) at infinity. This makes
the remaining impedance zero at infinity. The remaining admittance, then,
has a pole at infinity caused by a noncompact pole of y parameters. We
next remove a shunt capacitance whose value is given by Eqs. (6-69).
Finally the transmission zero is realized as a parallel-resonant branch in
series with the remainder.
There remains one more consideration. When case B is encountered
and a transmission zero is realized by means of a series-resonant branch,
242 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS Sec. 6-5
the remaining admittance will have a pole at infinity. This may be caused
by a private pole of yn. A discussion which is the dual of case A will now
apply, showing that this pole of F(s) is completely removed as a shunt
capacitance. The remaining impedance then will have a pole at infinity due
to a noncompact pole of z's, and we are back to case B.
As an illustration of the realization procedure, consider the following
impedance function:
1 sM-sM-3s2 + 2s + 1
» .»
AT(-s2) = mm - mn, = 4(s2 + §)2 (b)
We first check to determine whether or not this function satisfies the neces-
sary conditions for a low-pass ladder, and we find that it does. (Do this.)
Observe that Z(s) has a pole at infinity and the highest power in the
numerator is even. Thus zn has a private pole at infinity. As we would
expect, the coefficients of the next to the highest-power terms in numerator
and denominator are the same. The residue of Z(s) at infinity is 1/5;
if we subtract an inductance LI = 1/5, we get
1>' "! 5 5s3 +
Zi(s) has a zero at infinity, and the highest power in the denominator is
odd. Hence the y parameters have a noncompact pole at infinity. We need
to remove a shunt capacitance whose value is calculated from Eqs. (6-69).
Since there is only one (positive) transmission zero, we get
„ Fi(J7v2) 5 .,_ __.
Ci - -fa* - 3 (6-72)
<i m (>i2 -\- iw« -t- v\
and F.W = TO - § * - f \',J_ry,lt) (6-73)
We have shifted a zero to the desired location. We now remove this zero
as a pole of Z2(s) = l/F2(s). The residue of Z2(s) at s = 1/V2 is 9/20
so that
//5
Fig. 6-19. Realization of numerical example.
Sec. 6-6
243
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
in parallel with R = 1.
y3(s) is now recognized as a capacitance C =
The complete realization is shown in Fig. 6-19.
This completes the discussion of the realization of low-pass Darlington
ladder networks. Through the appropriate frequency transformation (see
Chapter 9) the same discussion can be applied to high-pass and bandpass
networks as well.
6-6. Complementary networks—constant-resistance filter pairs
In Chap. 5 we discussed two-port realization techniques when only one
of the terminations has a finite nonzero value. The procedures were rela-
tively simple because of the simple expressions relating ZU or Yi2 with the
open-circuit or short-circuit parameters. When both terminations are finite,
the complexity of the procedure increases considerably, as demonstrated
in this chapter.
(a) (b)
Fig. 6-20. Constant-resistance filter pairs.
Consider Fig. 6-20(a), in which a source with its series resistance RI
is to be connected to a unit load resistance through a network in order to
obtain a prescribed E2/Eo function. The dual situation is shown in Fig.
6-20(b). In our previous discussions we have set Zc = 0 and Ye = 0,
respectively. But now suppose that we can find a Ze such that
Z + Zc = K
(6-75)
Then the current Ii will be proportional to Eo so that we may consider
the prescribed function to be E2/Ii = ZVL instead of E2/Eo. The network N
can be found by the methods of Chap. 5. Of course, we still have the task
of realizing the network Nc as well.
Two impedances are said to be complementary when their sum is a constant
(independent of frequency). Thus Z and Zc in Eq. (6-75) are comple-
mentary impedances. A similar definition applies to admittances. Before
continuing the discussion of the present problem let us determine the
244 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS Sec. 6-6
restrictions on two impedances if they are to be complementary. Let Za
and Z6 be the two impedances, and expand them in partial fractions.
Za = Ka + kaxs + ^ + -^- + . . . (a)
O o - si
.. (b) „...
(6-76)
S S — «i
Z6 =
(Ka-
f Kb)
+ (A;flM -f
• kbx)s
, ka
o + KM
1 , kal +
"•6i i
I
s
T
S —
«l
T
/s
If the sum of Za and Zk is to be a constant, there must be no poles on the
right side of the last equation. If either Za or Zk has a pole which is not also
a pole of the other, this pole will appear in the sum. Thus, if two im-
pedances are to be complementary, they must have the same poles. We
anticipated this fact in writing the partial-fraction expansions in Eqs. (6-76).
Looking at the last equation, we can see that the only way in which Za + Z<
can be a constant is for the residues of Za to be the negatives of the residues
of Zk at all the poles. But we know that the residues of positive real
functions are positive at all j-axis poles. This means that Za and Zt can
have no poles on the ju axis, including zero and infinity, if they are to be
complementary.
We established in the previous chapter that, at internal poles, the resi-
dues of RL admittances and RC impedances are positive, while those of EL
impedances and RC admittances are negative. Hence the complement of
an RL impedance is an RC impedance, and the complement of an RL
admittance is an RC admittance.
One other condition must be satisfied if an impedance is to be the
complement of another. Let Za be given, and let Zb be the desired comple-
mentary impedance. We can write
Zt(«) = K - Z.(s)
Re Zb(ju) = K - Re Za( ju)
It is clear that K must be greater than the maximum value of the real
part of Za(jw) for Zb to be positive real.
In summary, we have found that any minimum-reactance impedance
function will have a complement for a suitably chosen value of K. Similarly
any minimum-susceptance admittance function will have a complement.
Let us now return to the problem illustrated in Fig. 6-20(a). Assume
that Zc is the complement of Z. If a function |£V/?o|2 is given, we may
assume that the given function is |Zu(jw)|2 within a constant multiplier.
Sec. 6-6 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS 245
since It is proportional to Eo. Hence this function is equal to the real part
of Z(ju). Since Zc is the complement of Z, for a suitable value of K we
can write
Re Z.0«) = K - Re Z(ju) (6-78)
There is no reason why we cannot consider the complementary network
Nc to be itself a lossless two-port terminated in a resistance. If we designate
the transfer impedance of this complementary network Zi2c, then we shall
have
|Zm(jw)|' = ReZc(>) (6-79)
and, finally, substituting from the previous equation,
|Z,„(jw)|2 = K - |Z12(jw)|2 (6-80)
In this manner, from the given magnitude squared function, we de-
termine both Z]2 and Znc, following which we realize both as lossless two-
ports with a resistance load.
Alternatively, we may contemplate the situation in Fig. 6-20(b) and
consider the given \E2/EB\i function to be |Fu(j«)|2 to within a constant
multiplier because E\ will be proportional to Eo. A discussion similar to
the preceding one will apply, but with Z's replaced by Y's.
Broadly speaking, the transmission properties of the two comple-
mentary networks will be inverse with respect to each other. That is, a
passband of one will correspond to a stopband of the other, and vice versa.
Thus, if network N is a low-pass filter, network Nc will be high-pass. The
combination of the two as in Fig. 6-20(a) or (b) is called a constant-
resistance filter pair.
An additional restriction will exist if we require both N and Nc to be
ladder networks. Suppose that network N is a low-pass ladder. Then, as
we saw in the previous section, the impedance Z must have a pole or a
zero at infinity. However, if we wish to find the complement of Z, a pole
at infinity is not possible. Hence Z must have a zero at infinity. We can
write Z and its complement as
Z(s) = 1 + 6,. + ...+6** (a)
Zc(s) = K - Z(s) (6-81)
m (K - a„) + (Klh - aQj + . . . + (Kbk.^ - a^Qs*-' + Kbks"
1 + bis + . . . + 6*s*
(I.)
If Zc(s) is to be the impedance of a high-pass Darlington ladder, it
must have a zero at s = 0 (see Prob. 6-4). To satisfy this condition, we
must have K = Op. Looking at Z(s) will show that ao is the zero-frequency
246 INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS Stc. 64
value of Z. Since the imaginary part is zero at « = 0, this is also the zero-
frequency value of the real part of Z(ju). We also have the condition that
K must be no less than the maximum value of Re Z(ju). These conditions
can be satisfied simultaneously only if the maximum value of the real part
of Z(ju) occurs" at u = 0. We conclude that a high-low constant-resistance
filter pair both of which are ladders is realizable only if the maximum value of
Re Z(ju) occurs at u = 0. Z is the impedance of the low-pass network.
As an illustration of these ideas, let a given magnitude squared function
be
The realization sought is a double-loaded lossless network. We shall assume
that a realization in the form of Fig. 6-20(b) is to be obtained so that the
given function is considered to be |yi2(ju)|2. The maximum value of the
given function is unity. For the complementary function we shall have
We have already met this particular function once before in the numerical
example in Sec. 6-2. From the results of that example the two transfer
functions can be written
~Yl2(s} = «' + 2«' + 2s + I (a)
(6-84)
Next we form the corresponding y parameters.
(6-85)
2«'+ 1 ...
VK = s(s2 + 2) (b)
01
and — 2/uc = 2 2 . « (a)
(6-86)
The zeros of yu are all at infinity. Hence a low-pass ladder can be obtained
by the Cauer development of yn. Similarly all the zeros of yac are at s = 0,
and so a high-pass-ladder realization can be obtained for the comple-
mentary network. We should expect this result since the maximum value
of the given magnitude squared function does occur at w = 0. The com-
Sec. 6-6
247
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
3/2
1/2
Fig. 6-21. Constant-resistance filter pair.
plete realization is shown in Fig. 6-21. You can carry out the continued-
fraction expansions as an exercise.
PROBLEMS
6-1. The following parameters are given
s(s2 + 3)
(a) zu = 7
Zn =
(s2 + l)(s2 + 6)
17 s(s2 + 2)
20 (s2 + l)(s2 + 6)
«(s2 - 3.45)
Zu (s2 + l)(s2 + 6)
(b) yn =
2/22 =
— 2/12 =
+2
s(sJ
+ 1)
3s!
+2
s(s1
+ 1)
2
s(s2 + 1)
Obtain a lossless two-port realizing each of these sets of parameters.
6-2. An important type of two-port is one that might be termed semi-
symmetrical. It is characterized by zn = Kazn, where Ko is a positive num-
ber. When Ko = 1, this is the symmetrical case. Show that Eq. (6-35) will
still apply in this case, and determine the value of K, the type of function <j3,
and the choice of sign.
6-3. Let Z(s) = (mi + ni)/(m2 + n2) be the driving-point impedance
of a resistance-terminated lossless two-port. Let s = jwo be a transmission
zero, more exactly, a zero of mim2 — n^. Prove that Z(jwo) = zniJox,)
[l/l/u(i«o)]. That is, the value of the driving-point impedance evaluated
at the transmission zero is the same whether the output is terminated, is
short-circuited, or is left open.
6-4. Using the frequency transformation p = 1/s, derive the read-
ability conditions for a high-pass Darlington ladder. By a high-pass ladder
we mean: (1) one that has no transmission zero at infinity, and (2) either
212 or 2/12 (or both) have at least a simple zero at s = 0.
248
INSERTION-LOSS SYNTHESIS
6-5. The following function is the impedance of a resistance-terminated
lossless two-port. Obtain a low-pass ladder realization.
- 6sr + £s« + 28s5 + V-s< + Vs3 + ys2 + 13s + 4
24s« + 10s6 + 88s4 + 33s3 + 58s2 + 18s + 4
6-6. The squared magnitude of the transfer impedance for a low-pass
Darlington network is prescribed as follows:
Find the transfer impedance of the complementary network, and realize
the filter pair.
6-7. The square of the transfer voltage ratio, T(s) = E2/Eo, of a double
loaded Darlington network is given as follows. Realize the network for a
convenient value of K.
6-8. Figure P 6-8(a) shows a lossless network with a resistance load.
In Fig. P 6-8(b) the two pairs of terminals of the lossless network have been
interchanged. The driving-point impedance in the first case is
(a) Find expressions for the driving point impedance Z2 appropriate
for case A or case B (defined in Eqs. 6-5 in the text).
(b) Comment on the relationships between Zi(s) and Z2(s) under the
conditions mi = w2 and MI = n2.
\
/<
ZffsJ
1 LC 2
1
(a)
Fig. P 6-8
6-9. Consider the functions given in Problem 3-23 (as the real part of a
positive real function) to be the magnitude squared of the transfer im-
pedance of a resistance-loaded lossless network. Find the corresponding
transfer impedances and realize the networks.
7
Realization of RC Two-Ports
If we direct our attention to the realization of arbitrary transfer functions,
it will become apparent that we have just scratched the surface. So far
we have handled only the situation in which the transmission zeros occur
in quadrantal symmetry. This leads to a realization in terms of a lossless
coupling network. If we remove this restriction from the locations of
transmission zeros, lossless networks will no longer be adequate for the
realization.
Before we undertake to discuss the most general situation, let us stay
in the realm of networks with two kinds of elements. The transformation
s2 —> p served us well in establishing properties and synthesis techniques
of driving-point functions of RC networks from those of reactance func-
tions. We can expect the same transformation to be useful in obtaining
realizations of RC two-ports from the results of the previous two chapters.
However, in the present case characteristic differences will crop up which
will need special methods of handling.
Much of the motivation for our interest in RC networks comes from
the special requirements of control systems. The frequency range of
interest in such systems is very low. Hence any inductances that may
arise in a realization will be of large value. This requires a large physical
size and weight, rendering the realization undesirable. In this chapter we
shall discuss the realization of RC two-ports.
7-1. Properties of RC two-port parameters
First let us consider the open-circuit impedance and short-circuit
admittance parameters of an RC two-port. As far as the driving-point
functions (zn, ZK, yn, 2/22) are concerned, we have already established in
249
250 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-1
Chap. 2 that their properties follow immediately from the corresponding
properties of reactance functions. Thus
ZRC(s) = ~ ZLC(P) (a)
P (7-1)
YRC(s) = pYLC(p) (b)
with the transformation s = p-. These results were established simply
from a consideration of the mesh impedance determinant and cofactors of
an RC network. Although the transfer admittance yn is not a driving-
point function, it is given in terms of the mesh impedance determinant
and its cofactor by Au(s)/A(s). Thus Eq. (7-1 b) applies to t/1u as well as to
yu and y^. In a similar way Eq. (7-la) applies to the transfer impedance
Z12 as well as to the driving-point impedances zn and z22- It is therefore a
simple matter to determine the realizability conditions on the set of z or y
parameters of an RC two-port from the corresponding properties of loss-
less two-ports.
Consider a set of open-circuit parameters of a lossless network.
MO) Z.<1)„
Zl.(p) = ,ST,p + hn. + -*k£_ (a)
*rfrt-*'* + * +^ (b) (7-2)
febO = WP + f + ^ (c)
The complex-frequency variable has been designated by p for later con-
venience. We have shown only one finite pole explicitly; additional poles
will introduce additional terms like the last one. Also, in order to have the
result in a natural form after transformation, we have written the residue
and the pole location in an unnatural form here. Using Eqs. (7-1) and the
transformation p2 = s, we get
1.<0) 7.<1)
zn(s) = klV + ~t + -^- (a)
s + ai
kSi
z»(8) - *g' + =«■+ ff^ (b) (7-3)
;.<0) ;.<«
«*) = kiV +k~f + ^ (0
This is the partial-fraction expansion of a typical set of z parameters of an
RC two-port. It immediately follows that the residue condition
knkn - fcia > 0 (7-4)
must be satisfied by the z parameters of an RC two-port at all their poles.
Sec. 7-1 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 251
(Although the z parameters are regular at infinity, we sometimes refer to
the infinite-frequency values frff', k&, and A-ft' as residues at infinity.) We
already know that the poles of the driving-point functions are negative real
and simple. In order to satisfy the residue condition, we conclude that the
poles of Zi2 must also be negative real and must coincide with common
poles of zn and z22- The residues of Zu must be real but not necessarily
positive.
From our discussion of RC functions in Chap. 2 we know that the
functions in Eqs. (7-3) can refer just as well to 2/n/«, yn/s, and yu/s,
respectively. Thus a typical set of short-circuit admittance parameters
of an RC two-port will be
7.tij.
2/n = AIT'* + fcff + (a)
(b) (7-5)
ai
(c)
S -1 III
The fc's are the residues of i/n/s, yu/s, and yu/s, and they must satisfy the
residue condition. (Although the y's are regular at the origin, we some-
times refer to the zero-frequency values as the residues at the origin.)
The structure of an RC two-port will impose additional restrictions on
the z and y parameters. For instance, we showed in Chap. 4 that the
transmission zeros of a ladder network fall at series-branch impedance
poles or shunt-branch impedance zeros. It follows that for an RC ladder
the transmission zeros must lie on the negative real axis of the s plane. Of
course, Fialkow's condition for unbalanced two-ports applies to RC two-
ports as well.
Let us now consider the functions Zu(s), the transfer impedance, and
YU(s), the transfer admittance, of a resistance-terminated RC two-port,
and the voltage transfer function Tt2(s). With the terminating resistance
assumed unity, these functions are given by
The poles of Yi*(s) are the zeros of 1 + yM. Since y^ is an RC admittance
function, so also is 1 + 2/22, and hence its zeros are simple and lie on the
252 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-2
negative real axis. A similar statement can be made concerning the zeros
of 1 + 222. On the other hand, the zeros of zn and of 2/12 may lie anywhere
in the s plane. Hence we conclude that the transfer impedance, the trans-
fer admittance, and the voltage transfer functions of RC networks must
have simple negative real poles. The zeros may lie anywhere, but they are
restricted by the structure of the network.
7-2. Synthesis for prescribed Y^s), Z^s), or Ti2(s)
Having established the properties of the transfer functions, the next
step is to determine a set of z or y parameters when a transfer function
satisfying the necessary conditions is prescribed. Suppose that Yn(s) is
prescribed as the ratio of two polynomials. Let us write it in the form
_ y M _ N„(s) _ Nn(s) _ Nn/P* n 7,
*,,W ' P(s) P,(«) + P,(«) I+P,/P1 ( ]
In the case of a lossless network we separated the denominator into its
even and odd parts. Subsequent division of numerator and denominator
by the even or odd part permitted the identification of \j\i and 2/22. We
cannot do this in the RC case because the y parameters are not odd rational
functions. What we must do is decompose the denominator into two poly-
nomials Pi and P2 such that the ratio P,/P2 is an RC admittance function.
This permits us to identify the y parameters as
2/22 = P^) (a) ~yli = T^) (b) (?.8)
The determination of the polynomials Pi and P2 is an added task which
was not present in the case of lossless networks. Our problem can be stated
as follows: Given a polynomial P(s) all of whose zeros are negative real
and simple, find two other polynomials Pi(s) and P2(s) all of whose zeros
are also negative real and simple, such that Pi + P2 = P. Furthermore
the zeros of Pi and P2 must alternate. This problem can be solved in
several ways.
In Fig. 7-1 two polynomials P and Pn are plotted against negative
values of a. The two polynomials are of the same degree, having simple
negative real zeros which alternate. The zero-frequency value of P is
greater than that of Pa. Their difference, Pb = P — Pn, is also sketched.
We see that the zeros of Pb alternate both with the zeros of Pn and with
those of P. Let us write
P(s) = s" + a^s"-1 + . . , + ais + ao (a)
Pa(s) = K(s" + bn-.s"-1 + . . . + 6,« + bo) (b)
Sec. 7-2
253
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
There are two cases to consider corresponding to the two parts of the figure
1. Starting from a = 0 and moving down the negative-a axis, of the
two polynomials P(s) and Pa(s), the first zero encountered belongs to P.
Fig. 7-1. Sketch of polynomials.
It follows that P6 will have a zero closer to the origin than will Pa. From
Eqs. (7-9) the zero-frequency values of the two polynomials are P(0) = ao
and Pa(0) = Kbo. In addition, the constant terms ao and ba represent the
products of the zeros of P(s) and Pa(s), respectively. The following two
relationships can now be written from a consideration of the figure:
oo < bo (a) ao > A'&o (b) (7-10)
These inequalities can both be satisfied only if K < 1. Hence, when we
take the difference between P and Pa, the highest-power terms cannot
cancel. This means that Pb will have the same degree as Pa and P.
2. The first zero encountered on the negative-a axis belongs to Pa.
It follows that this zero is smaller (in magnitude) than the first zero of P6,
254 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-2
as Fig. 7-1 (b) shows. In the present case, noting the zero-frequency values
and the locations of the zeros, the inequalities corresponding to Eqs. (7-10)
are
ao>6o (a)
oo > Kb* (b)
These do not require K to be strictly less than 1; they can be satisfied with
K = 1. In the latter case the highest-power term will disappear in the
difference polynomial, leading to a polynomial P6 having one zero fewer
than Pa or P.
Let us now return to the problem of the decomposition of the denomi-
nator polynomial in Eq. (7-7). In factored form the denominator poly-
nomial is
P(s) = (s + irI)(S + <,,)...(« + iO (7-12)
where the zeros have been written in ascending order so that
0 < al < a2 < - . . < an (7-13)
The polynomial Pa(s), of the same degree as P(s), is formed by arbitrarily
choosing n zeros that alternate with those of P(s). Thus
P.(«) = K(s + eral)(s + aa2) . . . (s + aan) (7-14)
We have two choices corresponding to the two cases considered above.
1. We can choose aa> > iTj. This requires us to choose K so as to satisfy
Eqs. (7-10). Thus
Kaaiaa2 . . . aan < alO-2 • • • an (7-15)
With Pa determined, we find Pb as the difference between P and Pa. The
construction guarantees that the zeros of Pa and P6 are simple and alter-
nate on the negative-a axis. Since Pb has a zero closer to the origin than
Pa, the ratio Pb/Pa will be an RC admittance function. Thus, in the nota-
tion of Eqs. (7-8), Pb = Pi and Pa = P2, and 1/22 will be regular at infinity.
2. We can choose aaj < a,. In this case the zero closest to the origin
belongs to Pa so that PJP* will be an RC admittance. Thus the identifi-
cation 7/22 = Pa/Pb is made. Any value of K < 1 will satisfy Eqs. (7-11).
With K = I, Pb will have one zero fewer than Pa, and so 2/22 will have a
pole at infinity.
Thus, starting with a prescribed transfer admittance function lru(s),
we obtain the two short-circuit parameters, 2/22 and yu, in the manner just
described. In a completely similar manner we can obtain the two open-
circuit parameters zu and zn from a prescribed transfer impedance func-
tion Z«(s). If the prescribed function is the voltage transfer function
Tu(s), the procedure is even simpler. Given a function
Sec. 7-3 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 255
(7-16)
satisfying the necessary conditions, we need to divide numerator and de-
nominator by a polynomial Q(s) having simple negative real zeros which
alternate with those of P(s). Ensuring proper behavior at zero and infinity
as well, we now identify P/Q and Nu/Q with Zn and zU, respectively, or
2/22 and —yu, respectively.
Thus, starting with one of the transfer functions, we now know how
to form two of the open-circuit or short-circuit parameters. The procedure
which we utilize to obtain a realization will depend on the locations of
the transmission zeros.
7-3. Unbalanced symmetrical realization
In Chap. 5 we discussed realization techniques of lossless two-ports
for prescribed transfer functions. There we saw that it is always possible
to obtain a realization in terms of a symmetrical network at the possible
expense of transmission gain. We discussed a realization in terms of a
symmetrical lattice which could be later replaced by an unbalanced
equivalent under some conditions. Four steps were involved in the lattice
decomposition, corresponding to Figs. 5-3, 5-4, and 5-8. The conditions
under which an unbalanced equivalent of the lattice can be found were
not completely clear. This procedure applies equally well here with the
transformation p2 = s.
In the present section we shall discuss a realization procedure due to
Ozaki (94). An unbalanced symmetrical structure is obtained without
going through the intermediate step of a lattice realization. We shall see
that a sufficient condition for the realization, although not necessary, is
that the transfer function be minimum-phase.
The starting point is any one of the transfer functions Yu(s), Zu(s),
or Ti2(s). From these we can obtain two of the z or y parameters, say yu
and >/22, as discussed in the last section. By accepting a low value of the
gain constant we can always make each residue of 2/22 at least as large as
the magnitude of the corresponding residue of yu. A symmetrical set of
functions will result if we choose the residues of yn equal to those of 2/22-
Thus we can start the realization from a set of symmetrical y functions
satisfying the residue condition. In the next section we shall show that
choosing the poles of 7/22 in a certain way will yield the maximum value
for the gain constant in a symmetrical realization.
256
Sec. 7-3
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
(7-17)
Suppose that, initially, all the admittance poles are not compact.
Then we can write
J/M = 2/n = 2/ll + Yi (a)
2/i2 = 2/i'a (b)
where the primed quantities form a set of compact y parameters and Yi is
the excess in 2/n after all the poles are made compact. A realization of the
original parameters consists of the parallel connection of the two subnet-
works shown in Fig. 7-2. This corresponds to step 1 in the lattice decom-
position discussed in Chap. 5 and shown in Fig. 5-4.
(a) (b)
Fig. 7-2. Partial realization—step 1.
We now have a set of compact y parameters (the primed oms). The
partial-fraction expansion of these parameters will have the form
i/i'i = kxs + ko + ^
-2/i2 =
(a)
(7-18)
(b)
Some of the residues of —y'a are positive and some negative. We have
grouped all the positive ones and labeled them with the subscript p and
the negative ones with the subscript n. We shall call these groups the
"positive" part and "negative" part, respectively. The constant term
represents behavior at s = 0 and hence is never negative. Similarly the
residue at infinity is never negative. In particular cases these may be zero.
Note that the negative part of the y parameters has no constant term and
no pole at infinity and therefore is of the same degree in numerator and
denominator.
Sec. 7-3
257
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
At each step in the decomposition process we must make sure that
Fialkow's condition is satisfied by the numerator coefficients of — y(2. If
the transmission zeros are all in the left half plane (or on the ju axis), the
numerator coefficients of —y'w will necessarily be nonnegative. It is
apparent from the fact that some of the residues of —y'n are negative
while all the residues of y'n are positive that the numerator coefficients of
2/n will be no smaller than the corresponding ones in y'i2-
The next step corresponds to step 2 in the lattice decomposition shown
in Fig. 5-8(a). Suppose that we can remove an admittance F2 from the
positive part of — y'n and yd and still maintain the numerator of the re-
maining 2/i2 a Hurwitz polynomial. This might require quite a bit of trial
and error, and we shall not even be certain of success. If it is possible to
perform this step, then we can write
y'n = y(( + Y2 (a)
yl> = y(i - Y, (b)
A realization of the primed parameters can be obtained as a parallel con-
nection of the networks shown in Fig. 7-3.
(7-19)
(a) (b)
Fig. 7-3. Partial realization—step 2.
We can now proceed with the double-primed parameters. (If no Y3
can be removed as above, we proceed with the single-primed parameters.)
Let us write the parameters in terms of the positive and negative parts as
follows:
y" "P + P (a)
',, r, <7-20)
// * p * n /u\
Using the relationships between the z and y parameters, we now find the
z parameters to be
258 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-3
2,1 \y"\ 4P'n' + 4P'J W
,„_-».'._*or _ i.gy ™
Zl2 ~ |j/"i ~ 4 p;' 4 p; (D)
This is an extremely interesting result! We see that, aside from a factor
of 1/4, the positive part of the z parameters is the reciprocal of the nega-
tive part of the y parameters. Likewise, the negative part of the z param-
eters is the reciprocal of the positive part of the y's.
Several cases must now be considered, depending on the behavior of
the y" parameters.
Case A. No pole of y" parameters at infinity
This means that the positive part of the y" parameters, as well as the
negative part, will be of the same degree in numerator and denominator.
This is apparent from a consideration of Eqs. (7-18). Now suppose that we
expand the z parameters in Eqs. (7-21) in partial fractions. Both the p
and the n parts will have a constant term. Because of the subtraction in-
volved in z[i, it immediately follows that the constant term of the z pa-
rameters will be noncompact. Hence we can write
z[[ = z'fl + R3 (a)
(7-22)
«K-*S (b)
(Superscripts will be used to avoid the use of triple and quadruple primed
quantities.) Here R2 is the excess in the constant term after it has been
made compact. A realization for this set of parameters can be obtained as a
series connection of two networks as shown in Fig. 7-4. In the present
case Z3 = R3. This corresponds to the lattice-decomposition step shown
in Fig. 5-3.
Case B. Zero of y parameters at s = 0
This means that the y's have a factor s which is a factor both of the
positive part and of the negative part. That is, s is a factor of both P'p'
and Pi' in Eqs. (7-20). It follows from Eqs. (7-21) that both the p and n
parts of the z" parameters will have a pole at s = 0 and this pole will be
noncompact. Hence we can write
sCs (7-23)
zii = tff (b)
where l/sd is the excess remainder after the pole at s = 0 is made com-
pact. A realization for this set of parameters again takes the form of Fig.
7-4, where now Z3 = l/sC3.
Sec. 7-3
259
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
Case C. The y" parameters have a common zero at s = — o-o
This will require that both P, and P'n' have a factor s + ao, which, in
turn, requires the z" parameters to have a noncompact pole at s = — ao.
Hence we can write
// 131 , *
(a)
(b)
(7-24)
The quantity k/(s + ero) is the excess after the pole has been made compact.
The realization again takes the form of Fig. 7-4, where Zs = k/(s + ao).
t
Z3
(3) (3)
— f^n— <
*H = z22
(3)
Zt2
(b)
Fig. 7-4. Partial realization—step 3.
The three possible behaviors of the y" parameters are not mutually
exclusive. It may be that all three of these cases apply simultaneously.
In such a case Z3 in Fig. 7-4 will be a series combination of a resistance, a
capacitance, and a parallel RC.
After this partial realization we are left with a set of compact z param-
(a) (b)
Fig. 7-5. Partial realization—step 4.
260 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-3
eters. Suppose now that we can remove an impedance Zt from the posi-
tive part of z'n and z<n while still maintaining the numerator of the re-
maining 212 a Hurwitz polynomial. Then we can write
*-* + * (a)
z$ - z\1 + Z, (b) *'
A realization of this set of parameters is obtained as the series connection
of two networks as shown in Fig. 7-5. This corresponds to step 4 in the
lattice decomposition shown in Fig. 5-8 (b). Such a decomposition may
not be possible, in which case we proceed with the z<3> parameters.
The next step depends on the behavior of the z parameters. Three
cases can be identified analogous to the three cases discussed for the y
parameters.
Case A. No pole of z parameters at s = 0
Then the y's will have a noncompact constant term.
Case B. Zero of z parameters at infinity
Then the y's will have a noncompact pole at infinity.
Case C. Common zero of the z parameters at s = — oB.
Then the y's will have a noncompact pole at s = — ao.
In any one of these cases the y parameters will take the form shown
in Eqs. (7-17), and the realization takes the form of Fig. 7-2, where
F, = G case A (a)
F, = sC case B (b) (7-26)
k
Yi = —: case C (c)
s -+- <ro
This step completes a cycle of realization. We can now repeat the
cycle until we are left with a set of y parameters which does not permit any
further reduction. The partial-fraction expansions for such a set will look
like Eqs. (7-18), in which fco and kx are not zero and the y's do not have a
common zero.
We must now seek some other type of decomposition—something dif-
ferent from the steps we have performed till now. Ozaki suggested that
we seek a parallel connection of two subnetworks. Thus we decompose
the set of y parameters into two subsets. If this decomposition is to be
useful, each of the two subsets must be amenable to further reductions by
one of the previous steps. For instance, if one of the component yn func-
tions has no pole at infinity or has a zero at s = 0, then the reduction step
3 shown in Fig. 7-4 can be performed.
Sec. 7-3 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 261
In addition to this requirement, the component yn functions must
satisfy two other conditions. In order to satisfy Fialkow's condition, the
numerator coefficients of the — yn functions must be nonnegative. A suf-
ficient condition for this requirement is that the numerators be Hurwitz
polynomials. The second condition on the component j/u's involves the
residues. We must require that the residues of the two component yn's have
the same sign at each pole which is shared by both. The reason for this require-
ment becomes clear from the following consideration. Designate the com-
ponents by subscripts a and b. Before reduction the y parameters are
compact. The residue of the over-all j/n at a pole is the sum of the residues
of the component yn's at the same pole, and similarly for yu. Hence we
can write
(fcu. + kllby - (klu + kmy = 0 (a)
or (7-27)
(fcna - A?*,) + (fc?16 - fc?2») + 2(fc„afc„i, - knakm) = 0 (b)
The first two terms in parentheses cannot be negative. In fact, the com-
ponent y's must be compact so that these two terms are zero. If klia and
km have opposite signs, it will be impossible to satisfy the last equation.
We have now established the conditions that must be satisfied if a
decomposition into two parallel networks is to be obtained. Let us pro-
ceed then to a discussion of the decomposition procedure. Suppose that
we write
Vn ~ Q(s) ~ Q(s) + Q(s) w
-2/.*. = ^ (b) (7-28)
-2/126 = q- (C)
The numerator polynomial has been written as the sum of two polynomials.
We shall now show that it is always possible to find two polynomials Pi
and Pt which satisfy the following conditions:
1. The zeros of Pi and P2 are either in the left half plane or on the ju
axis.
2. The signs of the residues of j/l2o and j/m are the same as the signs of
the corresponding residues of yn.
3. Each of the polynomials Pi and P2 will have one of the following
properties:
(a) Pi or P2 will be of lower degree than P. This means that yna or
2/126 has no pole at infinity, which permits a further reduction
according to Fig. 7-4, with Z3 = R,
262
Sec. 7-3
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
(b) PI or P2 will have a factor s. This means that 2/^ or 1/m will
have a zero at s = 0, which also permits a further reduction
according to Fig. 7-4, with Z3 = 1 /sC.
(c) PI or P2 (or both) have a common factor with Q(s). This means
that 2/ua or 2/i26 (or both) will have one pole fewer than 2/« and
hence will be a simpler function.
We shall refer to this statement as the Ozaki separation theorem and to
the three conditions just listed as the "Ozaki conditions."
To show that the contemplated decomposition is always possible, note
that the factors of the numerator of y" must have one of the following
forms.
(A)
(B)
(C)
s2 + a2
(s + ao)2 + WD
s + <TO
pair of j-axis zeros
pair of complex left-half-plane zeros
negative-real-axis zero
We shall take each of these in turn and see how the decomposition is
accomplished.
A.
Pi = s2Po
Q
—2/i26 =
(a)
(b)
(7-29)
It is a simple matter to show that the three Ozaki conditions are satisfied.
B. P = [(s + ao)2 + w?]Po
Let /(s) = (s + ao)2 + «D. When s is real, /(s) is the equation of a
parabola. Figure 7-6 shows a sketch of this parabola in the solid curve.
fM
it-
.
— -
\
K
Fig. 7-6. Sketch of/(ai.
Sec. 7-3 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 263
Also shown are the poles of yu, which lie on the negative real axis. Sup-
pose that we now subtract a positive real constant from f(a). Then
/i(i0 = /GO - K = (' + i*i)2 + wg - K (7-30)
As K increases from zero, the vertex of the parabola will get lower and
lower. When K = MO, the vertex will be resting on the a axis. For larger
values of K the parabola will intersect the a axis in two places. For some
value of K the parabola will pass through one of the poles of yn(s), say,
S = —vi. To find the other intersection point, divide the right side of Kq.
(7-30) by s + irI. The second factor of /i(s) is found to be s + 2ao — ai.
Thus we can write
(a) _
(7-ol)
+ 2<ro - a,) + K (b)
Hence
P = (s + a0(« + 2ao - ai)Po + A'Po (a)
Pi = (s + „)(• + 2ao - a,)Po (b) (7-32)
P2 = KPo (c)
It is left for you to show that PI and P2 satisfy the Ozaki conditions.
There is still a question of determining the value of K. If we let K
increase still further, the vertex of the parabola will go still lower. One or
the other arm of the parabola will eventually intersect the a axis at the
other poles of yu. However, now the signs of Pi and P2 will not be the
same at all the poles of ya so that the second Ozaki condition will not be
satisfied. We conclude that the value of K to use is the smallest value that
will cause the parabola to intersect the a axis at one of the poles of yu.
Another difficulty becomes apparent if we assume that the point —ai in
Fig. 7-6 is not a pole of T/U. Then we will have to increase K until the left
branch of the parabola goes through — a2. But now the right branch of the
parabola intersects the positive a axis, thus putting a zero of Pi(&) in the
right half plane. This means that we cannot permit K to increase so much.
The situation is remedied by using the value of K needed to make the
parabola intersect the a axis at the origin.
To summarize, let yu(s) have poles at — o-i, t = 1, 2,. . ., n. In Eq.
(7-30) we set <T = 0, — ai, — a2,. . ., —an and find the corresponding value
of K which will make /i(er) = 0. The smallest of these values is the one we
must use. In other words, compute the numbers
*-•« + ,« w
Ki - (n - ")' + »8 i - 1, 2 n (b)
264 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-3
where the — a,'s are the poles of 7/«. The value of K to be used in Eqs.
(7-32) is the smallest of these numbers.
C. P(s) = (s- ao)Po(s)
The appropriate decomposition of P(s) will depend on the location of
an relative to the poles of yu. Figure 7-7 shows the three possible situations.
-x-x — e-x — x-
ir4-<r3 -o-2-o-}
-*—x x-e
-<r
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 7-7. Possible locations of ffo.
Suppose that ao falls between two poles of yu, say, ai and ffi+I. That is,
a,+i > CO > a,. It will then be possible to decompose P(s) into two poly-
nomials one of which has a factor s + <n and the other a factor s + 0^.i.
Thus
P(«) = (s + ao)Po = Ki(« + *i)Po + #2(s + <r.+i)Po (7-34)
which requires that
s + ao = tfi(s + a.) + /Ct(« + am) (7-35)
The two constants Ki and K2 can easily be determined by equating coeffi-
cients of like powers of s on the two sides of this equation. We find
Kl = £i±i^UL° (a)
(7-36)
K2 = -^^~ (b)
ai+i - in
Thus the two polynomials are
P,(«) = K,(s + aOPo(s) (a) __
(7-o7)
P2(«) = K2(s + ai+,)PoW (b)
where Po(s) = P(s)/(s + ac) and KI and K2 are given in the preceding
equation. It is left to you to show that PI and P2 satisfy the Ozaki condi-
tions.
The second possibility is that — ao is closer to the origin than — oi, the
pole of 2/u which is closest to the origin. Then, proceeding as before, we
shall find the two component polynomials to be
Sec. 7-3 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 265
) K, = -o (a)
(7-38)
P2(s) = #2sPo(s) X, = 1 --° (b)
ai
The details of this procedure, as well as a demonstration that PI and P2
satisfy the Ozaki conditions, are left to you.
Finally we have the possibility that — oo is farther from the origin
than — an, the pole of yu which is farthest from the origin. We shall find
the component polynomials to be
Pi(«) - (« + *n)Po(«) (a) . .
P2(s) = (ao - an)Po(«) (b)
Having decomposed the over-all yu into the sum of two component
2/u's, we form the component J/H'S by making fcn = |fcu| at each pole. The
two sets of y parameters are simpler than the original one and permit
further reduction, as discussed previously.
This completes the proof of Ozaki's theorem. For future reference we
will tabulate all the relationships we have developed.
Formulas for Ozaki Separation Theorem
P(s) P, + P,
--
(b) (7-28)
P2(s)
.N
(c)
Case A. P(s) = (s" + 4)Po(s)
P,(S) = s'Po(s) (a)
P2« = ^Po(s) (b)
Cose B. P(s) = [(s + ao)2 + w?]Po(s)
P: = (s + am)(s + 2<To - aM)Po(s) (b)
( /- o^J
P, = /iTPo(«) (c)
where K = smallest one of the following numbers:
Ko^ + wg (a)
K, = (ao -*,)' + w? '-l,2,...,n (b)
where ai is a pole of yu and am either is zero or is the pole which gives the
smallest Ki.
Case C. P(s) = (s + ao)Po(s)
1. — ao lies between two poles of 2/u, — o-, and — in+i.
P,(«) = K,(« + iT,)Po(«) (a)
- -,.
\7-o7)
K2(s + ait,)Po(«) (b)
(a)
(7-36)
2. CTO is smaller than in, the closest pole of 2/u to origin.
P,(«) - «:,(« + a,)Po(«) X. = -° (a)
(7-38)
P,(«) = JTrfPoW ft = 1 ~ - (b)
ifi
3. o-o i* Zarjcr than an, the farthest pole of T/U from origin.
PiW - (« + a.)Po(«) (a)
P2(«) = (ac - a.)Po(s) (b)
266
Sec. 7-3
267
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
At this point an illustrative example will serve to clarify some of the
concepts developed in the preceding pages. Suppose that we start with
the following set of y parameters:
(«' + 2s + 5)(s + 4) , _ . 5s 12s
_
'*"
s3 + 30s' + 61s + 20
=s
10
5s
12s
(a)
(7-40)
(b)
(« + !)(«+ 2) '' '" ' s + 2 ' « + l
The set is symmetrical and compact, and 2/u is minimum-phase, with one
pair of complex zeros and one real zero. There are no common zeros of 2/n
and 2/i2, and both the constant term and the pole at infinity are present.
Hence reduction step 3 is not possible. Let us now apply the Ozaki sepa-
ration theorem, decomposing the factor due to the complex zeros. Con-
sidering Eqs. (7-32) and (7-33), we can write
P(s) = [(s + I)2 + 4](s + 4)
ao = 1 4 = 4
0"j = 1 <T2 = 2*
KQ = 5 KI — 4 /^2 = 5
The smallest value of K is 4, which occurs for the pole s = — 1. We can
now write PI and P2 as
P! = (s + l)(s + l)(s + 4)
P2 = 4(s + 4)
Hence
-2/i2a =
(s + l)(s + 4)
s+2
(s + 2)
« + 2 +
s+2
4(6s2 + 135 + 4)
(s + l)(s + 2)
1/2
= « + 2 +
=8+
•8
s+2
4s 12s
2
4s
s+1
. 12s
(a)
(b)
(c)
(7-41)
i _AAA \( ,
Fig. 7-8. Realization of component network.
268
Sec. 7-3
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
Although yiu and ym appear first as the ratio of two polynomials in
these equations, it is the right-hand side which is first formed from the
corresponding yn function. The a parameters can be immediately recog-
nized as a degenerate pi and realized as shown in Fig. 7-8. As for the 6
parameters, we see that they have no pole at infinity. Hence the corre-
sponding z parameters will have a noncompact constant term, permitting
the removal of a resistance by step 3. So let us form the z parameters.
s2 + 13s + 4 1 . 1
2l26 =
48s(3s + 4)
-yui. = s + 4
\yb\ 48s(3s + 4)
24 x 48s x 3s -(- 4
48s
Jl.
(a)
(b)
(7-42)
3s+ 4
After removal of a resistance R = 1/24, the remaining z's will have
no constant term. This implies that the corresponding y's will have a
noncompact pole at infinity. Designating the network remaining after re-
moval of R with a prime, we can form the y parameters as follows:
y[» = Zh = 30s + 24
N
-y'm = 7% = 6s + 24
N
The excess in the pole at infinity can now be removed as C = 24 by step 1.
In the remaining set, yn = —yn. This characterizes a degenerate pi
similar to that of Fig. 7-8. The complete realization is shown in Fig. 7-9(a),
the ladder being the b network.
1/2
â– AAAy-
/
-VW
#
1/2
1/24
o—i-AAA-+
1/24
r-VW-i
24^
1/24
"-VVWi—o
1/2
4-
1/2
H(-
■£=24
1/24 1/24 1/24
o—i-AAA/—j-VW-f-AAA—i—o
36 -T- -p 36
T7
X
144
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7-9. Realization of numerical example.
The realization we have obtained is certainly not unique. One possible
variation is obtained as follows. After removal of the 1/24 resistance in
Sec. 7-3 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 269
the b network, we can try to use step 4 in the reduction procedure. Sup-
pose that we subtract K/s from z{». The remainder will be
„ J_ _ A- _ K (1 - UAK)s + 4(1 - 48/Q
Zli" 48s 3s+ 4 s 48s(3s + 4)
To maintain positive numerator coefficients, we must keep K < 1/144.
Let us choose K = 1/144 and subtract l/144s from both z[u and zi'2<,.
Following this, we form the y parameters.
yl'u = 24 + 36s
-yii, = 24
This set is immediately realized as a pi structure leading to the over-all
realization shown in Fig. 7-9(b). This realization is inferior to the preceding
one since it requires a greater value of total capacitance.
Another realization can be obtained by initially decomposing the other
factor in the original yn- Equations (7-39) would be applicable in that
case. This is left for you as an exercise.
Let us now take stock of what we have accomplished. Starting from
a prescribed transfer function, we obtained a set of two y or z parameters.
In order to obtain a realization, we imposed two major restrictions: (1) we
assumed a symmetrical network, thereby possibly reducing the transmission
gain and possibly increasing the number of elements required, and (2) we
assumed a minimum-phase function in order to guarantee positive nu-
merator coefficients. It would be extremely useful if we could remove
these restrictions. Lucal (80) has done some work in this direction.
The minimum-phase condition is certainly a sufficient condition for
positive numerator coefficients of — 2/u, but it is not necessary. Thus it
may be possible for the numerator coefficients of —yn to be positive even
though there are zeros in the right half plane. However, it is not at all
certain in such a case that the Ozaki separation theorem can be applied.
Nevertheless it is possible to find realizations for some nonminimum-phase
functions. For example, yn in the following set of y parameters is non-
minimum-phase:
s3 + s2 + s + 2 / 8 \ / 2s \
-y" - (s + 1)(s + 2) - Vs - s + l) + V ~ s + 2)
(7-43)
However, by decomposing the parameters as indicated by the parentheses
into a and b networks, the realization shown in Fig. 7-10 is obtained.
(Do this.)
270
Sec. 7-3
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
So we see that, although sufficient, it is not necessary to have a mini-
mum-phase function. Complete necessary and sufficient realizability
conditions for unbalanced RC two-ports are still unknown at this date.
1/2
-AAV-
2
1/2
2
-|(-
=T=4
Fig. 7-10. Realization of nonminimum-phase function.
The other restriction we imposed—that of symmetry—is also sufficient
but not necessary. To demonstrate this, consider the following y
parameters:
s s2 + 2s+ 2
-yn = s + 2 -
2/m = s + 2 +
yn = s + 2 +
s+ 1
s+ 1
2s
s2 + 5s + 2
s+ 1
s+ 1
s/2
s2 + 7«/2 + 2
(a)
(c)
(7-44)
s+1s+1
Imagine that the yiu and 2/m functions result from a prescribed Ku(s). We
then choose j/u to make the poles compact. This set is nonsymmetrical
but minimum-phase. Let us now apply the Ozaki separation theorem.
Using Eqs. (7-32) and (7-33), which apply in this case, we find
— Vila = s + 1
2/22o = s + 1 (7-45)
Vila = s+1
s
"2/126 = 1 -
2/ffl. = 1 +
Via = 1 +
s+ 1
2s
s+ 1
s/2
s+1
1
s+1
3s + 1
s+1
3s/2 + 1
s+1
(7-46)
The first set can be immediately realized as a degenerate pi network as
Sec. 7-3
271
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
shown in Fig. 7-11(a). The second set of y's have no pole at infinity.
Hence the corresponding z parameters will have a non-compact constant
term. Forming the z parameters, we get
2
2,2
Zm ~ 9s + 3
Znb ~ 9s + 3
(7-47)
This set can be immediately recognized as a tee network. The complete
realization is shown in Fig. 7-ll(b).
aa
-VsAy-
#
1/3 2/3
_9
2
(a) (b)
Fig. 7-11. Realization of nonsymmetrical two-port.
This example demonstrates that symmetry is not a necessary condition
for realizability in the type of structure we have been discussing. How-
ever, suppose that we start from a given transfer function and obtain the
2/u and yn functions. (Assume no transmission zeros on the positive real
axis.) We then determine a yn function that satisfies the residue condition,
so that all three y parameters are known. We have seen that, if yn is
minimum-phase and the set is symmetrical, we can always obtain an un-
balanced realization. We have also seen by example that neither the
symmetry condition nor the minimum-phase condition is necessary. How-
ever, if we relax the symmetry condition, we shall find that the minimum-
phase condition is no longer even sufficient. That is to say, we may have
a set of three minimum-phase nonsymmetrical y parameters for which we
cannot find an unbalanced realization [see Lucal (80)]. Similarly, we
might not be able to obtain a realization for a symmetrical nonminimum-
phase set of y parameters.
272 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-4
7-4. Maximizing the gain constant
One of the disadvantages of the symmetrical realization discussed in
the last section is the relatively low value of the gain constant which we
are forced to accept. Any method that will improve this situation will
be most welcome. Bower and Ordung (19) have described such a method.
Let us review the procedure for obtaining the parameters yn and 2/22
from a given Yu(s). With — Yn given as the ratio of two polynomials,
Nn/P, we decompose P into the sum of two polynomials Pi and P» such
that the ratio has poles and zeros that alternate. There is considerable
flexibility in the choice of the polynomials Pi and P2, and we should be
able to use this flexibility to choose these polynomials in such a way as to
satisfy some independently specified requirement. Such a requirement
might be maximum gain. In Chap. 4 we discussed the restrictions on the
gain constant of an unbalanced two-port. Those results of course apply
here. However, the symmetry condition imposes additional restrictions,
as we shall see.
Since the gain constant is of importance here, let us write it explicitly.
Thus
- Yn(s) - Ap(s) -Kpi + Pa-K1 + pi/pi ~l + yn (7-48)
Let us designate the residues of Q/P2 as k^ so that the residues of — yu will
be Kku. For a symmetrical network the residue condition will become
kh - (Kkn)2 > 0
or tM < 1, K < 7^ (7-49)
K22 I \Kn\
The gain constant must satisfy this result at all the poles. The left-hand
side of this expression can be interpreted very simply as follows: Let
s = — a, be a pole of the y parameters, and multiply numerator and
denominator of the right-hand side of Eq. (7-48) by s + a. The result is
Now evaluate this expression at s = — <r,-. The numerator is immediately
recognized as the residue of (/12 at that pole, while the second term of the
denominator is recognized as the corresponding residue of !/22. Since the
first term in the denominator vanishes, we get
-¥»(-*,) =^ (7-51)
Sec. 7-4
273
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
Combining this with Eq. (7-49), we get
\Yu(-ad\ < 1 (7-52)
This condition tells us that the magnitude of the transfer function evalu-
ated at any one of the poles which we choose for the y parameters must
be no greater than unity. The value of the gain constant must be small
enough to satisfy this condition at all the poles of 2/22-
It is obvious that the ratio Q(s)/P(s) will be different for different
values of s. If we can choose the poles of the y parameters at those values
of « which make this ratio small, then K can be relatively large and still
satisfy the last equation.
Y12(o-l
Fig. 7-12. Sketch of normalized transfer admittance.
In Fig. 7-12 a typical RC transfer function is sketched as a function
of <r. The poles of the function are the zeros of P(s). Recalling the pro-
cedure for finding the poles of yn from the given YU, we note that these
must lie between the poles of Yu(s). Qualitatively speaking, according
to our statement in the preceding paragraph, we want to locate these
poles so that \YU/K\ evaluated at these points is small. More exactly,
we can write
K
<1
K<
1
(7-53)
where s = — ir, are the poles of the y parameters. In other words, K can-
not exceed the reciprocal of the normalized transfer admittance evaluated
at each of the poles of T/M-
In the interval from the origin to the first pole |Fu/K| takes on values
as small as you please, so that, as far as the pole of the y parameters in this
interval is concerned, an arbitrarily large value of K can be achieved.
274 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-4
However, in the next two intervals \YU/K\ reaches a minimum value. It is
evident, then, that the maximum value of K will result if Eq. (7-53) is
satisfied with the equality sign at the value of « corresponding to the largest
minimum of \Yu/K\.
Remember that Fialkow's condition also places a restriction on the
permissible value of K based on the behavior of Yu(a) for positive values
of a. However, this restriction will automatically be satisfied (show this)
if K is chosen as outlined.
In summary, to achieve a maximum gain constant, perform the follow-
ing steps:
1. Make a sketch of the normalized transfer function against negative
real values of s.
2. Determine the minima, if any, in the intervals between poles.
3. Choose a pole of 2/w at the value of s corresponding to the largest
minimum.
4. Choose the rest of the poles of J/M in the remaining intervals between
poles of the given function such that the value of \YU/K\ at these points
is no larger than the largest minimum. The value of K that is achieved is
the reciprocal of the largest minimum of | YU/K\.
We have used the transfer admittance Yu(s) in this development, but
the results are appropriate for the functions Zu(s) and T«(s) as well. The
differences are obvious. If the transfer function involved is YU(S), then in
step 2 above we must take into consideration the infinite-frequency value
as well. It may be that this is the largest minimum. Similarly, if the
function is ZH, we must include the zero-frequency value. If the function
is 7\2, we must consider both the zero-frequency value and the infinite-
frequency value, since either one of these may be larger.
As an example, consider the function
A sketch of the function is shown in Fig. 7-13. For negative values of a
there is a single extreme point which occurs at s = —2.06. The value
|Z«/A'| at this point is 1.66. (The maximum value of the function for
positive a is unity, and it occurs at infinity.) The zero-frequency value
is lower than this, so that the largest gain constant that can be achieved
in a symmetrical realization is K = 1/1.66 = 0.603. It is apparent from
the figure that the maximum is quite broad so that the value of K is not
changed appreciably by choosing the pole at s = —2, instead of —2.06.
The value of K achieved will be 3/5. The other pole must be chosen be-
Sec. 7-4
275
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
Fig. 7-13. Sketch of normalized transfer impedance.
tween the origin and — 1, at a point for which \Zu/K\ < 5/3. To determine
the permissible range, we can solve for the roots of Zu/K = 5/3. Thus
s2 + s + 3
5
3
(s + 1)(* + 5)
The solution of this equation gives a value s = —0.G21 in the desired
interval. A value of s in the range —0.621 < s < 0 can be chosen as the
second pole of the z parameters. However, if we choose s = —0.621, this
pole, like the one at s = —2, will also be compact.
Recall that in the decomposition of the denominator of Zu into two
polynomials Pi and P2 we can assign part of the highest-power term to
each polynomial. The fraction that must be assigned to P\ and to P2 is
dictated by the requirement that the infinite-frequency value of zn not
exceed that of zn. These two values will be equal if we choose the highest-
power term of Pi to be Ks2, while that of P2 is (1 — K)s2. This choice will
ensure that the constant term in the expansion of the z parameters will
be compact. Thus we can write
P2 = § (s + 0.621)(s + 2) (7-55)
The polynomial Pi is now obtained by subtracting this polynomial from
the denominator of Zu- Thus
Pi - P - P» - |(« + l-04)(s + 7.21)
Finally the z parameters can be written
3 s2 + s + 3 3 , 5.445 3.01
= 3 5.445
2u 2(s + 0.621)(s + 2) 2 + s-r-2
_ 3 (s + 1.04)(s + 7.21) _ 3
Zu 2m 2 (s + 0.621)(s + 2) 2 + s + 2
s + 0.621
5.445 , 3.01
(7-56)
s + 0.621
276 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-5
These functions constitute a compact set of symmetrical z parameters,
and a realization can be obtained according to the method discussed in
the last section. Because the parameters are already compact, it is not
necessary to remove an initial series branch consisting of the excess
residue of zn and z22 over Zi2. This assures a realization with fewer elements.
This example has served to illustrate the principle that, after choosing
the critical pole which serves to establish the gain constant, choice of the
remaining poles (as well as the infinite-frequency value) such that they are
all compact will yield a realization with a minimum number of elements.
This fact was pom ted out by Belove (13).
7-5. Extension to nonsymmetrical unbalanced forms
In Sec. 7-3 we discussed a realization technique for which sufficient
conditions are symmetry and the minimum-phase property. However,
we saw that these conditions are not necessary.
Consider again the y parameters of the numerical example given in
Eqs. (7-44) for a nonsymmetrical network. Let us calculate the branch
admittances of the equivalent pi network shown in Fig. 7-14. These are
3s/2
ya = 2/n + 2/i2 = j-xy- (a)
V. = ya + Va = ^fy (b) (7-57)
b= _ a = s2 + 2s + 2
It is apparent that ya and yc are RC admittance functions, but not 2/b- If
we take the ratio of ya to yc, we get
2/22 + 2/i2 2
(7.58)
\ya=y,. +y,2
Q
Fig. 7-11. I'i equivalent.
Sec. 7-5 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 277
This equation says that the two shunt branches of the pi equivalent differ
only by a constant multiplier. For the example under consideration it is
possible to obtain an unbalanced realization, as shown in Fig. 7-11. This
result motivates us to investigate unsymmetrical networks which satisfy
the condition
2/n ~l~ 2/l2 Wa /- cris
*—I—*— = *- = a (7-59)
2/22 + 2/i2 IJc
where a is a real positive constant. Note that for symmetrical networks
the constant is unity. We assume of course that the other conditions of
realizability in an unbalanced network are satisfied, including Fialkow's
condition.
In terms of ya, yb, and ye, the admittances 2/n and yu are given by
*-* + * (a)
2/22 = 2/e + lib (b)
Since the residues of yn/s and yn/s are nonnegative, we can write
*. + *'a° ,7-6,)
fcc + kb > 0
where the k's are the residues of 1/s times the corresponding y. Another
relationship involving the residues is obtained by evaluating Eq. (7-59)
at any of the poles of the y parameters. The result is
ka kn -f- fci2 ._ .
T — ', T~T~ = o (7-62)
kc kv + ka
Note that these are residues at poles of ya and yc, which do not necessarily
include all poles of yn, 2/22, and yu. This result means that ka and kc are
either both positive or both negative. To eliminate the ambiguity, con-
sider the sum ya + yc = yn + 2/22 + 2(/u. The residues will be related by
fca + kc = kn + *» + 2ka (7-63)
If ku is positive, then the left-hand side will also be positive. Suppose
that ka is negative. From the residue condition we know that
(fa2l < fefe (7-64)
If we substitute — Vfcnfc« for ka in Eq. (7-63), the equality will become
an inequality as follows:
ka + kc > kn + kv - 2Vknk2 = (fci - k«)2 > 0 (7-65)
Consequently, since both the sum and the ratio of fca and kc are always
nonnegative, both ka > 0 and kc > 0. This guarantees that ya and ye are
RC admittance functions.
278 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-5
We have dealt here with the pi equivalent and the y parameters.
Similar results follow for the tee equivalent and the z parameters. For
example, using the z-y relationships in Eq. (7-59), we get
z22 — ZU na ,_ „„,
= — = a (7-66)
zn - za zc
where za and ze are the series-branch impedances of the tee. In a similar
way we can show that these are RC impedances. Note that z22 and zn
replace 2/n and 2/22, respectively.
The next step is to show that the Ozaki realization procedure can be
adapted to the present case. We shall follow the same sequence of steps
as we did in the symmetrical case. Let us first group the terms in the
partial-fraction expansion of the y parameters according as the residues
of — 2/i2 are positive or negative. Thus
— 2/i2 = 2/up — 2/«n (a)
2/n = 2/np + 2/nn (b) (7-67)
2/22 = 2/22p + 2/22n (c)
These correspond to Eqs. (7-18), with the difference that the residues of
T/n and 2/22 are not necessarily the same as the corresponding ones of — t/u.
Let us now substitute these into Eq. (7-59). From the result we can express
the following relationships among the residues:
knp = £up + afep — kap) (a)
kiin = — fctfn + a(knn + fcu,) (b)
From the first of these equations an important result follows. Suppose that
&22p < kup at one of the poles. The residue condition then requires that
knp > ki2p at that pole. But the second term in Eq. (7-68, a) will be nega-
tive so that this requirement cannot be satisfied. It follows that if the y
parameters satisfy Eq. (7-59) then the residues of T/H and 2/22 are necessarily
at least as large as the corresponding positive residues of — 2/u. These in-
clude the residue at infinity and the constant term. At compact poles this
requires knp = knp = kap.
In the first step of the realization the y parameters are made compact.
This involves removal of enough of fcnp and A-22P so as to make the re-
mainders equal to kup. Suppose that we write
knp = fcuP(l + x,) (a)
knp = ki2p(l + x2) (b)
so that the amount of the residue that is removed at each pole of the
Sec. 7-5
279
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
positive part of yn is Xikup, while the corresponding quantity for yn is
xjcup. Using these expressions in the first of Eqs. (7-68), we find that
i2 = Xi/a. Thus, if we let YI be the admittance that is subtracted from yn,
then the admittance that is subtracted from yn is Yi/a. The partial
realization is shown in Fig. 7-15(a). This corresponds to Fig. 7-2 in the
symmetrical case.
(a) (b)
Fig. 7-15. Partial realization of unbalanced nonsymmetrical two-port.
The second step in the realization is the same as the second step in the
symmetrical case. It involves the removal of a bridging branch as in
Fig. 7-3. This step can be performed if an admittance Y2 can be subtracted
from the positive part of — 2/i2 and still maintain a Hurwitz polynomial in
the numerator of the remaining T/U.
The third step is to form the z parameters. Then, following the same
reasoning that we used for the y parameters we can show that, whenever
the positive and negative parts of the y parameters have similar terms in
their partial-fraction expansions, then the positive parts of zn and ZK will
have excess residues. These can then be subtracted and realized as series
impedances as illustrated in Fig. 7-15(b). If Z3 denotes the impedance at
the input terminals, the impedance at the output terminals will be Z3/a.
The details of this development are left to you.
Step 4, which is illustrated in Fig. 7-5, remains unchanged.
Finally, if none of the above steps can be performed, the Ozaki sepa-
ration theorem can be applied. After —yu is separated into two com-
ponents, we assign the residues of the component yn and 2/22 functions so
that they are the same fraction of the residues of the initial 2/n and 2/22 as
the residues of the component 2/«'s are of the initial 2/l2. Alternate appli-
cation of some or all of these steps will lead to a complete realization.
This realization technique will be illustrated in connection with the
cascade synthesis in Sec. 7-10.
280 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-6
7-6. Realization in a tree structure
Let us now view in perspective the ideas we have been discussing in the
early parts of this chapter. Starting from a realizable transfer function
(Zu, Yn, or Tit), we have seen that it is always possible to obtain a sym-
metrical realization if we accept a low value of gain. This realization can
always take the form of a lattice. We found the minimum-phase condition
to be sufficient (but not necessary) to permit an unbalanced symmetrical
realization. Finally, we were able to generalize the unbalanced symmetrical
realization, obtaining a network having the same structure as the sym-
metrical one. This will usually lead to a higher gain constant than the
symmetrical realization.
In this section we shall discuss a realization procedure which leads to a
network having the maximum realizable gain constant. The procedure is
due to Fialkow and Gerst (45).
A. Unbalanced Realization
We shall first treat transfer functions which have no zeros on the posi-
tive real axis but may have zeros anywhere else, including the right half
plane. Suppose that the given function is T'u(s), the voltage transfer ratio.
We saw in Chap. 4 that it is always possible to write such a function in
the form
1 ,!(s) - ~ 6„ + bls + . . . + bns- ~ Q(s) (7-70)
None of the numerator coefficients is negative and each one is no greater
than the corresponding denominator coefficient; that is, at < 6< for all i.
Sometimes this may require the use of surplus factors.
Consider initially the first-order transfer function
r» - grl <"»
This function can be realized by the L network shown in Fig. 7-16, whose
l/o0
an
0 i—|f
bt-°tT 5 h-°o
*a + Vb
(a) (b)
Fig. 7-16. Realization of first-order transfer functions.
Sec. 7-6 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 281
transfer ratio is also given in the figure. By comparing this with the last
equation, we find
yn = als + ao (a)
Yb = (6. - o,)« + (ft, -a„) (b)
The final realization is shown in part (b) of the figure. Note that the ad-
mittance level can be multiplied by any constant value without modifying
the transfer function.
Now let us turn our attention back to the nth-order function in Eq.
(7-70). Our objective will be to obtain two simpler transfer functions from
the nth-order function with the expectation that realizations of these
simpler functions, when connected in parallel, will realize the original
function. If the two simpler functions are of the first order, we realize
them by L networks, as we have just shown. If they are of higher order, we
reduce each one of them again until we have only first-order functions.
This is the scheme we plan to explore.
Let us decompose the denominator polynomial into the sum of two
polynomials Qa and Qb. The next step is to decompose the numerator
also into the sum of two polynomials Pa and Pb. Finally, let us divide
numerator and denominator by another polynomial G. We do not yet know
what the properties of the various polynomials should be. The require-
ments on them will be established as we proceed. The formal result of
these steps will be
_ P.(s)/G(s) + Pb(s)/G(s)
1 m ~ G.W/OW + Q.W/0W {7.16)
According to our plan, we are seeking a realization which is the parallel
connection of two networks. Since the y parameters of two parallel-con-
nected two-ports is the sum of the component y parameters, we can write
for the transfer ratio of the parallel combination
Tn(s) = ~(^ + y»*) (7.74)
yna T 2/226
where the subscripts refer to the two networks. A comparison of the last
two equations shows that we can make the following formal identifications:
Pa(s) Qa(8) . ,
-Ita. = gtf 2/22. = ^y (a)
(7-75)
P„(s) Qb(s) ...
~ym = G(s) ynb = CW (b)
Furthermore, the voltage ratios of the individual two-ports can be formed
from the individual y parameters, and we get
282 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 1-6
,.
W
(7-76)
rp — ub 6 ,, ,
I i26 — ~ "~ — n , •. (O)
2/226 Qb(8)
From the known properties of transfer ratios and y parameters of un-
balanced RC two-ports we can now establish the required properties of
the polynomials. If yna and ym, are to be RC admittance functions, we
must require that Qa and Qb have negative real zeros only. Furthermore,
G(s) must also have only negative real zeros which alternate with those of
both Qa and Qb. Thus we decompose Q(s) into two polynomials Qa and Q6
as discussed in Sec. 7-2 so that their zeros are negative real and separate
each other. Then we choose G(s) so that it is of the same degree as Qb
and its zeros separate those of both Qa and Qb.
Now consider the requirements on the component polynomials Pa and
P6. Since Tua and Tm are to be transfer functions of unbalanced RC two-
ports, none of the coefficients of Pa and Pf, should be negative, while each
one should be no greater than the corresponding coefficient of Qa or Q&,
respectively. This decomposition of P(s) is always possible since its co-
efficients, in turn, are no greater than the corresponding ones of Q(s).
We have now succeeded in obtaining two transfer functions from the
original one. The same procedure can now be applied to each of these in
turn. If we are to make any progress by this technique, however, the
component transfer functions should be of lower order than the original
one so that, after successive applications of the decomposition procedure,
we shall arrive at first-order transfer functions which we know how to
realize. This result can be achieved in the following way:
In decomposing Q(s) assign all the highest-power term to Qa and all
the constant term to Qb. Hence Q6 will be one degree lower than Q, while
Qa will have a factor s. We can force Pa also to have a factor s by assigning
the entire constant term of P to P6. Thus, in the ratio Pa/Qa, the factor s
cancels, leaving a function of lower order than the original Tu. Of course,
other factors may also cancel, reducing the order even more. The ratio
Pb/Qb will also be of lower order than T«. (If P and Q are of the same
degree, we assign the entire highest-power term of P to Pa.)
Having obtained two transfer functions of lower order than the original
one, we must now realize each of these functions and then connect the
resulting networks in parallel. However, we need to exercise some care
at this point. Let us assume that a realization of Tua is obtained. This
network may not have the required 2/22a. You will recall that, in forming
T^a from 2/22a and 2/i2a, a factor s was canceled. This factor plays no part
Sec. 7-6
283
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
in the realization of Tua; yet it should appear in 2/22a- This discrepancy is
corrected in the following way: Suppose that the box (not including the
series impedance Za) shown in Fig. 7-17(a) realizes the function 7W
(a) (b)
Fig. 7-17. Network modification which leaves transfer ratio invariant.
The impedance placed in the output lead does not modify the transfer
ratio but does modify both 2/22a and 2/i2a- Looking at the network, we can
write
— = Za + -\~ (7-77)
2/22a 1)-.2a
where the prime applies to the box alone. We can now substitute for 2/22a
from Eq. (7-75). Remember that Qa(s) has a factor s so that we can write
Qa = sQi. This means that 1/2/22a has a pole at the origin. Hence we can
write
2/22a sQi s Qi(s)
(7
{''
where d(s) = G(s)/s - G(0)Q,(s)/sCMO). This leads to the identifications
Z.W = 7
2/22a =
(a)
(b)
(7-79)
Remember that G(s) is of lower degree than Qa(s) so that 1/2/22a has a
zero at infinity. Hence 1/2/22a also has a zero at infinity, which means
that 2/^za has a pole at infinity. Similar results follow for the second net-
work in the figure. We can write
2/226 2/226 V6 W6
where G2(s) = G(s) - Qb(s)/2/»6(00). It follows that
1
Z6 = *, =
)
(a)
(b)
(7-81)
284
Sec. 7-6
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
It is possible to write the right-hand side of Eq. (7-80) because Q6(s) and
G(s) are of the same degree. Thus ki is the infinite-frequency value of
l/JteI.. With this removed as a series resistance, 2/225 will have a pole at
infinity.
Before connecting the networks which are to realize Taa and Tw, in
parallel, we connect the impedances Za and Zb in the output leads of the
two networks, respectively. If Tua and Tin are of the first order, the job
is complete. If they are of higher order, the cycle is repeated until only
first-order functions are left. The resulting structure has the form of a tree
which branches out from the output end of the structure, as shown in
Fig. 7-18.
Fig. 7-18. Fialkow-Geret realization.
The preceding discussion has been carried out on the basis of a pre-
scribed open-circuit voltage transfer ratio. However, with a slight modifi-
cation the synthesis can be applied when a resistance termination is
prescribed. Let the given function be YU(s) (which equals — Ta for a
unity-resistance load). We again decompose the denominator into the sum
of two polynomials with negative real zeros, with the requirement that
their ratio be an RC admittance. This time each polynomial should share
the highest-power term. Just as we mentioned in the discussion of Sec. 7-2,
we now divide numerator and denominator of YU by one of these two
polynomials. The result can be written
-Y*
P/Q>
(7-82)
Sec. 7-6
285
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
In the now familiar way we make the identifications
P
-2/i2 = 7T
(a)
(b)
(7-83)
These are the y parameters of the desired two-port exclusive of the
load. Their ratio is the voltage transfer ratio which the two-port would
have if the load were not present. Thus
7" (8) -
l;'()
(7-84)
We now apply the previous realization procedure to this function, re-
membering that the required 2/22 must also be achieved. This is ensured by
writing
J_ = Ss_ft + S£ = z + _L
2/22 *ta *Ka .'/'*""
The realization will then take the form shown in Fig. 7-19. The series
resistance of value k will not affect Ti2 but is needed in order to guarantee
the correct 2/» and yu.
(7-85)
Fig. 7-19. Realization for finite-load resistance.
To illustrate the procedures we have discussed, let us synthesize the
following transfer function in a resistance-terminated two-port:
s2 + 2s + 2
= K,
(7-86)
3s2 -(- 9s + 5
The first step is to decompose the denominator polynomial. One pos-
sible breakdown is the following:
s2 + 2s + 2
v K(s' + 2s + 2) (s+l)(s + 3)
u (2«+ !)(« +2)+ (« + !)(«+ 3)
This leads to the functions
1+
(2s+l)(s + 2)
(«+!)(«+ 3)
(7-87)
286 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-6
-ya = K (s + !)(ss + 3) (a)
2/a _ (2s + !)(« + 2)
(s -p l)(s 4" 3)
m, -2/i2 y S2 + 2S + 2
* i2 — = A. rt v; i , ~ (C)
2/22 2s2 + 5s + 2 w
_!. — (s + l)(s + 3) _ 1 |s + 2
2/22 (2s + l)(s + 2) 2 "*" (2s + l)(s + 2)
Finally
so that k = \ (a)
, 0 (2s + l)(s + 2) (7-89)
J/22 â„¢ * Q , A VD/
OS + 4
The complete synthesis will consist of a resistance of \ connected in the
output lead of the realization of T'n and terminated in a unity resistance.
The first step in the realization of Tn is to establish the permissible
value of K. This constant must be small enough to guarantee that the
value of T{'2 is no greater than unity for any point on the positive real axis
(including zero and infinity). Thus the value of K will be controlled by
the largest value attained by the normalized transfer function (i.e., with
K replaced by unity) for positive real values of s. To find this largest
value, we calculate the zero-frequency value and the infinite-frequency
value of the normalized transfer function. We also determine the peaks
attained by this function along the positive-^ axis. The value of K can
be no greater than the reciprocal of the largest of these numbers.
In the present example we find by differentiating the function that
there are no peaks along the positive real axis. Thus K can be no bigger
than unity, which is the reciprocal of the zero-frequency value. Let us
choose the maximum possible value for K, namely, K = 1.
In the next step we must decompose both numerator and denominator
of T'i2. Because the function we are considering is relatively simple, we
shall keep the arbitrary choices of coefficient in literal form in order to
obtain some insight into practical factors that may affect our choice. Thus
let us write
T, (s2 + 2s) + 2
1i2 (2s2 + as) + [(5 - a)s + 2]
We then divide numerator and denominator by a polynomial G(s), which
will be linear in this case. Note, however, that this factor fixes the pole
of 2/22, which is already fixed in Eqs. (7-89). Hence G(s) = s + f.
Sec. 7-6
287
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
— Vua
s2 +
2/ma =
Tiu —
s+i
2si + as
*+*
s+2
-2/126
s+i
(5 - a)s + 2
2/2»6 = s + 4
2s + a
Tnb =
(5 - a)s + 2
(a)
(b) (7-91)
(c)
The number a is certainly no greater than 5; for Tna to be a realizable
transfer ratio, it must also be no smaller than 2. The range of a is further
narrowed by the requirement that y^a and ym> must be RC admittance
functions, which requires that the first critical point of these functions
be a zero and that the zeros and poles alternate. Applying these require-
ments to 2/22a and ynb leads to the condition
* <a<l
(7-92)
1/2
czx
1/2
-o o 'WV-
-o o-
(a) (b)
Fig. 7-20. Component realizations of numerical example.
Let us choose a = 3. With this choice each of the functions Tua and Tm
is realized as an L network as shown in Fig. 7-20.
Fig. 7-21. Complete realization of numerical example.
It remains to determine the impedances Za and Zh. We find these by
expanding l/yna and 1/ym- Thus
288
Sec. 7-6
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
J_
Ita.
J_
2/226
(a)
(7-93)
(b)
Jh
2s+ 2
Hence Za = 4/9s and Z6 = \, The complete realization is shown in
Fig. 7-21. Because of the relatively low order of the original transfer
function, this has the form of the familiar twin-tee network. (It also has
the general form shown in Fig. 7-18.)
B. Balanced Realization
The preceding discussion has served to show that any minimum-phase
or nonminimum-phase transfer function (with negative real and simple
poles), with the sole exception of one having positive real zeros, can be
realized in an unbalanced structure, with the gain constant specified before-
hand up to the maximum realizable value.
We shall now consider a technique which will apply when positive real
zeros are also present. This will constitute an alternative realization to a
symmetrical lattice. In Chap. 4 we showed that the transfer function of a
balanced two-port can be expressed as the difference between two un-
balanced transfer functions. Thus the numerator coefficients of a balanced
transfer function may be negative, but they must be no greater in size
than the denominator coefficients. If such a transfer function with simple
negative real poles is given, we can express it as
T"(s) - §W - Q ' Q = T- ' T™ (7-94)
The polynomials Pi and P2 are formed by grouping all the positive co-
efficients of P into Pi and all the negative coefficients into PI. Each of
'I2o
Fig. 7-22. Balanced two-port realization.
the two functions TUa and Tw, is realizable by the method just described.
The complete realization is then obtained by connecting the realizations
of the two component functions in the manner shown in Fig. 7-22, as you
can readily verify.
Sec. 7-6 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 289
As an example, consider the open-circuit voltage ratio
T" = K (s +41)V+ 2) (?-95)
We find that the maximum realizable value of K is 1/2. Let us choose K
to be this value and write
2 8/2
s2 + 3s H
2
-2 s2
+ 3s + 2
s2 + 3s -|
s/2
-2
(b)
o T *j° "T~ **
We must now reah'ze each of functions Tua and TM- For Tu* we get
2/i2c = 0
T«e =
i2" S2 _|_
6s (3 - 6)s + 2
S+
os+a
ntificatioE
0
18
2
2/i2d — 0 |
s+a
(3 - 6)s -
1-2
(3 - b)s + 2
The subscripts c and d refer to the two component networks which together
realize Tua. For y^e and ynd to be RC admittance functions, we must
require the conditions
a<6
< a (7-98)
3-6
These conditions will be satisfied by b = 7/4, a = 5/3.
One other point needs explanation. The transfer voltage ratio of the
c network is zero, while its 7/22 function is not. This may be realized by a
degenerate tee whose shunt-branch admittance is y^c, whose output series
branch is a short circuit, and whose input branch is open circuit. When the
c and d networks are then connected in parallel, the result is to place the
shunt branch of the c network across the output terminals of the d network.
The remainder of the realization is now straightforward. The resulting
network is shown in Fig. 7-23. You are urged to carry out the remaining
details. In realizing Ti26 the denominator was decomposed into s2 + 3s/2
290
Sec. 7-7
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
1/2 4/5
-AAA, »—AAAr-
5__
2
—'\AA-
10
Fig. 7-23. Balanced realization of numerical example.
and 3s/2 + 2. The polynomial (7(s) by which numerator and denominator
are divided was chosen to be s + $.
7-7. Ladder realization
The realization technique discussed in the preceding section is applicable
to any realizable RC transfer function. It would appear, then, that there
is no further purpose to be served in pursuing the subject of RC synthesis.
This, however, is not the case. We should always be "in the market"
for alternative realization procedures and equivalent networks, with the
hope of improving network structure and reducing the required number of
elements.
The locations of the transmission zeros are not taken into account in
the Fialkow-Gerst synthesis technique, except to the extent of determin-
ing the existence of positive real zeros. But, from our knowledge of the
necessary locations of the transmission zeros of certain simple network
structures, \ve may be tempted to seek such structures when the function
under consideration has zeros in the appropriate parts of the plane. As a
case in point, we know that the transmission zeros of RC ladder networks
necessarily lie on the negative real axis. Hence let us seek a ladder realiza-
tion when the transmission zeros are all negative real.
The situation here is completely analogous to the case of a lossless net-
work with transmission zeros restricted to the ju axis. The Cauer ladder-
development technique applies equally well here. Since we spent consider-
able time discussing this procedure in Chap. 5, it is not necessary to dwell
on it further here. It will suffice merely to give an illustration which will
point up any peculiarities of the RC situation as compared with the lossless
case.
Sec. 7-7
291
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
Suppose the following two y parameters are obtained from a prescribed
YH function:
(s +!)(« + 3)
2/22 ~ (s + !)(« + 4) W
(7-99)
-»« = K (s + -^+ 4) <b>
The transmission zeros lie at s = — 5/2 and at infinity. A sketch of yn(o)
is shown in Fig. 7-24. You will recall that the realization procedure consists
FiK. 7-24. Sketoh if yn(o).
in partially removing a pole of ya. (or its reciprocal) such that the remainder
has a zero at the desired transmission zero. The transmission zero is then
realized by completely removing a series-impedance pole or a shunt-
admittance pole. The order of removal of transmission zeros is arbitrary,
and the different choices constitute alternative realizations.
Suppose we first attack the transmission zero at infinity. The sketch
of z/23 (as well as previous knowledge) indicates that the infinite-frequency
value of 2/22 is greater than its zero-frequency value. Hence we cannot
subtract 2/22(00) from 2/22, for the purpose of creating a zero, without leaving
an unrealizable remainder. On the other hand, the infinite-frequency value
of an RC impedance is less than its zero-frequency value. So we take the
reciprocal of 2/22 and subtract its infinite-frequency value, which is unity.
.
_. ,
Ito
4)
_ «
!)(« + 3) (• + !)(« + 3)
Thus the network realization starts out with a series resistance of value
unity. The remaining impedance z2 has a zero at infinity; so our next step
is to invert and completely remove the pole at infinity from y2 = 1/Z2,
thus creating the desired transmission zero.
292
Sec. 7-7
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
2/2 = - = ^-r'
2)
|) 2
2f3
2/3 = 2/2-
(7-101)
3" 3s + 2
The network realization up to this point is shown in Fig. 7-25.
(b)
1 • v v v *->
I*
/J
Fig. 7-25. Partial ladder realization.
The transmission zero at s = — 5/2 still remains to be realized. The
sketch of the function y3(a) shown in Fig. 7-26 shows that it is impossible
Fig. 7-26. Sketches of y2(a) and z,(a).
to shift a zero to s = —5/2; so we consider its reciprocal Zs = 1/2/s- This
is also sketched in Fig. 7-26. In order to shift the zero from —2 to —5/2,
we need to subtract a constant from z3 which is the value of z3 at s = — 5/2.
Hence we first compute z3(—5/2). This is
5\ 3/s + 2\| 3
Sec. 7-8
293
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
Then
3s -)- 5
1_
z*
3
8
16s/15 8
« + * 5
The transmission zero at s = —5/2 is now realized as a shunt branch.
This leaves a remainder function v/6 = 8/5, which is realized as a series
resistance of value 5/8. The complete realization is shown in Fig. 7-27(a).
.5/6
5/8
3/8
12/25
.5
•24
(b)
Fig. 7-27. Ladder realizations.
An alternative realization can be obtained by removing the trans-
mission zeros in the opposite order. The result is shown in Fig. 7-27(b).
The details are left for you as an exercise. Note that the finite transmission
zero is produced in a series branch in this case.
The same realization technique applies, of course, when the given
functions are za and z22, provided only that the transmission zeros are all
on the negative real axis. As discussed in Chap. 5 for the LC case, however,
we have no control over the achieved transmission level and over the third
parameter (yn or zn). In the illustration of Fig. 7-27(a), for example, we
find that the zero-frequency value of —yu is 1/2; from Eqs. (7-99), it is
5K/l2. This means that the value of K which we have realized is K = 6/5.
The alternative realization of part (b) of the figure yields a value K =
30/31. On the other hand, the low gain constant in this case is compensated
by the reduction in the total number of elements from six to five.
7-8. Parallel-ladders realization
If the transmission zeros of a given transfer function do not all lie on
the negative real axis, then a ladder network will not be realizable. In this
section we shall discuss an alternative to the Fialkow-Gerst synthesis when
there are no transmission zeros on the positive real axis.
294 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-8
The starting point is a prescribed transfer admittance FU(s) or an
open-circuit voltage ratio Tu(s), from which we obtain the two short-
circuit parameters 2/l2 and 2/22. Since the transmission zeros do not all lie
on the negative real axis, a ladder realization is not possible. However, if
we can decompose the y parameters in such a way that the transmission
zeros of each component all lie on the negative real axis, then each com-
ponent can be realized as a ladder. The parallel connection of the compo-
nents will constitute the complete realization.
This technique is identical with the method described in Sec. 5-4 for
the realization of lossless two-ports. It was first described by Guillemin
(56). We require only that the numerator coefficients of — yu be positive.
A sufficient condition for this requirement is that the numerator of —yu
be a Hurwitz polynomial, but this is not necessary. We have already
seen how the use of surplus factors will lead to positive coefficients in case
some of the zeros of yu are in the right half plane.
It is not necessary at this point to repeat the development carried out
in Sec. 5-4. It will be sufficient to give a numerical illustration. For this
purpose let us resynthesize the transfer admittance given in Eq. (7-86)
for which a Fialkow-Gerst realization was obtained in Fig. 7-21. The
given function is
Let us decompose the denominator into the same two polynomials we did
before. The given function can then be written
s2 + 2s + 2
(s +!)(* + 3)
~
- (2s + 1)(.+ 2)
1 (s + l)(s + 3)
from which we identify the following functions:
(7-104)
(2s + l)(s + 2)
V - (.+ !)(. + 3)
The next step is to decompose the numerator of T/U into two polynomials
each of which has zeros exclusively on the negative real axis. One such
decomposition is the following:
s2 + 2s + 2 = [«(« + 1)] + (s + 2) (7-105)
With this decomposition the two component yu functions become
Sec. 7-8
295
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
— 2/l2a =
— 2/i26
(a)
(b)
(7-106)
(«+ l)(s + 3)
In the a function the factor s + 1 cancels. Hence s = — 1 can be con-
sidered a private pole of yKa. Thus we first remove this pole.
s/2 , 3s + 4
2/22 —
s/2
3)
:'..-*
(a)
(b)
(7-107)
s + 1" 2(s + 3)
The only zero of yua occurs at the origin. In'order to shift a zero of yi to
the origin, we should remove its zero-frequency value, which is 2/3. Thus
_ 2 = 5s/6
*" (7-108)
I 18 . 0
Z2
1 = !§ , 5
v/2 â„¢ 5s 5
The pole of z2 at the origin is then realized as a series capacitance. The
remainder of the function is then simply a resistance. The complete realiza-
tion is shown in Fig. 7-28(a).
1/6
6/5
Fig. 7-2:;. Component ladders in numerical example.
Now let us turn to the 6 ladder. We see that 2/22 already has a zero at
s = —2, which is one of the zeros of 2/i26. Hence we invert and remove
completely the pole of the reciprocal function at this point.
J_ (s + l)(s + 3)
U» (2s + l)(s + 2)
(7-109)
Z4 = Z3 —
s + 2 2s + 1
The other zero of ym is at infinity. To create a zero of z4 at infinity, we
must subtract its infinite-frequency value, which is 1/2. Thus
296
Sec. 7-8
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
12s . 6
(a)
(b)
(7-110)
The pole of y$ at infinity is removed as a shunt capacitance, leaving a
remainder whose reciprocal is realized as a series resistance. The complete
ladder is shown in Fig. 7-28(b).
The next step is to calculate the constant multipliers of 2/i2a and yw,
directly from the networks. In the notation of Sec. 5-4 we find Ba = 5/6
and Bb = l from the asymptotic behavior at infinity and zero, respectively.
Finally, using Eq. (5-47), we find
K=
11
(7-111)
Hence the admittance levels of the ladders must be changed by the follow-
ing factors:
Ladder a:
Ladder b:
11
11
The resulting network is shown in Fig. 7-29. This network together with
the gain constant K = 5/11 is to be compared with the network of Fig. 7-21
-M-
5/33
It/30
\AA f WAy f-^W
11/6 II/I0 ..
•
"T"*
15/11
Fig. 7-29. Parallel ladders realization of numerical example.
and the corresponding gain constant of unity. We find that the Fialkow-
Gerst realization of this example is superior both in the required number
of elements and in the achieved gain constant.
Sec. 7-9 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 297
7-9. Cascade realization—Dasher
In the preceding sections we have presented several realization pro-
cedures for an unbalanced RC two-port when a transfer function is pre-
scribed. One of these is a symmetrical structure, and a sufficient condition
for the realizability is the requirement of no right-half-plane transmission
zeros. The technique can be used whether the two-port is resistance-
terminated or is open-circuited and whether the driving function is a
voltage source or a current source. The parallel-ladders technique over-
comes the restriction on right-half-plane transmission zeros but cannot be
applied when the prescribed function is the transfer impedance Zn(s).
Both these realizations suffer from the affliction of low transmission gain
and excessive number of elements. The Fialkow-Gerst procedure over-
comes the low-gain problem. However, this method, along with the
other two, suffers from another disadvantage which we have not yet
discussed. In these realizations there is no single element or group of
elements that control the locations of each transmission zero. In a physical
realization (when the network is actually built) it may be necessary to
adjust the elements to compensate for the inaccuracy of element values.
But each element affects the performance of the network at all frequencies,
and so no independent adjustments are possible.
When the transmission zeros are restricted to the negative real axis,
a ladder realization can be obtained. This realization has the feature that
some of the branches are zero-shifting branches, while others, which alter-
nate with the former, are zero-producing branches. Each transmission zero
is practically controlled by a single branch of the network. Thus adjust-
ment of element values of one branch in order to shift a transmission zero
slightly does not adversely affect the network performance at other fre-
quencies.
It would be useful to have a realization technique, even when trans-
mission zeros are complex, that incorporates the desirable features of the
ladder network. What we want is a cascade connection of component two-
ports, or sections, such that each section realizes a pair of complex trans-
mission zeros, just as the branches of a ladder realize real transmission
zeros. Figure 7-30 shows the desired structure. This idea is reminiscent
of the Darlington synthesis of a positive real function as a cascade con-
nection of lossless two-ports terminated in a resistance. Darlington's type
C (Brune section) and type D sections are used to realize a pair of imaginary
298
Sec. 7-9
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
or real zeros and a quadruplet of complex zeros, respectively. In the initial
realization of a type C, or Brune, section, negative elements appear.
However, we find that the section as a whole constitutes a compact two-
port with no negative elements.
Fig. 7-30. Cascade realization.
This same idea was used by Dasher (39) in his cascade synthesis of RC
two-ports. The starting point is again a transfer function with negative
real poles (Zu, FK, or Tu). From this function two of the three z or y
parameters are determined. The remainder of this chapter will be devoted
to a discussion of cascade realization.
To be specific, suppose that y^ and yu are given as a realizable set of RC
parameters. We want to develop the driving-point function in a ladderlike
cascade connection of simple two-ports such that the transmission zeros
are all realized. If there are any negative real transmission zeros, we know
how to handle them. Let us assume that the negative real transmission
zeros have been realized and all the remaining zeros of ya are complex or
lie on the ju axis. Let us designate by y(s) the driving-point admittance
of the remaining network. Each pair of complex or imaginary transmission
zeros is to be realized by a section in cascade with the rest of the network.
Let us designate by a subscript c (standing for "component") the y and z
parameters of the zero-producing section.
Since the section is to realize a pair of complex zeros, So = — o-o + ju8
and its complex conjugate, the numerator of yac, must be a quadratic.
The simplest function will be obtained if we assign a single finite pole to yac-
Thus
_&
-]
Je/
where
- "'Y + «8
(a)
(b)
(7-112)
(7-113)
We must now choose the functions ync and yne such that the resulting
set of functions is realizable. The details of the realization procedure will
depend on the choice made at this point.
Sec. 7-9 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 299
The simplest section we can think of is a symmetrical one. But re-
quiring symmetry of each zero-producing section certainly appears unduly
restrictive. A relatively simple network, one that includes the symmetrical
case as well, is a network whose y parameters satisfy the condition
u»±m = a (7.114)
2/22 + 2/11
This expression was first introduced in Sec. 7-5. Tnere we saw that an
Ozaki-type realization can be obtained for y parameters satisfying this
condition. Let us, then, seek zero-producing sections whose y parameters
satisfy Eq. (7-114). At the outset we have no assurance of success. But
as we develop the procedure, we shall find that all conditions will be
satisfied with sections of this type.
Another condition we shall impose on the zero-producing sections is the
condition of compactness. This is not really a stringent requirement. If
there are any noncompact poles, the excess in the residues of ymc over the
amount necessary for compactness can be removed as a shunt branch
across the output of the section. This branch can then be considered part
of the remainder of the network after the zero-producing section is removed.
From the partial-fraction expansion of — j/uc we see that the positive
part involves only the pole at infinity and the constant term, while the
negative part contains only the finite pole. We previously found that, from
the basic condition given in the last equation, the two relationships given
in Eqs. (7-68) follow. These involve the residues of the positive part and
the negative part of the three y parameters. From the first of these con-
ditions we deduced in Sec. 7-5 that compactness requires fcnp = knp = knp.
Thus the residue at infinity and the constant term of t/Ue and j/mc must be
the same as the corresponding ones of —yoc- Now let us set knn = xkun at
the finite pole. Compactness will require fcnn = kuJx. The second of the
relationships in Eqs. (7-68) will then dictate that x = I/a. Consequently
we can now write the y parameters of the zero-producing section as
-y^-kfs + hc--^-) (a)
2/n, - k (s + fco« + a -xM (b) (7-115)
2/22e = k ( s + A-oc -I 7^- ) (c)
\ as + ad v
No matter what the structure of the zero-producing section, its pi equiva-
lent will have the form shown in Fig. 7-31. This is obviously not realizable
as an RC network, since y> is required to have complex zeros. Neverthe-
300
Sec. 7-9
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
Fig. 7-31. Pi equivalent of zero-producing section.
less, we know how to find realizations of the section according to the
methods discussed in Sec. 7-5. The branch admittances of the pi are
ya =
k((s + .rO)2
=-
yc =
(a)
(b) (7-116)
(c)
Starting with y(s), which is the short-circuit admittance of the entire
network, we subtract an admittance ya such that the remaining admittance
has a zero at so. Thus
yi(so) = y(so) - 2/a(so) = y(so) - ync(so) = 0 (7-117)
The remainder function is 2/i = y — ya. From the reciprocal of this function
we now subtract l/y6 = l/ — yvc, leaving an impedance Z2.
1
- 2/
- yile
(a)
_
?/2 —
(7-118)
y-
Since the pair of complex zeros was completely removed in the yb branch,
y2 is not zero at s = so. But both yuc and y — ya, which appear in the
numerator of the last equation, have the factor s — So. Hence the de-
nominator must have this factor twice, which means the derivative of
the denominator evaluated at s = so is also zero. Thus
2/'(so) - 2/,'u(so) = 0 (7-119)
where the primes indicate differentiation. These two conditions, Eqs.
(7-117) and (7-119), must be satisfied simultaneously if the contemplated
procedure is to be successfully used.
In their present form these conditions are not easy to interpret. Hence
one of our objectives will be to express these equations in a form involving
Sec. 7-9 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 301
the parameters of the zero-producing section and the poles and residues
of the original driving-point function. To this end, let us write
Then, using these and Eqs. (7-115) in the condition equations, after con-
siderable manipulation, we shall get
go = k(l + a) ag + "* - a°ae = A(l + a)(fcoc - ao) (a)
tTe
ba = *(1 + a)wo (b)
, , (iTe — ao)2 + UP + a[(ar — ao)2 - w,2,] (7-121)
ffo ~ K 7 \2 1 2
(ac — ao)' + W0
= * 1 + a-^P (c)
,, _ — „a, — ao) 2afc«o(o-c — ao) . >.
"0 — / \» 1 2 —; (ft)
(ac — ao)2 + W0 ackU
In simplifying these expressions use has been made of Eqs. (7-113). Note
that there are only three unknown quantities of the zero-producing section,
that is, k, a, and ac, which can be varied in order to satisfy these four equa-
tions. Hence, for an arbitrarily given y(s) and a given pair of transmission
zeros, these equations will probably not be simultaneously satisfied. They
will be satisfied only for special forms of y(s). To find the condition on y(s),
let us eliminate the unknowns k, a, and ac from the right-hand sides.
After much manipulation the result will be
- , fa)Q bo —
Ofl Oo — fa)ogo _ wo
Wo&o ao
This is a fairly complicated expression, involving the real and the
imaginary parts of the driving-point function y(s), and their derivatives,
evaluated at the transmission zero SP = o-o + jwo. Furthermore, it is still
not in a very useful form. It would be much more useful to have an ex-
pression involving the poles and the residues at the poles. Suppose we
write the partial-fraction expansion of y(s). (We actually expand y/s and
then multiply by s.)
»(•) = kxs + *«, + £ -%?- (7-123)
f^ls + "<
From this we can form the derivative and then identify the quantities
<7o, bo, go, and &o- Finally, these are substituted into the previous equation.
302 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-9
You can readily appreciate that the algebra will become tremendously
complicated. If you carry out the details, you will get the following result:
n /. n /. 2
;. V1 £i£i i.„ V ^
+ 2,4-4- k< + So|v,--M4 ° (7-124)
We have now found a condition involving all the poles of the original
driving-point admittance y(s), the residues of y/s at these poles, and the
transmission zero which is to be realized by the section. We will refer to
this equation as the condition equation. If this condition is not satisfied by
y(s), then the contemplated procedure will not work. At the moment
this appears to be a severe handicap. However, note that the first term
in this equation is always positive, the second term is always negative,
while the third may be either positive or negative. Suppose that, for
a given y(s) with the partial-fraction expansion given in Eq. (7-123),
the left-hand side of the equation is negative (and not zero, as it should
be to satisfy the equation). Consider reducing the value of ko. This will
make the left-hand side of the equation less negative. It may be that for
a small enough value of ko the left-hand side will reduce to zero. This
means that before removing the zero-producing section we should reduce
the constant term in y(s) by removing a shunt-resistance branch. The
remaining function will then satisfy the required condition. We shall call
this a preparation branch since it prepares the function for the removal
of a zero-producing section.
The question arises, "Is it always possible to find a preparation branch
such that the remaining function will satisfy the required condition?" If
this question is to be answered in the affirmative, we should be able to
satisfy the condition equation by reducing one or more of the residues
of y(s). If the expansion of y(s) contains both ko and km, then it will clearly
be possible to "prepare" the function by partial removal of one or more
poles because the condition equation will contain both positive and nega-
tive terms. It remains to consider those cases in which fco or k„ or both
are missing from y(s).
Suppose that y(s) has no pole at infinity (ka = 0) and the third term
in the equation is negative. Or possibly ko = 0, and the third term is
positive. Then the procedure will be blocked. As an example, suppose that
so = — 5 + jl and
^ = Too(2s + s-fl + s-T2) <7-125>
Sec. 7-9
303
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
With these numerical values the condition equation becomes
0 (7-126)
Since both terms in the equation are positive, it is impossible to fulfill the
required condition by partially removing any of the poles of y(s).
When we were first discussing the zero-shifting technique in Chap. 5
in connection with lossless networks, we found that there was a finite
range on the ju axis to which no zeros of admittance could be shifted.
We are now at a similar impasse. We solved the former problem by in-
verting and proceeding on an impedance basis; so let us attempt to do
similarly now.
In order to proceed on an impedance basis, it will be necessary to derive
a condition equation which involves the poles and residues of the im-
pedance z(s) — \/y(s). The entire previous development must be paral-
leled. Let us find the z parameters corresponding to the y parameters of
Eqs. (7-115), using the z-y relationships given in Table 1-2. The result is
(a)
as
where
fc.
(b) (7-127)
(c)
(7-128)
(a + l)2kku
It is apparent that s tunes these parameters is the same as the correspond-
ing y's except that the roles of ac and koc have been interchanged and k,
replaces k.
Instead of dealing with the pi section, we now consider the tee equiva-
lent shown in Fig. 7-32. Analogous to Eqs. (7-117) and (7-119), we find
z(so) - znc(sa) = 0 (a)
=0
(b)
(7-129)
z0 =2nc -z*c
zcmz2tc~zt£e
Fig. 7-32. Tee equivalent of zero-producing section.
304 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-9
Equating the real and imaginary parts of the left-hand sides of these to zero,
we get four equations analogous to Eqs. (7-121). Again this implies a
special form for z(s). If we consider the partial-fraction expansion in Eq.
(7-123) to be s times the expansion of z(s) (instead of being s times the
expansion of y/s), we will again get the same condition equation, Eq. (7-124).
Now, however, the poles are those of z(s). The algebraic details are left
for you.
Let us return to the impasse we were facing. If the condition equation
cannot be satisfied on an admittance basis because one or the other of the
residues &„ and ka is missing, we invert and deal with z(s). If y(s) has no
constant term, for example, this means that it has a zero at s = 0. Its
reciprocal z(s) will have a pole at s = 0 and hence a term ko/s in its partial-
fraction expansion. Consequently the quantity sz(s) will have a constant
term.
As an illustration, let us return to the function in Eq. (7-125) and take
its reciprocal. We shall get
«W = f^T^ - f (* + Tb + -T3) (7-13c)
(« + !)(*+ 3) 9\ « + | s + 3/
Let us now form the condition equation, but keep ko as a parameter. We
shall ge*
-10.84fco + 4.62 = 0
or A;o = 0.426
But the constant term in Eq. (7-130) is 200/9. Hence we must subtract
^ — 0.426 = 21.8 from sz(s) in order to have a function which satisfies
the condition equation. This means that we remove a series capacitance
Co = 1/21.8 as a preparation branch.
Thus, when the condition equation cannot be satisfied on an admittance
basis, we invert and proceed on an impedance basis. One or the other of
these will always work. On an impedance basis we remove a tee section
as in Fig. 7-32, while on an admittance basis we remove a pi section as
in Fig. 7-31. However, these two will be equivalent if we use Eq. (7-128)
and interchange koc and ac. Actually, we do not need to construct the pi
or the tee—all we need are the values of the parameters k, a, and a,,
In the next section we shall discuss a method for obtaining realizable zero-
producing sections after these quantities have been determined.
At this point let us review what we have done. We started with a
given f/i2 and y (which is the given 2/22 or the admittance remaining after
Sec. 7-10 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 305
any existing negative real transmission zeros are realized). We showed
that it is always possible to remove a "preparation" branch, either in
parallel or in series, such that the remaining admittance or impedance
satisfies the relatively complicated condition given in Eq. (7-124). This
permits us to remove a "zero-producing" section whose y parameters are
given in Eqs. (7-115).
There are still several jobs to be done before we are finished. (1) We
must still show that the solution of Eqs. (7-121) for the quantities k, a,
and ac leads to positive values. (2) We must find an RC realizable equiva-
lent of the nonrealizable pi section. (3) We must show that the function
remaining after the removal of the zero-producing section is positive real
and RC.
The first and third of these tasks is left for you to do. Some guides to
the first are given in Prob. 7-6, while the third is outlined in Prob. 7-7.
7-10. Zero-producing sections for complex transmission zeros
In this section we shall discuss the second task enumerated in the last
section—that of determining a realizable equivalent of the zero-producing
section. The y parameters are given in Eqs. (7-115). Since they satisfy
the condition given in Eq. (7-114), we can use the Ozaki realization tech-
nique. Step 2 in the Ozaki procedure consists in removing any part of the
positive part of — yn as a bridging admittance provided that the remaining
function satisfies Fialkow's condition. (We have dropped the subscript c
from the y parameters of the zero-producing section for simplicity.) What
we remove from the positive part should include the entire constant term
or the entire pole at infinity in order that the z parameters of the remainder
have a noncompact pole at the origin or a noncompact constant term,
thus permitting further decomposition. Four possibilities exist:
1. Remove entire pole at infinity.
2. Remove entire pole at infinity, plus a fraction of the constant term.
3. Remove entire constant term.
4. Remove entire constant term, plus a fraction of the pole at infinity.
We shall outline the procedure for the first two of these possibilities
and leave the details of the other two to you.
If we remove the entire pole at infinity from the y parameters in Eqs.
(7-115) and realize it as a bridging capacitance, the remaining functions
will be
306
Sec. 7-10
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
.„.' — i- (2a° ~ ae)s"
'i,1I. fcu<
yn = K \ KOe + a ——
\*4
, . /. 1 fci2S \
yn = k I koc + - —-— )
\ a s + i7e/
(a)
(b) (7-131)
(c)
The first of these equations has been simplified by the use of Eq. (7-113b).
The remaining yu will be minimum-phase only if 2ao — ac > 0. Hence
the contemplated realization is possible only if this condition is satisfied.
The next step is to compute the z parameters of the remainder. The result is
o(2o-Q — ay) Oae
ak(a
zii =
222 = Z« +
1
+ 1)
(a)
(b) (7-132)
(c)
kkoe(a + 1)
This set is immediately recognized as the z parameters of a simple tee
network. The resulting complete structure is shown in Fig. 7-33.
Consider now the second possibility. Removing part of the constant
oo
.1
(G
,A/
vA/ 1|
— 'VXA/— A o
1i
^wv —
tf*
(b)
(', =*
G, = *(2o-o - ffe)
G, = **"(q + 1)
r a + I r<
Fig. 7-33. Zero-producing section; 2o'o > o-e.
Sec. 7-10 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 307
term as well as the pole at infinity means that there will be an additional
element in the bridging network. Hence there would be no purpose in
doing this unless there were a possibility of reducing the number of ele-
ments required in the remaining tee. We can eliminate the resistance in
the shunt branch of the tee if we can cause the zn of the tee to have a zero
at infinity. This will be possible if the \jn of the tee has a zero at infinity.
That is, we subtract from — yw the function k(s + x), leaving
y{2 = k(hc-x- -&-) = k '<** " *» " 1+ *<*» ~ g? (7-133)
For this function to have a zero at infinity, x must have the value he — ku
= 2<ro — ac. Since kx is the value of a bridging conductance, it must be
positive, which leads to the same condition as before, 2ao — ac > 0.
The remaining y parameters become
, kku<Te , N
2/12 = 7+Vc (a)
V'n = k (hi t + a ~^-) = -^- [s(a + 1) + <rc] (b) (7-134)
i id i 1 his \ kkn ( a + 1 , \ ,.
2/22 = k I k12 H —— ) = ——— I s h ac 1 (c)
\ as + aj s + ac \ a I
The corresponding z parameters will be
212 " kkn(a + iys W
*-A+*S(rn) (b) (7-135)
222 = 2l'2 + kku(a+ 1) (C)
As anticipated, these are the parameters of a tee network with single
elements in the branches. The complete realization is shown in Fig.
7-33 (b).
The remaining two possibilities can also be handled in this fashion.
For these two cases we find that the condition which must be satisfied
is 2<7oo'c > <72, + wjj. Again we find two bridged-tee realizations. These are
shown in Fig. 7-34.
Now suppose neither of the conditions 2ao > ac and 2ao > (ai + w2)/<7c
are satisfied. Then the Ozaki separation theorem can be employed, pro-
vided that ao > 0, that is, provided that the transmission zero is in the left
half plane or on the ju axis. The present situation corresponds to case B
of the Ozaki realization, to which Eqs. (7-32) and (7-33) apply. In the
308
Sec. 7-10
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
G,
.C,
ct
C,/a
M
\l ..,_
~* \r~
11 *
\l ,
• \l
,n
G2
^
Ci
= *(a + 1)
A
-tt*a
it/t«(a + I)1
a
c,
='
*
= 2Si^
t..
(o-o - ff,)2 + U,'
*
*
(b)
Jt(2». - Av)
+ 1)'
a
+ 1)
Fig. 7-34. Zero-producing section; 2o-o > (a• + wj)/o-e.
notation of those equations we must determine which of the two quantities
Ka = iTO + w? and
(ac — ac)2 + wo is smaller. In the present situ-
ation a<. > 2ffo so that ae — ao > irO- Hence Ka is the smaller of the two
constants. This means that in Eqs. (7-32) we should use the values am = 0
and K = o$ + 0$ = ackoc. The two components into which j/i' will be
separated become
— 2/i26 =
ac
(b)
(7-130;
Finally, apportioning the yn and y^ functions between the two component*
in the only way possible, the y parameters of the two components become
, I (o-c — 2o-o)s"| ks(s + 2ao)
— J/Ua — K S —
L « + o-c J
.
A- s + a
S+a
<ro)s"l
=
eJ
+ ire
_ ks[s + o>(o
(a)
(b) (7-137)
2/21a
and
o+
Sec. 7-10
309
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
\l?' . JL£^° uc,'°
1"
\\
0 1 VWn
6,/a
— £,( . *\f
e-AAAr-J
iO
•— * A A -k— i —JL A A A ,
I
m4
= |^ G,c-
T ^2
VVV
1 Gf/a
O—
• • O 0 4
(a)
C, =*(a+ I)
G, = koJc(a + 1)
C, = k(a + l)'(ac - 2ao)
G, = 2ffoCz
r3=A-Ma + l)'
Oo-,
ac
, _ (aa - Q2 + <*,'
0,
o + 1)
—yvtb
Fig. 7-35. Zero-producing section; 2(ro > ae.
(I s \ kiTckoc
S + ac/ S + ac
a s + ac/
The corresponding z parameters are found to be
a 2aoa
'A(o + 1) '(a. ~ 2ao)
Zna = Zua + 77 ;—rr-
+
- 2ao)«
and
i,
k(a
(KTe
kkoc(a
Znb = Zub +
z226 = zl26 +
,.,
kko.(a
(b) (7-138)
(c)
(a)
(b) (7-139)
(c)
(a)
(b) (7-140)
(c)
310 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-11
Each of these sets of parameters leads to a tee network so that the
complete realization is a twin tee, as shown in Fig. 7-35(a). Note that we
require the condition ac > 2ao for this realization.
The shunt branch of one of the tee's has both resistance and capacitance.
We can again reduce this branch to a single element by removing a com-
pensating element as a bridging branch. This procedure merely trades
positions of elements without changing the number of elements. We ac-
complish this result as follows: Before applying the Ozaki separation
theorem, enough of the pole of —yu at infinity is removed so that the
remainder has a pair of zeros on the ju axis. When the separation theorem
is applied to the remainder, the desired result is obtained. The details are
left for you as an exercise. The complete network is shown in Fig. 7-35(b).
Note that this realization also requires the condition ac > 2ao and that it
has the same number of elements as the previous one, seven.
The conditions for the realization of the networks of Figs. 7-33 and
7-35 are mutually exclusive, and between them they exhaust all possibilities.
The realizations in Eq. (7-34) become important if the conditions ac > 2v<
and 2aoac > o$ + i$ are simultaneously satisfied. Then these five-element
networks can be used instead of the seven-element networks in Fig. 7-35.
7-11. Dasher synthesis—completed
Let us now pause and review our progress in obtaining a cascade
realization of RC two-ports. We start with a transfer function having poles
exclusively on the negative real axis and no zeros in the right half plane.
This may be considered as either the open-circuit voltage transfer ratio
Tu(s) or the transfer impedance Zu(s) or transfer admittance Ya(s) with a
resistance load. In any case, from the given function, we next derive two
of the three open-circuit or short-circuit parameters, one transfer and one
driving-point. If there are any transmission zeros on the negative real
axis, these are realized by partially developing the driving-point function
in a ladder network. We are then left with two functions, say, 1/» and ya,
where 2/22 is an RC admittance and 2/u has complex zeros only, none of
which lie in the right half plane.
The next step is to remove a shunt admittance T/O from y^ or a series
impedance zo from the reciprocal 1/2/22 such that the remaining admittance
or impedance satisfies the rather complicated condition given in Eq.
(7-124). One or the other of these will always be possible. A zero-producing
section realizing a pair of conjugate transmission zeros is now removed.
This takes one of the forms of Figs. 7-33, 7-34, or 7-35 depending on the
Sec. 7-11 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 311
location of the realized zeros. In order to do this, it is necessary to de-
termine the values of the quantities k, a, and ac. Of course, these values
may be determined by the simultaneous solution of Eqs. (7-120) or (7-121).
However, they are more easily determined as follows:
Let y be the admittance remaining after the preparation section is
removed. Thinking in terms of the pi equivalent of the zero-producing
section shown in Fig. 7-31, we must now determine the first shunt branch
ya(s). Looking at Eq. (7-1 16a), we see that this requires a knowledge of
k, a, A-«, and a<. Actually, all we need are ac and the product k(l + a)
because ku can be computed from Eq. (7-113) once ae is established. The
desired quantities can be calculated from the first two of Eqs. (7-121).
The result is
&(l + a) = ^-o (a)
Wo
(7-141)
2 , 2 ^'
O0 ~r <On /•»
"' ~ - 1 - 7T (">
aa + i*lt7o/0o
Thus ya is completely determined. Knowing ya, we now form yi = y — ya.
This should have a zero at the desired transmission zero so that its re-
ciprocal should have a pole there. From the reciprocal we now subtract
z6 = l/2/6. At this stage all parameters in zb are known except k, and this
can now be determined by requiring that the remaining admittance, y2,
have no zero at the transmission zero. Then Eqs. (7-141) will give the
value of a, and all the parameters of the zero-producing section will be
known. The zero-producing section can now be realized. However, we still
need to subtract the second shunt admittance of the pi, yc = ya/a, in order
to have the remainder function available for the removal of the rest of the
transmission zeros.
After one zero-producing section is removed, the remaining function
is again "prepared" by the removal of a shunt branch or a series branch.
Another zero-producing section can now be removed, and this procedure
can be repeated until all the transmission zeros are realized.
We shall now illustrate the Dasher synthesis with a numerical example.
Let us again synthesize the transfer admittance function for which we have
already obtained a Fialkow-Gerst and a parallel-ladders realization. The
two y parameters which were given in Eqs. (7-104) are repeated here.
•« s s
+ !)(. + 3) (b)
312 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-11
There are a pair of conjugate left-half-plane transmission zeros and no real
zeros, and so we immediately proceed with the Dasher synthesis.
In the first step we investigate the possibility of subtracting a shunt
admittance ya such that the remaining admittance, y = y^ — yo, satisfies
the condition equation, Eq. (7-124). The partial-fraction expansion of y
must have the same poles as 2/22, with residues at most equal to the corre-
sponding residues of ya. Let us try
, , s/2 , 5s/6
» - ka + ;r+i \ + rr§ (7-143)
That is, we contemplate removing a shunt conductance yo = f — fco. We
have no assurance that this is possible, but if Eq. (7-124) can be satisfied
with a value of fcc less than f , the procedure will be possible. In the present
case Eq. (7-124) is relatively easy to evaluate, and we obtain the result
4A-o , 2 1
— T + TH =" or *° = G
5 15 6
Thus removal of a shunt conductance f — £ = $ will "prepare" the way
for a realization. With the determined value of ka substituted into Eq.
(7-143) we get
= i 1 s/2 , 5s/6 3s2 + 6s + 1
y~~6 + s+l« + 3 2(s + l)(s + 3)
The next step is to find the value of this admittance at the transmission
zero. In the present case iTO = wo = 1. Thus
2/(so) = go + jbo = | + j
With these values we find o> and k(l + a) from Eqs. (7-141) and kU from
Eqs. (7-113).
*«-*
fc(l + a) = 1 (7-144)
^i2 = ^
Substituting these values into Eqs. (7-116), we find ya to be
(7-145)
The next step is to subtract ya from y. The result of this operation is
(2s + l)(s' + 2s + 2)
"'"'
This has the factor s2 -f- 2s + 2, as it should. Now we invert and subtract
the shunt arm of the pi, zb = — \/yue. The result is
_ 3(« + 4)[s' + (4 - 2/3fc)s + (3 -
--
Sec. 7-11
313
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
Since z6 must completely remove the complex poles, the quadratic factor in
the numerator must equal s2 + 2s + 2 in order to cancel with the de-
nominator. This criterion fixes k to be 1/3. Knowing k, we now find a
from the product k(l + a) given in Eq. (7-144). This completes the evalu-
ation of all the parameters of the zero-producing section. They are col-
lected here.
Wo
1
We see that the conditions 2o-o > ac and 2ao > (iTQ + i•iii) Ac are both satis-
fied ; so any one of the sections in Figs. 7-33 and 7-34 can be used. However,
those in Fig. 7-33 are preferable since they have one reactive element
fewer.
Finally we take the reciprocal of z2 and subtract ye = ya/a. The result is
1 __ 5 s = 1
4
1/3 = 2/2 — yc =
3(« +
12 s +
(7-148)
The complete realization is shown in Fig. 7-36. The values given are those
of resistance and capacitance.
Hf
1/3
9/2
-VW
12/5
16
6/5
-VW-
Fig. 7-36. Cascade realization of numerical example.
The value of the gain constant which is achieved by the realization
can be obtained by finding the transfer admittance of the network at zero
frequency. It is found to be K = 1/4.
On comparing the cascade realization with the parallel ladders and
the tree realizations for this example, we find an improvement over both of
these in the number of elements used but a substantial reduction in the
gain constant. We should not, however, form general conclusions regarding
these matters from the results of a single example.
This example completes the discussion of Dasher's cascade realization
technique. The mechanics of the procedure are straightforward, although
314
Sec. 7-1!
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
establishing the validity of the results involves considerable effort. When
the given functions are more complicated than a ratio of quadratics, the
removal of a preparation section may involve some trial and error and
considerable computation.
A variation of the general procedure is possible when the given functions
are no more complicated than a ratio of quadratics. This variation con-
siderably simplifies the computational work. The procedure is outlined
in Prob. 7-9.
7-12. Cascade synthesis—network partitioning
Up to the present time the starting point of our synthesis has been the
transfer impedance Zu(s) or transfer admittance Yu(s) of a resistance-
terminated RC network or the open-circuit voltage ratio TU(s). From these
we have obtained zu and z22 or yu and 2/22, respectively, which are the
parameters of the RC network without the termination.
Fig. 7-37. Termination, separate or part of network.
Consider the network of Fig. 7-37(a). The function of interest is the
transfer admittance Fu(s) = h/Ei. Now look at part (b) of the figure.
The resistance is considered part of the network. If the output terminals
of network NI are short-circuited, the current /2 will be the same as that
of the first network. Thus the short-circuit transfer admittance of the
second network is the same as the transfer admittance (not short circuit)
of the first. If YU(S) is specified for the terminated network (a), we can
treat it as the short-circuit admittance of the network of (b), provided
that we ensure the appearance of a series resistance in the output lead.
Then, simply short-circuiting this network and taking the output across
the resistance R, we arrive at the desired result.
In order to carry out a realization, we must choose a driving-point
function, say, 1/22 to go with the given transfer function. This must be an
RC admittance function having the same poles as ya. In addition, it must
Sec. 7-12
315
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
be so chosen that the resistance /? will be present in the realization. This
will be guaranteed if we choose 2/22 to have no pole at infinity [>/22(00) = fcc].
The reciprocal of y^ will then have a nonzero value at infinity, and any
fraction of this can be removed as a series resistance before proceeding
with the rest of the realization. It is always possible to choose 2/22 with no
pole at infinity because the given transfer function cannot have a pole
at infinity.
A similar result is possible if the given function is the transfer im-
pedance Z«(s) corresponding to the network in Fig. 7-37(a). If we now
consider the termination as part of the network, as in Fig. 7-37 (c), then
the open-circuit transfer impedance of this network will equal the function
Zi2(s) for the previous network. Thus we may treat a given transfer
impedance as the open-circuit transfer impedance of the network of
Fig. 7-37(c) provided that in the realization we ensure the appearance of
a shunt resistance across the output. A driving-point impedance, say Zn,
must be chosen in such a way that this requirement is satisfied. One
having no pole at s = 0 will serve, since its reciprocal will have a nonzero
value at the origin. Any fraction of this can be removed as a shunt
resistance before continuing the realization.
The procedure we have just outlined constitutes an alternative method
of procedure for the synthesis of the transfer impedance or transfer ad-
mittance of a terminated two-port. It does not normally offer any out-
standing advantage over our first method of obtaining z or y parameters
from the given function. The major difficulty in the realization techniques
that we have discussed is one of computation, especially when the functions
involved are of high order. Any device that will reduce the computational
labor would be very useful. The network-partitioning theorems (see
Prob. 1-10) afford just such a device.
10
NO
Nb
o
.J
Fig. 7-38. Network partitioning.
Consider Fig. 7-38, which shows a network composed of the cascade
connection of two subnetworks. The over-all Zu or yu parameters may be
expressed in terms of the parameters of the subnetworks as follows:
316 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-18
(a)
(7-149)
(b)
(These expressions can be easily established by the use of TheVenin's
theorem.) If only yu or only zU is specified, we can use these expressions
to find the parameters of the two subnetworks, thus reducing the problem
to two simpler problems. This is done in the following way:
Suppose that we are given z« = P/Q, where P and Q are high-order
polynomials. We can write the numerator as the product of two poly-
nomials Pa and Pfc by assigning some of the numerator factors to Pa and
the rest to P6. We now divide both numerator and denominator by a poly-
nomial which we can also write as the product of two polynomials. Thus
formally we have
z" = Q = IT* = ' "Qa/Q"Q> (7-150)
Comparing this with the expression for Zu in the previous equation, we
can identify zl2a and Zu6 immediately, but the rational function Q/QaQb
gives us only the sum zm, + z22a. The fact that this last must be an RC
impedance function puts the only restriction on the polynomial QaQb. In
order to find zm and z22a individually, we expand Q/QaQb in partial frac-
tions. We then assign the terms in the expansion to zn6 or zna as dictated
by the poles of z^ and Zu6. If these two have any common poles, we must
split the term corresponding to that pole between Ziu and z22a-
Normally, however, the prescribed function is not ZH alone or 2/u
alone, but the transfer function of the terminated two-port. Nevertheless,
we can still use the partitioning theorem by availing ourselves of the ideas
presented in the first part of this section. Thus suppose that the given
function is the transfer admittance Fu of the terminated network of Fig.
7-37(a). We can consider this to be the yu function of the network of
Fig. 7-37(b) and use the procedure just outlined to find the y parameters
of the two cascaded subnetworks which are to constitute the realization.
Now we must form T/II(, from the sum ynb + 2/22a in such a way that a
resistance at the output is guaranteed. This will be the case if 2/m has no
pole at infinity.
As an illustration, consider the following transfer-admittance function
of a resistance-terminated RC two-port:
2!±2L (?_
2)(« + 4)(«2 + ¥s + 6)
Sec. 7-12 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 317
There are two pairs of complex transmission zeros. Considering this func-
tion to be the negative short-circuit transfer admittance of the modified net-
work having a series resistance in the output lead, we can apply Eqs.
(7-149). We need to divide numerator and denominator of the given
function by a polynomial whose zeros alternate with the zeros of the de-
nominator. This must be of the third or fourth degree. An acceptable
polynomial would be (s + l)(s + 3)(s + 5). Thus we can write
(f + s + 3)(s2 + 2s + 2)
u (s + 2)(s + 4)(s2 + 25s/3 + 6)
(s + l)(s + 3)(s + 5)
In order to assign the correct factors to the parameters of the a and b
networks, note that we require ym. to be regular at infinity. This means
that 2/i26 must also be regular at infinity. Hence, by arbitrarily assigning
poles, we can write
s2 + s + 3 , .
-Ihu = Ka (a)
(7-153)
-2/i26 =
where KaKb = K. The next step is to make a partial-fraction expansion
of the denominator of Eq. (7-152). When we do this, we obtain
All the terms in this equation can now be uniquely assigned to yHb or y^a
except for the constant term. Since both yua and i/u6 have a constant
term in their expansion, both 2/22a and ym. must also have a constant term.
Hence the term 48/15 in Eq. (7-154) must be shared by both. The exact
amount assigned to each is arbitrary. Thus, if we assign 2/3 to 2/m, we
shall get
38 JS S2 + \5-« + ^ , .
Each of the two subnetworks can now be realized by any one of the
synthesis procedures we have discussed in this chapter, except that the
parallel-ladders realization cannot be used for the Nb network since this
realization will not give the desired series resistance in the output lead.
If we compare the y parameters of the Nb network with those of the
numerical example given in Eqs. (7-142), we shall find that they are
318 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS Sec. 7-12
identical, except that 2/M in that example is here replaced by yn. (As you
undoubtedly suspect, this was by design.) Thus the realization of the Nk
network will be the same as in Fig. 7-36, but with the termination absent
and with the network inverted so that the one and two ends are inter-
changed. The desired series resistance in the output lead is in evidence.
The remainder of the realization is left to you as an exercise.
PROBLEMS
7-1. It was shown (Prob. 2-7) that, if P(s) is a polynomial with simple
negative real zeros only, then its derivative P'(s) is also such a polynomial
whose zeros alternate with those of P(s). Using this information, obtain
a decomposition of the denominator polynomial P(s) of an RC transfer
admittance function into two polynomials whose ratio is a realizable J/M
function.
7-2. Obtain a realization of the functions given in Eqs. (7-40) by
decomposing the factor s + 4 and proceeding according to Ozaki's method.
Compare the complexity of the network with the realizations in Fig. 7-9.
7-3. Obtain the realization shown in Fig. 7-10, starting from the short-
circuit parameters given in Eqs. (7-43).
7-4. The following y parameters of an RC two-port are specified:
2/i2
2/22
(s + l)(s + 2)(s + 3)
6s4 + 343s8 + 1092s2 + 773s + 6
6(« + !)(« + 2)(s + 3)
36s4 + 533s1 + 1572s2 + 1183s + 36
36(s + l)(s + 2)(« + 3)
Obtain an unbalanced realization, using the Ozaki method.
7-5. Obtain an alternate realization for the functions given in Eqs.
(7-99).
7-6. Using Eqs. (7-121), solve for the parameters /;, a, and ac of the
zero-producing section in the Dasher synthesis procedure. Show that
these are positive, finite, and nonzero. To show that ac is positive, make
use of the results of Prob. 3-22. To show that o is positive, use a bilinear
transformation
l+o
which maps positive real values of o onto the real W axis between — 1 and
+ 1, the extremities corresponding to a = 0 and infinity. The problem is
reduced to showing that W 5* ± 1 . Use the results of Prob. 2-12.
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
319
7-7.. Starting with an RC admittance function y(s), show that removal
of a Dasher section realizing a pair of complex transmission zeros leaves
a remainder which is a realizable RC admittance. Use the notation of
Fig. 7-31 in the text, and let the parameters of the section be given by
Eqs. (7-115). It will be useful to sketch y(a) as well as the remaining
functions after each branch of the pi is removed. Note that 2/1 = y—yn
has only one pair of complex zeros, the rest being all real and lying between
the original poles of y, which are also poles of yi. Show that the residue of
Z\ — I/2/1 at its complex pole s = so is equal to the residue of z* = — l/j/uc
so that removal of zb from zx leaves an RC remainder.
7-8. Consider the lattice shown in Fig. P 7-8. This is the same as the
lattice treated in Prob. 5-2, with Rx and R2 replacing Li and Li, respectively,
(a) From the results of that problem write the y parameters of the RC
lattice.
(b) Draw the bridged-tee and twin-tee equivalents of the RC lattice
from the corresponding equivalents of the LC lattice.
R,
AAA/—I
~y^%~\
Fig. P 7-8
7-9. It is desired to obtain a Dasher realization when two functions
2/11 and — i/u are given, where 2/11 is a ratio of two quadratics and yn has
a pair of complex zeros — ao ijW (a) Show that removal of a suitable
constant from l/j/n will leave a remainder 2/11 which is a ratio of a quadratic
to a linear factor.
(b) Next show that the constant term in the numerator of 2/11, which
is equal to the product of its zeros, can be made equal to a? + ^ by
partial removal of either the pole at infinity or the zero-frequency value.
AAA
T
Zero-
producing
section
R
or
C
1
Fig. P 7-9
320 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
(c) Compare the remainder function with the general expression for
2/nc, thus showing that it will qualify as the yn function of a zero-producing
section. The complete realization will take on the form shown in Fig. P 7-9.
Note that there is no series resistance in the output lead.
7-10. Each of the following functions is the transfer admittance of an
RC network with a resistance load:
(s + i)(« + 2)(s -I- 5)
s2 + 2s + 2
(s + !)(« + 3)(s + 5)(s + 7)
2. -Fi2(s)=#-
V* ~r IA° ~r OA0 T <-»A*
3_ _v /"\ _ v (s8 + s + 2)(s2 + s + 3)
6)
(a) Obtain a symmetrical lattice realization for each function, with
the maximum possible gain constant. Find an unbalanced equivalent of
each lattice.
(b) Obtain an unbalanced symmetrical realization by the Ozaki
procedure, using the same gain constant.
(c) Obtain a parallel-ladders realization for each function. Compute
the gain constant achieved.
(d) Obtain a cascade realization by the Dasher procedure, and again
compute the achieved gain constant.
(e) Use the network-partitioning theorem to obtain a cascade
realization.
(f) Obtain a Fialkow-Gcrst realization with the maximum possible
gain constant.
(g) Tabulate the number of elements and gain constants for each of
these realizations.
7-11. The following sets of nonminimum-phase y parameters are
given. Obtain a symmetrical lattice and a Fialkow-Gerst realization.
Also obtain a parallel-ladders realization where possible. Establish the
value of the gain constant in each case.
- 2« + 3 (s + l)(s + 3)(« + f )
,
- 'ft,«* - A '!"
5) '!" (s + 2)(s + 4)(« + 5)
3)
2)(s + 4) i (s + i)(« + 2)(« + 4)
™ (s + |) (« + 2)(« 4- 4)
~ 2)
-V» - • + !• + 2j
REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS 321
7-12. When an RC transfer function F(s) is prescribed, it is always
possible to obtain a symmetrical realization by accepting a low enough
gain constant. Within this framework it is possible to achieve the largest
gain constant by suitably choosing the poles, as demonstrated in Sec. 7-4.
Now, contemplate a realization for which the y parameters satisfy the
condition.
in which a is a positive constant. For such a realization show that the
conditions
\F(*d\ < 1 I/'' > 0
|F(a,)l < a \F\ < 0
must be satisfied. Here a, are the poles of the y parameters. Hence show
that, for minimum-phase transfer functions, a larger gain constant can be
achieved by the contemplated realization whenever the largest peak of
\F(a)\ between its poles falls at a negative value of F(o).
In the numerical example of Eq. (7-54) the maximum gain constant
for a symmetrical realization was found to be K = 6/10. Obtain a
realization in the form contemplated here, with a gain constant K = 9/10
and with the same number of elements.
7-13. Several synthesis techniques were developed in this chapter
which apply equally well to the case of lossless coupling networks. Show
how the Ozaki, the Fialkow-Gerst, and the Dasher synthesis procedures
can be applied to LC networks.
7-14. Carry out the details of the Fialkow-Gerst realization shown in
Fig. 7-23 starting with the transfer function given in Eq. (7-95).
7-15. Starting from the short-circuit parameters given in Eqs. (7-99),
obtain the ladder network shown in Fig. 7-27 (b).
7-16. In Sec. 7-4 when discussing the procedure for choosing poles of
the z or y parameters for the purpose of maximizing the gain constant for a
symmetrical realization, it was stated that Fialkow's condition will be
automatically satisfied. Show this statement to be true.
7-17. Derive the Dasher condition given in Eq. (7-124) starting from
Eqs. (7-122) and (7-123).
7-18. Repeat the previous problem starting from Eq. (7-129) and using
Eq. (7-127,b) for znc and Eq. (7-123) for sz(s).
7-19. Start from the y parameters given in Eqs. (7-115) and obtain the
realizations shown in Fig. 7-34 using the Ozaki synthesis procedure.
7-20. Start from the y parameters given in Eqs. (7-115) and remove
322 REALIZATION OF RC TWO-PORTS
enough of the pole at infinity as a bridging branch to cause the transmission
zeros of the remainder to fall on the ju axis. Then apply the Ozaki separa-
tion theorem to arrive at the realization shown in Fig. 7-35(b).
7-21. Complete the cascade realization of the transfer admittance given
in Eq. (7-151).
8
Realization of General Passive Two-Ports
The general properties of network functions describing the behavior of
RLC two-ports were discussed in Chap. 4. We are now ready to complete
the task of realizing a two-port when a transfer function is prescribed,
provided only that the function satisfies the necessary conditions of
realizability in a passive network. When the transfer function satisfies
certain restricted conditions, special kinds of networks can be realized.
For example, if all the poles of the transfer function lie on the negative
real axis, then an RC two-port realizing the function can be obtained. The
structure of the two-port will depend on the locations of the transmission
zeros. If the given function satisfies none of the special conditions for
realizability in a lossless or an RC two-port, then we must resort to a more
general RLC realization. As a matter of fact, we may even choose to
obtain an RLC realization of a given function even though it can be realized
as a lossless network, for the purpose of achieving some other advantage.
It will be useful to review the properties of two-port functions discussed
in Chap. 4 before starting the present chapter.
8-1. Constant-resistance lattice
The concept of a constant-resistance network arises in image parameter
theory. If the image impedance of a symmetrical two-port is real, the two-
port is labeled "constant-resistance." Thus we can define a constant-
resistance two-port as one whose driving-point impedance is equal to a
constant R when the two-port is terminated in a resistance R.
The symmetrical lattice shown in Fig. 8-1 will be a constant-resistance
two-port if the arm impedances are inverse with respect to R1, that is,
if ZaZb = R*.
323
324 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS Sec. 8-1
-o
Fig. 8-1. Constant-resistance lattice: '/..,'/.i = Ri.
Under this condition, the transfer impedance of Fig. 8-1 will be
„ R(R — Za) .. .
Za= R + Za ''
or, normalizing with respect to R,
Za = f^f; (8-2)
This result was established in Prob. 1-6. If you have not yet worked out
that problem, now is the time to do so.
Because of the constant-resistance property, all the transfer functions
— Zu(s), y«(S), Ta(s), and H(s) (the insertion ratio) — differ from each
other only by a multiplicative constant. As a matter of fact, when we
normalize with respect to the termination, we shall have
Zu(s) = -Yu(s) = T«(«) = H(s) (8-3)
Hence we can talk about all these functions interchangeably. In the
following discussion we shall use the voltage transfer function T«(s).
Let us now invert Eq. (8-2) to solve for Za in terms of TU (which is
the same as Z«). We get
Za = (8-4)
The question that we have before us now is the following: If a transfer
function satisfying necessary realizability criteria is prescribed, is it possible
to realize the function as a constant-resistance lattice? If the answer is
to be affirmative, Za in Eq. (8-4) must be a positive real function.
Suppose that we write TU(ju) = ra + jx«. Then we can compute
the real part of Za(ju) from the last equation. The result is
Thus the real part of Za on the ju axis will certainly not be negative on
condition that \Tu(ju)\ < 1. This condition precludes the possibility of
poles of TU on the ju axis. If we can show that Za is also regular in the right
Sec. 8-1 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS 325
half plane, this will complete the proof that Za is pr. Za will have a pole
in the right half plane if 1 + Tu has a zero there, which is possible only
if Ta = — 1 at some point in the right half plane. Recall that Tu(s) is
regular in the right-half s plane. Hence, if |Tu| is no greater than unity
on the ju axis, it will certainly be less than unity in the entire right half
plane, according to the maximum modulus theorem. Hence Tu can never
equal — 1 in the right half plane, which means that 1 + Ti2 can have no
zeros in the right half plane.
It follows from this discussion that Za will be positive real under the
condition that the magnitude of the given TU be no greater than unity
for s = ju. The contemplated realization of a given TU(S) in a constant-
resistance lattice is possible, then, under the conditions:
1. TU(s) has no poles on the jw axis.
2. \Tu(ju)\ < 1.
Let us assume that the given function has no poles on the ju axis so
that the first condition is satisfied. The second condition can always be
satisfied provided that we can tolerate a reduction of the gain constant.
In this respect the present situation is similar to the realization of an
RC or LC transfer function in a symmetrical lattice—it can always be
done, but at a sacrifice of transmission gain.
Thus the realization of a transfer function with no poles on the ju
axis is reduced to the realization of a positive real function and its inverse.
If the transfer function is of a high order, the arms of the lattice will be
relatively complicated.
The same results can be obtained by proceeding on a dual basis. The
lattice-arm admittance Ya will be given in terms of TU (which is equal to
— Yu) by Eq. (8-3). The same conditions on the realizability will be
obtained.
This type of realization is not very appealing, for several reasons. We
have already seen the disadvantages of a symmetrical realization in
connection with RC two-ports: excessive number of elements and low gain
constant. The symmetrical lattice brings in another undesirable feature,
its balanced nature. In some oases it is possible to overcome this last
objection by finding an unbalanced equivalent of the lattice, as we did
for LC and RC lattices. But if such an unbalanced equivalent can be
found, would it not be preferable to establish realization procedures for
obtaining the network directly rather than through the realization of a
326
Sec. 8-1
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
lattice first? This line of thought will be pursued further in later sections
of this chapter.
Another undesirable feature of the realization as a single lattice is the
complexity of the lattice arms for high-order transfer functions. This
disadvantage can be overcome in a relatively simple manner. Consider
the cascade connection of constant-resistance two-ports shown in Fig. 8-2.
Constant R
two-port
Constant R
two-port
Constant R
two-port
Fig. 8-2. Cascade of constant-resistance two-ports.
The terminating impedance of each two-port is the input impedance of
the succeeding one. If the termination on the right is equal to the common
constant image impedance of these two-ports, then each one will be
terminated properly to yield a constant input impedance, with the result
that the over-all network will be constant-resistance.
This consideration motivates us to contemplate the decomposition of
a given Tu function in the form
7l2 = T 12ai 126 • • • T 12n (8-6)
If each component Tu can be realized as a constant-resistance two-port,
then the cascade connection of these two-ports will realize the given
function. It remains, then, to determine whether a given Tu function
satisfying necessary realizability conditions can be decomposed in the
manner indicated.
Consider the following types of function, which are to constitute the
component Tu functions.
T 12o
=
Ai
8+a
Tub
=
v « +
8+
c
a
Tnc
=
si + as
Kt
+b
Tud
Ks
+c
=
Av +
as + b
T
„ *2 +
cs + d
Ki<a
Kt < - or A', < 1
c
K3 <b
's2 -+- as + 6
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(8-7)
Sec. 8-1 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS 327
The a, b, and d coefficients must be positive , while c may be positive
or negative, the latter corresponding to a nonminimum-phase function.
The coefficient c may also be zero, corresponding to a pair of zeros on the
ju axis in the last function and to a zero at the origin in the second and
fourth. From our previous discussion it is clear that each of these can be
realized as a constant-resistance lattice, provided that the gain constants
are made small enough. For the first three functions the required con-
ditions on the K's are given. When there is a choice, the smallest one
must be chosen. For the remaining two, these conditions are too com-
plicated to be useful in literal form.
You can now easily show that any realizable transfer function can be
decomposed into a product of functions having the form of one or more
of the component functions in Eqs. (8-7). As a matter of fact, such a
decomposition is not unique; the factors of the numerator can be paired
off with those in the denominator in any order. Of course, the price that
we must usually (but not always) pay for such a decomposition is a
reduction in the over-all transmission gain. The truth of this statement
becomes evident from the consideration that, even though the original
function has a magnitude no greater than unity on the ju axis, it is not
guaranteed that each component also fulfills this condition without
lowering the gain constant.
As an example, consider the function
*'"<•) = * (• + 2x•+ 3) (8-8)
We are not concerned here with the fact that this function is also realizable
as an RC two-port. The series branch of a constant-resistance lattice
realizing this function will be
S' + (5 - K)« + (6 - ft)
u - «' + (5 + K)s + (6 + K)
By applying the methods of Chap. 3 we find that the largest value of K
which will make this function positive real is K = 4.56. For this value
of K, Za will be a minimum function and will require a transformer in the
Brune realization.
Now suppose that we write the original function as
The realization is to be a cascade connection of two lattices. The series
arms of the two lattices will be
328
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS Sec. 8-1
"'ol
8 + (3 - KJ
s + (3 + Ki)
(1 - K,)s + (2 -
(a)
(b)
(8-11)
(1 + KJs + (2 + K')
For these functions to be positive real, we must require that
Ki < 3 (a)
K2 < 1 (b)
Even choosing the maximum permissible values leads to the product
KiK2 = 3 as compared with K = 4.56 for the single-lattice realization.
The compensating feature of simpler lattices is evident from Fig. 8-3,
(8-12)
1/6
\(2
R
1
, . AAA 4
1/3
A AA
/
!
^y\ A A — y/onT\_
Fig. 8-3. Realization of example in cascaded constant-resistance lattices.
which shows the realization obtained for the maximum gain constants
Ki = 3 and K2 = 1.
In the present simple example the realization can be simplified even
further by converting each lattice to an unbalanced equivalent. We
should expect that this is possible since the original function in Eq. (8-8)
satisfies Fialkow's condition. The result is shown in Fig. 8-4.
It is instructive to compare the number of elements required in the
different realizations. In the case of the single constant-resistance lattice
1/3
If'
1/3 1/3
,_AAA— - *— AAA^^
ll
I.--AAA * — /X.AA,- -
— — o
"^
,4
.2
Fig. 8-4. Unbalanced equivalent of lattice realization.
Sec. 8-1 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS 329
the Bott-Duffin realization requires 8 elements in each of the lattice arms
for a total of 32. The Brune realization requires a total of 20 elements
(counting a transformer as 3). The cascaded-lattices realization in
Fig. 8-3 uses only 16 elements, while the unbalanced equivalent brings the
total down to 9. Even the unbalanced realization, being symmetrical,
uses more elements than necessary for the realization of the original
function. An RC ladder realization of the function requires only 5 elements.
You can verify this by obtaining such a realization according to the
methods of the last chapter.
In the preceding discussion there was no consideration of the locations
of transmission zeros. The same procedure is followed whether the zeros
are in the right half or the left half plane. When we discussed the properties
of transfer functions in Chap. 4, we saw that a nonminimum-phase function
can always be written as the product of a minimum-phase function and
an all-pass function. Thus, given a nonminimum-phase transfer function
Tn(s), we can write
JTiiOO = Tum(s) â– Tno(s) (8-13)
where Tnm is a minimum-phase function and Tnn is an all-pass function.
In realizing this function by the procedure we have described in this
section the resulting network will be the cascade connection of a minimum-
phase two-port and an all-pass two-port.
Now the zeros of an all-pass network are the negatives of the poles,
and they all lie in the right half plane. We established in Chap. 4 that an
all-pass function can be written
Tl2o = m^n = l^n/m
m + n 1 + n/m
where m and n are the even and odd parts of the Hurwitz denominator.
Let us consider realizing this function as a constant-resistance lattice. If
we compare this expression with Eq. (8-2) (remembering that Zu = Tw),
we see that the series-branch impedance of the constant-resistance lattice
which realizes this function is
Za = n/m (8-15)
The all-pass lattice is thus lossless.
Any all-pass function can be written as the product of simple first-
order and second-order all-pass functions by grouping the poles and zeros
in an obvious way. These have, respectively, a single real zero and pole
and a pair of complex zeros and poles. A first-order all-pass function can
be writtenf
t The numerator factor is written a — s instead of s — a so that the angle of the
function will be zero at zero frequency. See Chap. 4 for details.
330
Sec. 8-1
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
In view of the last two equations we see that Za = s/a. Thus the constant-
resistance-lattice realization of this function takes the form shown in
Fig. 8-5(a).
1/0
t/a/
If
/1f
/
/
n
Hi
'"4
2b/c
t/2b
2b/c
(a) (b)
Fig. 8-5. First- and second-order all-pass lattices.
Now consider the following second-order all-pass function:
- 26s + c
1 - 2&s/(s8 + c)
1 + 26s/(s2 + c)
(8-17)
s2 + 26s + c
The right-hand side of this expression also has the form of Eq. (8-2). The
lattice arm impedance has the form Za = 26s/(s2 + c). The lattice realiza-
tion is shown in Fig. 8-5(b).
We have now demonstrated that an arbitrary transfer function,
minimum-phase or nonminimum-phase, (with no poles on the ja axis) can
be realized as a cascade connection of constant-resistance two-ports. Those
of the two-ports which realize the all-pass components of the given function
will be lattices similar to one or the other of those of Fig. 8-5. The re-
mainder will realize the minimum-phase component of the given function.
In the following section we shall show that a minimum-phase transfer
function can always be realized as a constant-resistance ladder. Thus the
complete realization will take the form of a ladder network in cascade with
first- and second-order all-pass lattices.
There is still the possibility that unbalanced equivalents of some or
all of the all-pass lattices may be found. Of course, no unbalanced equiva-
lent of a first-order lattice exists, since an unbalanced two-port cannot have
a positive real transmission zero. In Chap. 5 we saw that bridged-tee and
twin-tee equivalents of a lattice having the form of Fig. 8-5 (b) can be
obtained when the elements satisfy certain conditions (see Probs. 5-2 and
5-3). With the element values given in the figure these conditions become
I
Sec. 8-2
331
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
j_ 26
26- c
(a)
(8-18)
(8-19)
cos ff=
Fig. 8-6. Pole-zero locations of second-order all-pass function.
Using the geometry of the location of the zero of the transfer function
shown in Fig. 8-6, we can write these two conditions as
e > 7T/3 (a)
e > ,r/4 (b)
Thus an unbalanced equivalent of the second-order all-pass lattice can
be found if the zeros of the transfer function lie outside the pie-shaped
wedge shown in the figure.
8-2. Constant-resistance ladder
In the last section we showed that any realizable transfer function,
except one having poles on the ju axis, can be realized as a cascade con-
nection of constant-resistance lattices. This realization takes no account
of the locations of transmission zeros, all zeros being treated in the same
manner.
Let us now restrict ourselves to minimum-phase functions. In this
class we shall include those which have zeros on the ju axis as well as in
the interior of the left half plane. In Chap. 4 we showed that the transfer
function of a ladder network will be minimum-phase. It seems sensible
to inquire whether the minimum-phase condition is sufficient, as well as
necessary, for the realizability of a ladder network. In seeking the answer
to this question, consider again the cascade connection of constant-
resistance two-ports shown in Fig. 8-2. If each of the component two-
ports is an L two-port as shown in Fig. 8-7, then the over-all network will
be a ladder.
332
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS Sec. 8-2
Fig. 8-7. Constant-resistance L two-ports.
Let us now establish the conditions under which the L two-port will
be constant-resistance. That is, suppose that the two-port is terminated
in a unit resistance; under what conditions will the input impedance be
equal to unity? It is a simple matter to calculate the input impedance of
Fig. 8-7 (a) when the two-port is terminated in a unit resistance. The
result is
Z=
(8-20)
We have used the branch admittances instead of the impedances for ease
of interpretation. If the L is to be constant-resistance, the input im-
pedance must be equal to unity. When this condition is used, we find
y,<' + n) -' (8-2.)
or Za = 1 + F6
Thus, for the L to be a constant-resistance two-port, the shunt admittance
should be the inverse of unity plus the series-branch admittance. (Com-
pare this with the condition ZttZb = 1 for a constant-resistance lattice.)
Our next objective will be the determination of the transfer function
of the constant-resistance L two-port when terminated in a unit resistance.
This is easily accomplished, leading to the result
(8-22)
The constant-resistance condition in Eq. (8-21) reduces this expression to
i
l+Zb
(8-23)
This is an extremely simple expression. We immediately notice that the
transfer function of a constant-resistance L network is necessarily a
positive real function. Furthermore, writing /Vjw) = Rb + jXb and
computing the real part of TuL(ju), we find
Re [Titt(^O] =
(8-24)
(1 + Rtf + XI
Since R* cannot be negative, we conclude that the real part of TML can
Sec. 8-2 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS 333
never vanish on the ju axis. Hence, not only is TUL a positive real function,
it is necessarily a nonminimum-resistance pr function. Another fact is also
apparent from Eq. (8-23): the magnitude of TUL is never greater than unity
on the ju axis.
We will now inquire whether this condition on Tu — nonminimum-
resistance positive realness — is sufficient as well as necessary for the
realizability of a constant-resistance L two-port. Of course we must im-
mediately rule out positive real functions with a pole at infinity. You
can easily establish that an arbitrary nonminimum-real-part pr function
(with no pole at infinity) cannot be expressed in the form of the right side
of Eq. (8-23). To do this, suppose a given nonminimum-real-part pr
function can be so expressed. You will then find that its reciprocal, which
is also a nonminimum-real-part pr function, cannot be. The reason is
that the coefficients in the numerator of a pr function are not necessarily
less than corresponding ones in the denominator, whereas they must be
for the transfer function of an unbalanced realization. But this require-
ment on the numerator coefficients can always be achieved if we multiply
the function by a small enough constant. Hence any nonminimum real-
part pr function with no pole at infinity can be written in the desired form.
As an illustration of these ideas, consider again the transfer function
of the numerical example in the last section.
+'
(s + )(s 3)
You can easily show that this is a nonminimum real-part pr function.
Let us rewrite this in the form
,|
'
K(8 + 1)
The second term in the denominator will be pr only if K < 4, as you can
demonstrate. Choosing the maximum value K = 4 then yields
r«M = (8-27)
We can now realize the given transfer function in a constant-resistance
L. The branch-impedance functions will be
„ , . s2 + s + 2 s .' , ,
«<•> - -WTW - i + rf-I
Z.(.) = 1 + Yb(8) = 1 + - - l—r- (b)
334
Sec. 8-2
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
1/2
1/4
o-
Fig. 8-8. Constant resistance L realization.
The realization is shown in Fig. 8-8. Note that only seven elements are
used in the realization with a gain constant of K = 4, as compared with
nine elements and K = 3 in the realization of Fig. 8-4.
Let us now return to the problem of realizing a given minimum-
phase function. We have seen that, in the special case when the given
function is a nonminimum-real-part pr function with no poles on the jw
axis, a simple L network will realize it. If this is not the case, let us again
contemplate decomposing the given function in a product of functions as
in Eq. (8-G). If each of these is a nonminimum-real-part pr function, each
may be realized as an L network. The cascade connection of these will
yield the desired realization. The question that must be answered, then,
is whether or not an arbitrarily given minimum-phase transfer function
can always be written as a product of nonminimum-real-part pr functions.
The poles and zeros of the given function must be assigned to the com-
ponents in such a way as to satisfy this condition. Of course a pair of
conjugate poles or zeros should be kept together to ensure realness of
coefficients.
To answer this question, note that any minimum-phase transfer func-
tion can be written as a product of functions having the form of one or
more of the simple functions given in Eqs. (8-7), in which none of the
coefficients are negative. The first and second of these will always be
positive real, while the last two might be, depending on the sizes of the
coefficients. The third one cannot be pr. However, consider multiplying
numerator and denominator of such a function by the factor s + e. The
result can be written
K = /K s + e \ Kt
s2 + as + b \ l s2 + as + 6/ s + e
(8-29)
Sec. 8-2 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS 335
The second factor on the right is pr for any value of e, while the first one
will also be pr for e < a.
This idea of multiplying by surplus factors can be used in the other
two cases also. In the case of the linear-divided-by-quadratic function,
the surplus factor s + e with e < a will lead to the product of two pr func-
tions. The biquadratic function requires a quadratic surplus factor (if it
is not already nonminimum-real-part pr). Use of such a factor will lead to
cs
( 8"
as
To determine the conditions on the coefficients e and / in order that each
of these biquadratic functions be positive real (and nonminimum-real-
part), we apply Eq. (3-62). The result is
(8-31>
For any value of / that we choose each of the two right-hand sides will be
nonnegative. Hence choosing e greater than the larger of these will satisfy
both inequalities. Thus there are an infinite number of pairs of e and /
coefficients that we can use.
No mention was made in the previous discussion of possible poles of
the transfer function on the ju axis. If there are a pair of such poles, let
us consider them as a separate factor and use a quadratic surplus factor.
The result will be
1 / «' + cs + A K,
'~ ' 2
The factor on the far right can be treated as in Eq. (8-29). Our main con-
cern here is with the first factor. This function will be positive real if
/ = w§, in which case it will have a constant real part for all s = ju. The
value of e is unimportant in this consideration.
The discussion we have just completed proves that any realizable
minimum-phase transfer function, including one with poles on the ju axis,
can be written as a product of positive real functions of the nonminimum real-
part variety. Of course, surplus factors will not always be necessary, but
their use will always guarantee the stated result.
According to our discussion of the constant-resistance L two-port,
each of the pr functions into which a transfer function is factored, except
those which have poles on the joi axis, can be realized as a constant-
336
Sec. 8-2
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
resistance L. It follows that any realizable minimum-phase transfer func-
tion having no poles on the ju axis can be realized as a constant-resistance
ladder network.
As an example, consider the following minimum-phase transfer func-
tion:
,, , x v «'* + S + 2 «' + S + 2
K
(8-33)
11 20s3 + 4 Is2 + 62s + 3 (s' + 2s + 3)(20s + 1)
You can easily establish that this is not a positive real function. However,
it can be written as a product of two functions as follows:
«2 + S + 2\ K2 =
i s2 + 2s + 3/ 20s +1 i2a m
Each of these is a nonminimum-real-part positive real function, and
hence each may be realized as a constant-resistance L according to the
method we have discussed. The details of the realization are left for you
as an exercise. The final network is shown in Fig. 8-9 for the choice KI =
1/2 1/2
r-^nnp—-vw-j
20
f—'TTWP—o—
'20
Fig. 8-9. Constant-resistance ladder realization.
This development of a constant-resistance ladder network realization
can be carried out in a dual manner by starting with the L network shown
in Fig. 8-7(b). The condition that the L be constant-resistance, given in
Eq. (8-21), and the expression for the transfer function, given in Eq.
(8-23), are still valid, but with impedances and admittances interchanged.
If there is a source resistance, either of these two dual structures may be
used, but with a current source use the first one and with a voltage source
the second.
Now that we have established the fact that any realizable minimum-
phase transfer function (with no poles on the ju axis) can be realized as a
Sec. 8-2 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
337
ladder network, let us illustrate the realization of any arbitrary transfer
function as a cascade connection of a constant-resistance ladder and one
or more all-pass networks. Such a realization was mentioned briefly at
the end of the last section. Of course, the all-pass networks will be needed
only if the function is nonminimum-phase. Suppose
rn(«) = K
2s2 - s + 2
2.»-« + 2jgy + . + 2 (M4)
s2 + 6s + 1 2s2 + s + 2 s2 + 6s + 1
This is to be realized as a resistance-terminated two-port. The first factor
on the right-hand side is an all-pass function. According to Eq. (8-15),
the series-arm impedance of its lattice realization will be
s/2
Zn =
s2+ 1
(8-35)
1/2
L-^mnrv—
/
1/2
(a) (b)
Fig. 8-10. All-pass lattice and bridged-tee equivalent.
This leads to the lattice shown in Fig. 8-10. The angle of the transmission
zero is easily found to be 75.5° so that a bridged-tee equivalent of the
lattice exists. This is also shown in the figure.
The remaining factor on the right-hand side of Eq. (8-34) is minimum-
Fig. 8-11. Constant-resistance realization of nonminimum-phase
function.
338 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS Sec. 8-3
phase. We quickly determine that it is also positive real so that it can be
realized in an L network. We find the series-branch impedance of the L
to be
7 _ (1 - 2K)s* + (6 - K)s + (1 - 2ft) _ lis ,_-...
*b ~ ft (2s2 + s + 2) ~ 2s2 + s + 2 ^"^
The right-hand side is obtained with the choice of K = 1/2, which is the
maximum value of K permitted by Fialkow's condition. The shunt-branch
impedance is then given by
Z.-1 + n-If + fj + A (8-37)
The complete realization of the given function is shown in Fig. 8-11.
8-3. General lattice realization
In the preceding two sections we discussed a synthesis procedure
which leads to a network realization in the form of a cascade connection
of constant-resistance two-ports. For an arbitrary transfer function, pro-
vided only that there are no poles on the ju axis, a realization in the form
of cascaded constant-resistance lattices can be obtained. If the transfer
function happens to be minimum-phase (still with no poles on the ju axis),
a constant-resistance ladder can be found. The constant-resistance
nature of these realizations requires the lattice arms, in the one case, and
the branches of the L two-ports which make up the ladder, in the second
case, to be related.
Forcing branch impedances to be related from the start seems unduly
restrictive. Suppose that we relax the constant-resistance requirement
but still seek a lattice realization. In Prob. 4-5 it was established that a
symmetrical lattice will realize any realizable set of symmetrical z param-
eters. Hence we should anticipate success in our endeavor if the given
functions are a set of z parameters. However, normally a transfer function
will be specified, together with a statement about the input and output
termination, such as single-loaded, double-loaded, etc.
Let us initially assume that the given function is the open-circuit trans-
fer impedance z]2. You will recall from Chap. 5 that, if the given Zu is that
of a lossless network, we expand it in partial fractions. Some of the residues
will be positive, some negative. We label the sum of the terms with posi-
tive residues Zup and the sum of the terms with negative residues znH.
Both zup and Zun are reactance functions. Then the branches of the lattice
are given in Eqs. (5-6) as Za = 2zun and Zb = 2zup.
Sec. 8-3 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS 339
In the more general case the situation is not quite so simple. Suppose
that we expand ZU in partial fractions. We shall get
z" = k° + JTT^ + 7±^ + 7^7; (8-38)
It is assumed that Zu has only simple poles. The first term (not counting k»)
is typical of all real poles, while the second two are typical of complex poles.
Since Zu is given in terms of the lattice impedances by
za = J(Z6 - Z.) (8-39)
we should like to separate the terms on the right-hand side of Eq. (8-38)
into the difference between two positive real functions. In order to do
this, we need to know the conditions under which the terms in that equa-
tion can represent positive real functions (conjugate poles being grouped
together, of course). The answer to this question was established in Prob.
3-12. Denoting the complex poles and residues by
(WO)
fci = a. + jbi
the condition that a term in Eq. (8-38) representing a pair of conjugate
poles be positive real was there found to be
* > ^ (8-11)
«« o,
Suppose that this condition is not fulfilled at a pair of the poles. The
inequality shows that the real part of the residue should be increased in
order to satisfy the condition. Thus let us add to the pair of terms involv-
ing the conjugate poles the function
s — si s — s\ s2 + 2ais + of + <ii<
where a,' is a positive number. It is chosen large enough so that the new
residue at the pole si, which is now ai + aj + j6,, does satisfy the positive
real condition given in Eq. (8-41).
We can now assign this pair of poles with augmented residue to Z6. To
retain the given Zi2 unchanged, we must subtract the function Z, which
was added. But this is already a positive real function, and so we can
assign it to Za.
All the complex poles can be taken care of by,this procedure. As for
the real poles, some of the residues may be negative, some positive. Those
with positive residue we assign to Zb, while those with negative residue go
to Za (with the sign changed). Thus the separation of the given zu into
the difference between two pr functions is complete.
340 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS Sec. 8-3
The realization of the lattice arms can now proceed. Recall from
Prob. 3-12 that both Za and Zb can be realized in a Foster-like realization.
Thus the present realization procedure involves very little computational
labor beyond the expansion of zn into partial fractions.
It should be clear that there is considerable flexibility in identifying
Za and Zb. The value of a\ used to satisfy the condition in Eq. (8-41) can
vary from a minimum value on up. For the real poles some additional
flexibility is available. We need not assign all the poles with negative
residue to Za. Suppose that we combine the term involving a real pole
with a negative residue together with the constant term. The result will
be
_A_ ko _ fcog + (haj + fc,-)
« + <Fj s + aj'
This expression is evidently positive real under the condition
U > ^ (8-44)
"i
By combining enough of the constant term with the real pole in this
fashion, a positive real function is obtained which is then assigned to Zb.
If there is no constant term in the expansion of the original function, or if
the constant term is not large enough to satisfy the last condition, we can
resort to further "padding." t We can add a constant to zn, and assign it
to Zb, large enough to give the desired result. The same constant is then
assigned to Za. thus leaving 212 unchanged.
The same procedure can be applied if the given function is the short-
circuit admittance yn. The discussion proceeds in terms of the admit-
tances Ya and Yb of the lattice arms.
It remains to consider the situation in which the prescribed function is
one of the transfer functions of a resistance-terminated network. Suppose
that the prescribed function is Zn = E2/Ii and a resistance termination
is specified. It would be possible to consider this function to be the open-
circuit transfer impedance of a network provided that we could guarantee
the appearance of a resistance across the output of the realized network.
This resistance would then constitute the load.
At this stage recall the procedure for finding an unbalanced equivalent
of a lattice. Glance back at Fig. 5-4. Any common admittance of the
lattice arms can be removed in shunt across the input and output termi-
nals. Thus, if both Ya and Yb have a constant term in their partial-fraction
expansions, the desired terminating resistance is obtained.
t This is the term applied by Guillemin (63) to the process we have just described.
Sec. 8-3 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS 341
This circumstance can always be guaranteed. Note that each term
in the expansion of Za and Zb is positive real, with a real part that does
not become zero anywhere on the finite ju axis, except possibly at the
origin. (Terms involving conjugate poles are of course grouped together.)
Thus the real part of Za and Zb will not be zero on the ju axis except pos-
sibly at the origin and at infinity. It follows that the real parts of the
reciprocals, Ytt and Yb, can be zero only at zero or infinity. If they are not
zero at these two frequencies, then Ya and K6 will each have a constant
term in their partial-fraction expansions. If one or both real parts are
zero at one of the extreme frequencies, we can use resistance padding on
both Za and Z6. Hence the real parts of the padded Ya and Yb will not be
zero anywhere on the ju axis. A real constant can be subtracted from
each to give the desired termination, while leaving remainders that are
still pr.
If the given function is the transfer admittance Yu of a resistance-
terminated network, we can consider this to be the short-circuit admit-
tance 2/u of a network, provided that we can guarantee the appearance of a
resistance in series at the output terminal. This resistance will then con-
stitute the load when we short-circuit the output.
Again consider the unbalanced equivalent of a lattice, this time accord-
ing to the step illustrated in Fig. 5-3. The desired series resistance will be
obtained if both Za and Zb have a constant term in their partial-fraction
expansion. By an argument similar to one used in the previous case we
can guarantee this possibility by padding the Ya and Yb determined from
the given YU function.
In summary, the realization in terms of a lattice is always possible for
a prescribed transfer impedance or transfer admittance whether or not a
finite resistance load is prescribed, provided that the given function has no
multiple poles. Of course, under some conditions an unbalanced equivalent
of the lattice can be found.
Let us illustrate this procedure by resynthesizing the transfer function
given in Eq. (8-33). With a unit resistance load Ta is the same as — Yu.
According to our procedure, we take YU to be the same as the short-circuit
transfer admittance of a network which we shall later modify. Thus
s2 + s + 2
3)(20s + 1)
a~
i
20s +1 s + ai — jui s +
342 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS Sec. 8-3
9.5
where CTl = 1 a =
ui = \/2 b =
1161
10\/2
1161
For the above numerical values the condition in Eq. (8-41) is not satisfied,
and so we must resort to padding. In order to satisfy Eq. (8-41), the real
part of the residue after padding must be no less than bwi/ai = 20/1161.
If we satisfy the condition with the equality sign, the residue a' that we
must supply will be
, = 20 9.5 10.5
"~ 1161 1161 1161
According to Eq. (8-42) the padding admittance will be
21 s+1
i 1161s2 + 2s + 3
Adding and subtracting this admittance in Eq. (8-45) leads to
40s/1161 21 s+1
2/i2 20s+1 ' s2 + 2s + 3 1161s2 + 2s + 3
The lattice-arm admittances now become
v 1 / 1562 , 80s \
"1161\20s +1+«' + 2s + 3/ W
(8-48)
1161s2 + 2s + 3
We now invert these and obtain
1161 20s'+ 41s2 + 62s+ 3
(b)
Za =
3162 s2+ 1.013s + 1.481
Za and Zb do have a common resistance (as well as a common inductance),
.745 7.35 . . 7.35 .745
Fig. 8-12. Partial unbalancing of lattice.
Sec. 8-4
343
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
so that the desired series resistance will be obtained in the unbalanced
equivalent of the lattice. Removing the common resistance and inductance
from Za and Z6 leads to the partial realization shown in Fig. 8-12. The
branch impedances of the remaining lattice are
„, 6.88s(s + 1.62)
+ 1.013s + 1.481
55.3
Z'b = 20.3s + 26.9 +
s+
(a)
(b)
(8-50)
We can now either realize the primed lattice or convert it into an un-
balanced equivalent. The details of finding an unbalanced equivalent of
this lattice will be left to you. After the realization is complete, we short-
9.87
27.2 36.2 74.2
w
^
11'
.0135
11 ,
Fig. 8-13. Realization of numerical example.
circuit the output terminals and consider the resistance to be the load.
To make this a unit resistance, we must raise the impedance level by
1/0.745. The complete realization will take the form shown in Fig. 8-13.
8-4. Matrix-factorization methods
The lattice realization discussed in the last section does not take ad-
vantage of possible simplifications that should be possible when the given
transfer function is minimum-phase. All transfer functions are treated in
the same fashion. It seems reasonable to assume that the power of a lattice
realization is wasted on minimum-phase transfer functions. More direct
methods should lead to unbalanced realizations (specifically ladders) for
such functions. One such realization, the constant-resistance ladder, was
discussed in Sec. 8-2. However, the constant-resistance property introduces
a restriction on the branches of the ladder that should be avoidable.
Suppose that we relax the constant-resistance condition but still seek
344
Sec. 8-4
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
a ladder realization for a given minimum-phase transfer function. In the
preceding discussion we considered a ladder to consist of the cascade con-
nection of L networks. However, the L itself is the cascade connection of
the two simpler components shown in Fig. 8-14, and, therefore, so also
is the ladder.
(if)
(; f)
(a) (b)
Fig. 8-14. Component branches of ladder network.
You will recall that the external behavior of a two-port made up of
the cascade connection of other two-ports is most easily expressed in terms
of the chain parameters (A BCD) of the component two-ports. The chain
matrices of the simple structures shown in Fig. 8-14 are given in the figure.
Thus the chain matrix of the ladder network will be given by the product
of alternate series- and shunt-branch chain matrices such as these. The
0 \z,
z3
zn.,
Yi
Y4
Yn
â„¢
'
Fig. 8-15. Ladder two-port.
chain matrix of the ladder network shown in Fig. 8-15 in terms of the chain
matrices of the branches is given by
M
[c
B
D
[1
0
1
1
1
[Yn
(8-51)
Yt lj
Suppose that the external behavior of a network is prescribed in the
form of its chain matrix. If we could factor this matrix into factors such as
those on the right-hand side of the last equation, then we could identify the
branches of the ladder which realizes the original chain matrix. We shall
now discuss a general method for factoring a chain matrix which was
originally introduced by Ho (65). At times the development of the method
might appear "cluttered up" with masses of matrix algebra, but the
method itself is straightforward.
Sec. 8-4
345
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
First of all consider the following transformation, which diagonalizes
the chain matrix:
-Fl
10
-C
1
AB
CD
1
01
A0
0T
(8-52)
The diagonal matrix obtained on the right is equivalent to the chain
matrix. We can solve this expression for the chain matrix in terms of its
equivalent diagonal form as follows: Premultiply both sides of the equation
by the inverse of the left-hand transformation matrix, and postmultiply
by the inverse of the right-hand transformation matrix. The result will be
AB
CD
10
.
A0
«
'i
01
(8-53)
This expression now represents the first step in the factoring process.
In a realization problem the starting point is not the entire chain
matrix but a prescribed transfer function. Let us assume that the pre-
scribed function is the voltage transfer ratio Ti2(s). We can relate this
function to the A parameter of the chain matrix by assuming that the net-
work is open-circuited. If there is actually to be a resistance termination,
this can be included as part of the network in the fashion of Fig. 7-29.
Thus, from the equation
Ei = AE2 - Bh (8-54)
we find, with l2 = 0, that
Tu(s) = f = ^ (8-55)
Thus the voltage transfer ratio is the reciprocal of the A parameter.
Since a ladder network is necessarily minimum-phase, let us restrict
ourselves to minimum-phase transfer functions. We have already seen that
a minimum-phase transfer function with no poles on theju axis can always
be written as a product of positive real functions. Since the reciprocal
of a pr function is also pr, it follows that the A parameter can also be
written as a product of pr functions. Thus
i-l
(8-56)
where the k's are positive constants.
Now look at the diagonal matrix on the right-hand side of Eq. (8-53).
346
Sec. 8-4
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
Both A and I/'A, the elements on the diagonal, consist of the product of
several factors. Such a diagonal matrix can always be written as the
product of several diagonal matrices, the diagonal elements of each of
which consist of one factor of the corresponding diagonal element in the
original matrix. Thus
1°
A0
i_
A
0
0
0
(8-57)
You can easily verify this result by performing the indicated multiplica-
tion of the matrices on the right. If this expression is substituted into
Eq. (8-53), the result will be
AB
CD
10
-7 1
where the matrix (Mi) is defined as
(Mi) =
0
. . . (AT.)
0
1
'f
01
(8-58)
(8-59)
This is a valid factorization of the chain matrix. However, the component
matrices do not resemble the component matrices of the ladder network as
given in Eq. (8-51). We still need to apply some transformations or matrix
identities to the component matrices in order to obtain the desired form.
One such identity is the following:
kifi 0
"
0
1
ii
01
0
01
(8-60)
You can verify this identity by performing the indicated multiplications
on the right. Suppose that we use this identity to replace the first diagonal
matrix (Mi) in Eq. (8-58). The result will be
fl 0
AB
10
11
10
i z.
J'
CD
— -11
01
kji-l 0
01
. . . (Mn)
1A
01
(8-61)
Sec. 8-4
347
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
This can be simplified somewhat by multiplying together the first two
matrices on the right-hand side as indicated by the brackets.
Now consider the following matrix identity:
r
01
0
0 d.
d, 0
0 d,
2.
I j',
rfi
01
(8-62)
This expression indicates that premultiplying a diagonal matrix by a tri-
angular matrix is equivalent to postmultiplying the same diagonal matrix
by a suitably modified triangular matrix. The use of this identity will
simplify Eq. (8-61) considerably.
Return now to Eq. (8-61). Immediately to the left of the matrix (Af2)
there is a triangular matrix. If we use the identity given in the last equa-
tion, this triangular matrix can be moved to the right of all the diagonal
matrices (Mi) with the proper modification. If we now perform the multi-
plication of the last matrix in Eq. (8-61) by this modified triangular
matrix, Eq. (8-61) can be written
*]
Dj
C
A
1
1
11
01
10
(M.)
i _ _ 5i
A " A2
0
1
(8-63)
To complete the factorization of the chain matrix, the same cycle of
transformations is applied to each of the diagonal matrices (Af,) in suc-
cession. One diagonal matrix at a time is replaced by the product of four
matrices, using the identity in Eq. (8-60). Of these four the one on the far
left is premultiplied by the matrix immediately preceding it, while the
one on the far right is moved through the remaining diagonal matrices on
its right, using the identity in Eq. (8-62). This matrix is then combined
with the last matrix in the chain. The result of these operations is the
following:
\A
\C
D
1
0'
1
— - 1 + — — 1
^
1
0
'1
0
1
1
knfn- 1
(8-64)
348
Sec. 8-4
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
where y in the last matrix is a very complicated function involving the A
and B parameters and all the pr functions fi.
The chain matrix has now been factored in the form appropriate for a
ladder realization. [Compare Eq. (8-51) with the last equation.] However,
note that the first and last matrices represent a shunt input branch and a
series output branch. But these branches have no effect on the transfer
voltage ratio. Since the prescribed function is the voltage transfer ratio,
we can disregard the first and last matrices in Eq. (8-64). The realization
that is obtained is a ladder network all of whose series branches are unit
resistances. The form of the network is shown in Fig. 8-16(a).
(a) (b)
Fig. 8-16. Ladder networks obtained by matrix factorization.
It remains to determine whether the functions representing the shunt-
branch admittances can always be made positive real. From Eq. (8-64)
these functions are
-V- »' = 2, 3, . . . , n - I
(8-65)
Fn(«) = knfn - I
i+l
Recall that each of the positive real functions /, is nonminimum-real-part.
Starting from the right>hand end, we first choose kn large enough to make
Fn(s) positive real. Then we choose fcn_i to make Fn_i(s) pr, and so on.
This will certainly always be possible. However, note that the product
of all the k's is the reciprocal of the realized gain constant. Making the k's
large will mean a small gain constant.
Let us now pause and reflect on what we have accomplished. Starting
with a prescribed voltage transfer function, we write its reciprocal as a
product of nonminimum-real-part pr functions kji as in Eq. (8-56). We
then form the functions given in Eq. (8-65) and choose the constants large
enough to make each of these functions positive real. Each one is then
realized as the admittance of a shunt branch of the ladder network shown
in Fig. 8-16(a).
Sec. 8-4
349
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
In developing the factorization of the chain matrix, the crucial step
consisted in using the matrix identity of Eq. (8-60) for each of the diagonal
matrices in Eq. (8-58). It seems reasonable to assume that use of other
matrix identities at this point in the development will lead to alternative
network realizations.
An identity which is quite similar to the one we have already used is
the following:
0
o
0
ifi - l
1
0
1
(8-66)
In substituting this identity for the diagonal matrices in Eq. (8-58), we
start from the right-hand end, first replacing (Mn). The first matrix on
the left in Eq. (8-66) is now moved through all the other (Mi) matrices on
its left, using the identity
dl 0
0 d2
fl 0
1
1
01
0
0
(8-67)
which is quite similar to the identity given in Eq. (8-62).
These two identities are used alternately, replacing each of the (Mi)
in turn just as in the previous factorization. The final result is given by
A B]
C D\
(8-68)
In the first matrix on the right-hand side y is a complicated function of all
the pr functions A;,/, and of the A and C parameters. The details of this
development will be left for you as an exercise. The matrix product on
the right can be identified with the chain matrix of a ladder network each
of whose shunt branches is a unit resistance. The structure is shown in
Fig. 8-16(b). If only T« is specified, the first and last matrices can be
ignored since they correspond to a shunt input branch and a series output
branch.
The expressions given in Eqs. (8-65) for the branch admittances of
the previous ladder realization can be used for the branch impedances
of the present realization, as a comparison of corresponding matrices in
350
Sec. 8-4
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
Eqs. (8-64) and (8-68) will show. However, the order of the factors is
inverted. Thus we should replace n by 1 and t by i -f 1, and vice versa.
We shall discuss one other identity which leads to a ladder network.
In contrast with the previous two, the series or shunt branches of this
ladder are not restricted to be resistances. This realization was inde-
pendently discovered by Pan tell (96), using a somewhat different approach.
PantelTs work actually preceded that of Ho. You can easily verify that
the following expression is an identity:
i o"
-1
xix% 0
=
o^
x,
— 10 1
10
T, 1
1
.0 1
(8-69)
Suppose that we use this identity to substitute for the diagonal matrices
in Eq. (8-58) one by one. At each step we move the last matrix in this
expression to the right through the remaining diagonal matrices, using
Eq. (8-62) just as we did in the first case. Actually, we must first combine
the (Mi) matrices in pairs in order that each diagonal term contain two
positive real factors. This requires that there be an even number of positive
real factors of the prescribed transfer function. However, this is no real re-
striction because, if the simplest decomposition of A into positive real
factors results in an odd number, we can consider unity to be an additional
factor, thus making the total number even. If the factor unity is considered
to be the last one, we shall see that this corresponds to a terminating re-
sistance. The result of this operation will be the factorization
AB
CD
'
"
1
1
0
A'2/2 —
£3/3
1
1
0
iy
[knfn
1
o !.
(8-70)
where y is again a complicated function of the pr factors. The first and last
matrices can again be ignored since they will have no influence on the
realization of a given transfer voltage ratio. You may carry out the details
of this factorization as an exercise.
This factorization also leads to a ladder network, but the series or shunt
branches are not restricted to be resistances. The functions representing
the series-branch impedances or the shunt-branch admittances are given by
Sec. 8-4 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS 351
F,(s) = kifi - -T-^T- i = I, 2, . . . , n - 1
K.+I/.+I (8-71)
F.(«) = k Jn
Since the functions A;,/, are nonminimum real-part pr functions, you can
easily show that each of the functions Fi(s) can he made positive real by
choosing the constants large enough, again starting with kn and working
toward the front of the ladder. As a matter of fact, the nonminimum real-
part restriction on the factors of A can be relaxed. We require only that,
if the real part of fi(ju) has a zero on the ju axis, then the real part of
/i+i(jo>) have a zero there also. Furthermore, a factor /i(s) can have zeros
on the ju axis. However, if fi+i(s) has a j-axis zero, then/i must have a pole
there for Fi(s) to be pr. This is no real restriction ; /,+i(s) can have a j-axis
zero only if we introduce it as a surplus factor, in which case one of the other
factors will necessarily have a pole at the same point. The stated re-
striction, then, is a restriction on the order of choosing the pr factors of A
(or Tu) if a factor s or s2 + wjj is chosen as a surplus factor.
Note that the ladder realizations we have just discussed can be used
when a resistance termination is prescribed at one or at both ends of the
network. The two terminations may be the same, or they may be different.
To illustrate the method, let us resynthesize the transfer function given
in Eqs. (8-45) and (8-33). In the notation of the present section
. «2 + 2« + 3
faA = ^ /T _T (a)
« +s + z (8-72)
fci/i = fci(20s +1) (b)
Let us seek a ladder network having the form of Fig. 8-16(a). The shunt-
branch admittances are given by Eqs. (8-65). In the present case n = 2.
Hence for the terminating branch we find
(8-73)
The right-hand side gives a continued-fraction expansion of the admittance.
It is clear that F2(s) will be pr if fa > 1 ; however, if k2 is equal to unity, it
will be a minimum-real-part function. In this case it would not be possible
to have a resistance termination. The remaining shunt-branch admittance
will be
Yl(s) = kl(20s + 1) - 2
+ (G2klk2 - 4fc2 + l)s + 3fc2(fci - 2) + 2
+ 2s + 3)
352
Sec. 8-5
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
This function will be positive real for ki > 2 and any value of &2. For
ki = 2 the continued-fraction expansion of FI(s) becomes
1
y,(s) = 40s +
1
(8-74)
1
fc2
The complete realization of the function is shown in Fig. 8-17(a). This is
to be compared with the constant-resistance ladder obtained for the same
transfer function in Fig. 8-9. The number of elements in the two realiza-
tions are the same. In the present realization there is one inductance fewer
and one resistance more than in the previous one.
o-VW
(a) (b)
Fig. 8-17. Ladder realizations of numerical example.
An alternative realization can be obtained by choosing the functions
in Eqs. (8-72) in the opposite order. For ki = fc2 = 2 this realization is
shown in Fig. 8-17(b). Note that this realization has one capacitance fewer
than the previous one.
This example demonstrates the general result that the matrix-factor-
ization procedures discussed in this section are applicable whether or not a
resistance termination is desired at either end of the network. Furthermore,
different values of resistance may be called for at the two ends of the net-
work and these can be easily accommodated.
8-5. Nonminimum-phase functions—parallel-ladders realization
We have up to this point discussed several methods of realizing a given
transfer function. The lattice realizations, be they constant-resistance or
Sec. 8-5
353
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
otherwise, take no account of the locations of transmission zeros and treat
all functions without discrimination (provided always that there are no
poles on the jw axis). Unbalanced equivalents of the lattice can be found
for special types of transfer function.
An alternative realization for the most general transfer function con-
sists in the cascade connection of a ladder network and an all-pass network;
the realization of the latter is effected by means of a cascade of simple all-
pass lattices. This procedure does take account of the locations of trans-
mission zeros.
For minimum-phase transfer functions we have discussed several reali-
zations all of which lead to a ladder network directly. In this section we
shall discuss a realization procedure for nonminimum-phase functions
which is based on the matrix-factorization procedure discussed in the last
section. We shall be seeking an unbalanced realization. Hence transmis-
sion zeros on the positive real axis will be ruled out.
*
ft
RLC
-12
Fig. 8-18. Resistance-terminated RLC network.
Consider the RLC two-port with a unit resistance termination shown
in Fig. 8-18. Since E2 = — I2, we can write
El = AE2 - Bh (a)
(8-75)
or ^' = A + B = T^T-T (b)
f=A
£2
Presumably Tu(s) is prescribed, and we must choose A and B in order to
satisfy this equation. One possible choice is
Having made this choice, we can now rewrite Eq. (8-75a) as
(8-76)
(8-77)
Since A/B = 2/22 and \/B = —yu, Eq. (8-70) implies that we have chosen
.ya = 1 and — j/i2 = 27*i2. Since we are looking for an unbalanced realiza-
tion, we shall require that the numerator coefficients of Tu be all positive.
This may require the use of surplus factors but will always be possible
provided that there are no positive real transmission zeros.
354 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS Sec. 8-5
You will recall that a realization technique that is always applicable
for a lossless or an RC two-port terminated in a resistance, when the pre-
scribed function is Ta(s) or Ya(s) and when there are no transmission
zeros on the positive real axis, is the parallel-ladders realization. We shall
endeavor to obtain such a realization in the present case as well. Suppose
that we have m ladders in parallel. The over-all y^ and 2/u functions will
be equal to the sum of the component yn and 2/u functions, respectively.
Thus
yn = 2/22* + 2/22* + . . . + yam = 1 (a)
(o-7o)
2/i2 = 2/i2a + 2/i26 + . . . + yi2m = ~2Tl2 (b)
where the literal subscripts refer to the component two-ports. The first
of these equations can be satisfied by choosing
2/22a = 2/226 = . . . = 2/22m = ~ (8-79)
To satisfy the second equation, we shall write the numerator of TW(s) as
the sum of several polynomials, each of which is Hurwitz. One way in
which this can be done is to group three consecutive powers of 8 starting
from the highest power. If some powers of s are missing, then fewer than
three terms must be grouped. In any case, the polynomials into which the
numerator is decomposed will consist of quadratics or linear factors times
powers of s. Let us write
---
= Taa + Tm + . . . + T«, (8-80)
Thus, for the jth-component two-port, we can write
I 2KP -(s)
-
. (8-81)
Using the fact that Aj/Bj = y^j and also that 2/22; = 1/m, we can write
Aj = Si - _ ^SsL- (Ma)
m
In this way we have succeeded in finding the A and B parameters of m two-
ports which, when connected in parallel and terminated in a unit re-
sistance, will realize a given TK (= — Yu) function. The transmission
zeros of each of the two-ports lie in the left half plane or on thejw axis, and
hence each two-port can be realized as a ladder. It remains to realize
Sec. 8-5 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS 355
these ladders from the A and B parameters determined from the last
equation.
Glance back at the factorization of the chain matrix given in Eq.
(8-68). When both the A and the B parameters are specified, the first
matrix in the chain can be ignored but the last matrix, representing a series
branch, cannot be since it involves the B parameter. The impedance of
the output series branch is
Znli - J* - 1 + rV = m - 1 + rr\- (8-83)
Since m is the number of component ladders and certainly greater than 1,
this function will be pr. Thus the realization of each ladder is assured.
However, you will remember that we are able to realize the transfer
function of each ladder only to within a constant multiplier. Denoting by
primes the A parameters of the realized ladders, we shall have
If the parallel connection of the ladders is to give the desired transfer
function, these realized constants must each be of the correct value to
make the last equation coincide with Eq. (8-82). Thus we must have
Kj = 2mK. When we were dealing with a similar problem in the case of
lossless two-ports, we solved the problem by modifying the admittance
level of each network after it was realized. The same procedure can be
applied in the present case as well, but now we have another alternative.
For each ladder network there is a maximum value of the gain constant
that we can achieve. Higher values of the gain constant cannot be realized,
but realizations can be obtained for lower values. To solve our present
problem, then, we find the maximum obtainable gain constant for each
of the ladders. Then we realize each of the ladders to have a gain constant
equal to the smallest of these maxima. This, then, completes the problem.
As an illustration of this procedure, consider the following nonminimum-
phase transfer function:
_ K(2s* - s + 2)(< + 1) _ K(2s* + «* + s + 2)
1 wW - (s2 + 6s + 1)(« + 1} - (<1 + 6s + 1)(s + 1} (8-85)
A realization of this function was obtained previously in Fig. 8-11. A
surplus factor is needed to make all the coefficients in the numerator
positive. The numerator can be decomposed into the sum of two poly-
nomials (m = 2) in several ways. One breakdown leads to the following
identifications:
356
Sec. 8-5
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
'" ~Ba ~
1
• i26 — 7T —
2Ks(2s-
(s2 + 6s
«+l) 1
l)(s + 1) 2Aa
(a)
(8-86)
(s2 + 6s
The next step is to factor each of the A parameters into positive real
factors. This is done as follows:
4. = i #,
A* =
s2 + 6s + 1
2s2 + s + 1
s2 + 6s + 1
1
l
(8-87)
Each of these functions will be realized as a ladder having the structure
of Fig. 8-16(b). The branch impedances are calculated from Eqs. (8-65),
with the appropriate changes in the order of numbering the factors. Note
that A 6 requires a surplus factor to permit writing it as a product of pr
functions. The coefficient a in the surplus factor must be less than 6 if
the first factor of A 6 is to be pr, as you can easily verify.
Using Eqs. (8-65) to calculate the branch impedances, we find for the
first ladder that K must be no greater than 1/16, while for the second
ladder we need K < 1/32. Hence we must choose K to be no greater than
1/32 to satisfy both of these requirements simultaneously. With K = 1/32,
Ka = 1, Kbi = a = 5, and KM = 2/a = f, and using the factorization
of Eq. (8-68), we obtain the realization shown in Fig. 8-19. The details
/^//rtf 1331/112
HZ/121
Fig. 8-19. Realization of nonminimum-phase network.
are left for you as an exercise. It is evident that the number of elements
required for the realization of even a low-order nonminimum-phase transfer
Sec. 8-6 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS 357
function is quite large by this procedure. Incidentally, the largest value
of K which will satisfy Fialkow's condition is K = 1/2.
8-6. Alternative parallel-ladders realization
The parallel-ladders realization we have just discussed was based on
relating a given nonminimum-phase transfer function to the A and B
chain parameters. The realization was accomplished through factorization
of the chain matrix. In this section we shall discuss a skillful realization
technique, which was developed by Ho (66), which again leads to a parallel-
ladders structure.
We proceed by recalling that a voltage transfer function can be written
as Ta(s) = — 2/i2/2/22. In order to identify the two short-circuit parameters,
we need to divide both numerator and denominator of a given transfer
function by a Hurwitz polynomial of appropriate degree, in a now familiar
fashion. Thus
_ a, + alS + . . . + OnS" _ P(s) _ P(«)/(M«)
/Vj(' Q(«) "Q(«) ~ QW/C.W ('"'
Of course, the function Q/Qi must be a positive real function. Further
restrictions on the polynomial Qi(s) will become apparent as we discuss the
realization procedure.
Suppose that we consider realizing the positive real function 2/22 by the
Miyata procedure, temporarily without worrying about yu. To refresh
yourself on the details of this technique, refer back to Sec. 3-7. This
procedure starts by writing the even part of an admittance function as a
sum of terms by decomposing the numerator of the even part. Thus
- "*-
A ,«2*
where </*(-*>) = _ (W)0)
The even parts of the component admittances have zeros only at zero and
infinity. The success of the method requires the Ak coefficients to satisfy
the condition ( — 1)*A* > 0. When this condition is satisfied, the given
admittance is realized as a number of lossless ladder networks connected
in parallel at the input end and individually terminated in a resistance at
the far end. The branches of each ladder consist of single inductances or
capacitances. For example, in the case of only two ladders the structure
is shown in Fig. 8-20(a). This has been redrawn in part (b) of the figure,
placing the terminating resistance of each ladder in the output branch.
358
Sec. 8-6
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
The outputs of the ladders are now connected in parallel. When the com-
mon output terminals thus created are short-circuited, this network be-
comes identical with the previous one.
LorC
LorC
LorC
LorC
Fig. 8-20. Miyata realization of admittance function.
Now consider the transmission zeros of each ladder. Since the branches
are composed of either inductance or capacitance, the transmission zeros
will all lie at zero or infinity. (The transmission zero contributed by the
output branch is not modified by the resistance.) In fact, the —yu function
of the fcth ladder will be 6*s*/Qi(s) so that the over-all T/U function becomes
-2/i2
(8-91)
The numerator coefficients here will be different from the desired numerator
coefficients shown in Eq. (8-88). This is corrected in the familiar manner
of changing the admittance levels of the component ladders. The admittance
level of the kth ladder is changed by the factor Kak/bk. But when this is
done, the 2/22 function of the kth ladder is also multiplied by /Ca*/6*. We
want this function to be y^k, but we obtain y2a=Kak/bk. The difference is an
admittance
_ /1 _ ^5*\ „ (8-92)
The desired T/M* will be obtained if we connect an admittance JM, which we
shall call the residual admittance, across the output terminals of the kth
ladder. If this admittance is to be realizable, we must require Kak/bk < 1-
This is a fundamental limitation on the gain constant that can be achieved
by this procedure. The largest value of K will be obtained by computing
the ratios o*/6* for all the ladders and choosing K to be the reciprocal of
the largest of these. We now add all the residual admittances yr* and get
a single residual admittance
Sec. 8-6 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS 359
The realization is completed by connecting this admittance across the out-
put terminals.
To illustrate this realization technique, let us resynthesize the non-
minimum-phase transfer function
(2s2 - « + 2)(« + 1)
T«- V + 6« +!)(.+ !) ° ' °
for which two realizations have already been obtained in Figs. 8-11 and
8-19. If we divide numerator and denominator of the transfer function by
the polynomial Q^s) = s3 + d-tf2 + di« + do, we can write
-_ (s2 + 6s + l)(« + 1) _ s3 + 7s2 + 7s + 1
2/22 «' + d2s2 + dlS + do «' + d2s2 + dlS + do W
(8-9o)
2s3 + s2 + « + 2
-^2-Ks3 + d2«' + d,s + do ''
The even part of t/22 is found to be
r, .« _ -s* + (7d, - 7 - dQs4 - (7d, -d2- 7do)s2 + do
(~ > ~ ~ ~ ""
In order to satisfy the conditions on the numerator coefficients, we must
have
7t/2-7-rfl>0 (a)
7d, - d2 - 7do > 0 (b)
At this stage it is possible to choose the coefficients such that these
conditions are satisfied and such that yn is a pr function. However, let us
leave them in literal form. The advantage in doing this will become ap-
parent later.
The next step is to obtain a Miyata realization of yn. Four ladders
will be necessary in the present case. The component ya functions are
computed to be
_1 __ d^ + dl&
'- 3
= < - 2 - 0 .l
2/226" d!d2 - do s3 + d2s2 + dis + da l
d,s + d°
dl
(8-98)
_ 7d-, — 1 — d< d|S- + dos
did2 - do s3 + d2s2 + d,s + do "''
360
Sec. 8-6
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
For these to be positive real, we have the additional restriction did? — rf0
> 0. The ladder realizations of these functions are shown in Fig. 8-21.
1WP-
7d/ -d2~
7dz-7-d1
/_
0,(s)
(7d,-d2-7d0)s
Q,(s)
7d2-7-d, s2
dz Q,(s)
"* d, 0,1 s)
Fig. 8-21. Component ladders for numerical example.
The yu function of each ladder is also shown in the figure, when we con-
sider the ladders as two-ports. If the ladders are connected in parallel
without changing admittance level, the over-all yu function will be
(7d, - * - 7d.)«
-2/i2 =
83 +
+ dis + do
(8-99)
Sec. 8-6 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS 361
This expression is to be compared with the desired yu function in Eqs.
(8-95). If, by proper choice of the d coefficients, we can make some of the
corresponding coefficients in the two numerators the same, the admittance
level of the corresponding ladder will require no change. This, in turn, will
lead to a simpler residual admittance. The advantage of retaining the
coefficients in literal form until this point is now clear. Of course, for
higher-order transfer functions, dealing with literal coefficients will become
increasingly difficult.
The constant term in the numerator of the last equation does not
depend on the d coefficients. We see that this term will become equal to
the corresponding term in Eqs. (8-95) if we choose K = 1/2. With this
choice of K the admittance level of the corresponding ladder will not
require any change. Our objective now is to choose the d coefficients in
such a way that, while satisfying the restrictions already imposed, as
many as possible of the numerator coefficients in Eq. (8-99) are made equal
to the corresponding ones in Eqs. (8-95), with K = 1/2. The various con-
ditions that must be satisfied by the coefficients are
7d2 - 7 - d, > 0
7di — tf2 — 7do > 0
did? - do > 0
Y^- = di < 1 (8-100)
K d2
(7d2 - 7 - d,)/d2 2(7d2 - 7 -
K1
<1
<1
If any of the last three are satisfied with the equality sign, the admittance
level of the corresponding ladder will require no change. We find that,
with the choice do = 137/182, di = 1, and d2 = 16/13, all three conditions
will be satisfied with the equality sign. Hence no residual admittance will
be necessary. Figure 8-22 shows the complete realization of the given
transfer function with a gain constant K = 1/2.
The realization just obtained is appropriate if no load resistance is
specified. If there is to be a finite load resistance, this realization will not
be suitable. In order to provide a load resistance, we should have a non-
mini mum-real-part residual admittance so that removal of a shunt re-
sistance from this will leave a pr remainder. However, you will note from
Fq. (8-93) that the residual admittance K, is a sum of terms each of
362 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS Sec. 8-6
which has a zero at zero or infinity, or both, and hence, is minimum real-
part. We conclude that the technique under discussion cannot be applied
when a load resistance is specified.
However, a simple modification at the start will permit us to handle a
finite resistance load as well. For a unit resistance load, Tu(s) = — Yu(s),
the transfer admittance. Hence, after dividing numerator and denominator
of the given function by Qi(s) as in Eq. (8-88). we make the identification
l + *°
- - 2&feP
The remainder of the procedure will apply in its entirety. There will now
be some additional restrictions on the coefficients of Qi; the last equation
demands that the coefficients of Qi be less than the corresponding coeffi-
cients of Q. But this is not a severe restriction.
When we use this modification and leave the coefficients of Qi(s) in
literal form, the computations become more tedious. If they become pro-
hibitive, we may assign numerical values to some of the coefficients. But
this leaves fewer parameters available for reducing the order of the residual
admittance.
Let us now consider an alternative procedure which may be employed
when a resistance termination is required. First we write
(8-102)
If we can decompose the denominator polynomial Q(s) into the sum of two
Hurwitz polynomials, whose ratio is a pr function, then dividing numerator
and denominator by one of these two will lead to an identification of y»
and 2/22 according to the right-hand side of this equation. We have per-
formed a similar operation on two occasions before. In the case of lossless
two-ports the role of the two polynomials was filled by the even and odd
parts of Q(s). For RC two-ports we had a little more difficulty, but the job
was simplified because the zeros of the desired two polynomials were real.
There is no such simplification in the present case.
We shall now consider one method of decomposing a Hurwitz poly-
nomial into the sum of two Hurwitz polynomials whose ratio is a pr
function. This procedure was originally discovered by Weinberg (119).
Suppose we write
Q(s) - (Ms) + K&W (8-103)
Sec. 8-6
363
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
137/162 137/224 87/224
_ _ (224)*
'87(137)
/
2 91/137 87/91
_L 91
T*7
t
32/13 2 112/97
f 182/137 182/87
*• A.AA \L———m 11'
3 l74
3/37
f
'WV H t H
a a7
5 182
Fig. 8-22. Parallel-ladders realization of numerical example.
where Ki is a positive constant and Q{ is the derivative of the polynomial
Qi(s) which we desire to be Hurwitz. When KI = 0, then Qi = Q. As Ki
increases from zero, the coefficients of Qi change in a continuous manner.
For small values of Ki the zeros of Qi will not differ greatly from those of Qi.
Consequently, since Q(s) is Hurwitz, so also will Qi(s) be Hurwitz. There
will be a limit beyond which KI cannot be increased if Qi is to remain
Hurwitz.
To determine how the polynomial Qi(s) is obtained from a given Q(s), let
us write
0(s) = «" + a_,«-> + - • • + a,« + ao (8-104)
The coefficients in this polynomial are all known. The desired polynomial
is now written with unknown coefficients and the derivative taken. Thus
Qi(s) = «" + iSn-iS-i + . . . + ft« + ft, (a)
(b)
(8-105)
364 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS Sec. 8-6
When we add the last two equations and compare coefficients with Q(s),
we get
0^ + Kl(n •.,-; (8_!w)
0i + 2Ki0% = 0:i
0a + Ki0i = i*o
In these n equations there are n unknown 0 coefficients and the unknown
constant KI. The equations can be solved consecutively for the 0 coeffi-
cients once a value of Ki is chosen. After finding the 0 coefficients it is a
simple matter to establish whether or not the polynomial Qi(s) is Hurwitz
by expanding the ratio of its odd part to even part in a continued-fraction
expansion. If we find Qi(s) is not Hurwitz, we can repeat the procedure
with a smaller value of Ki. To this extent the procedure involves some
trial-and-error.
Having decomposed the denominator polynomial, let us now turn to
the realization. Equation (8-102) can now be written
, ,, -Pto -P -P/Qi
n j. K n, , 1 K n'n (8-107)
vi T /tiVi 1 + tii^i/^Ji
P(s) . ,
tt = &M (a)
(8-108)
We must still determine whether or not Q{/Qi is positive real when Qi(s)
is a Hurwitz polynomial. But this has already been established in Chap. 3
(see Prob. 3-11). Thus we have identified the 2/i2 and yn functions of the
desired two-port which is to have a resistance load. The remainder of the
procedure for obtaining a parallel-ladders realization which we have dis-
cussed can now be applied. However, now the only parameter that is
available to provide flexibility is the constant Ki. Hence a high-order
residual admittance will usually be obtained.
Note that the 2/22 obtained by this procedure has a zero at infinity.
If the y parameters obtained in Eqs. (8-108) are to be a realizable set.
2/i2 also must have a zero at infinity. This requires the original transfer
function to have a zero at infinity. It follows that the contemplated de-
composition technique cannot be applied to a function which has a non-
zero value at infinity such as the one given in Eq. (8-85). For such func-
Sec. 8-7 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS 365
tions we must decompose the denominator into two polynomials of the
same degree.
8-7. Realization in a tree structure
In all the synthesis techniques we have discussed in this chapter, the
gain constant that can be realized is determined after the synthesis is
completed. In many cases this is considerably less than the maximum
realizable value. We shall now discuss a procedure in which the gain con-
stant is specified beforehand, its value being the maximum attainable, or
close to it. An unbalanced realization is obtained for any realizable trans-
fer function with no zeros on the positive real axis, i.e., both minimum-
phase and nonminimum-phase. Transfer functions with positive real
zeros are realized in a balanced structure. This technique is due to Fialkow
and Gerst and is an extension of the RC realization procedure discussed
in the last chapter.
A. Unbalanced Realization
Let us initially restrict ourselves to transfer functions which have no
zeros on the positive real axis. (We still exclude poles on the ju axis.f)
If necessary, we can always use surplus factors to guarantee that none of
the numerator coefficients of such a function are negative. An upper
bound on the gain constant is established by the largest value which the
normalized function attains at any point on the positive real axis, includ-
ing zero and infinity. Using a value of K no greater than this upper bound,
none of the numerator coefficients will be greater than the corresponding
denominator coefficients.
Assuming that the given transfer function is written in this form, we
have
Tu(s) = =* = = (8-109)
y^ Q(s) m2 + n?
We shall initially assume an open-circuit output. The denominator poly-
nomial Q(s) is a Hurwitz polynomial. On the far right we have explicitly
shown the even and odd parts of both numerator and denominator. Let
us now formally make the following identification of the y parameters:
Q m2 + n2 a (8_110)
Ita = 1 (b)
t Fialkow and Gerst have described a procedure which can be used to realize poles
on the ju axis as well. However, this case is of so little practical interest that we shall
not discuss it here.
366
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS Sec. 8-7
It may seem a little unnatural to require the short-circuit input admittance
of the network to be constant, but it is certainly permissible.
Our objective is to seek a realization which consists of the parallel con-
nection of two subnetworks. To this end, we must decompose 2/« (and
2/22) into the sum of two terms. One way in which this can be accomplished
is the following:
(a)
-2/i2a =
(b) (8-111)
-2/i26 =
+ 7i2
(c)
Thus the two component J/M functions consist of the ratio of an odd or
even polynomial to a Hurwitz polynomial. You will immediately recall
that this is exactly the form of the transfer admittance of a resistance-
terminated lossless two-port. Consider the LC network with a resistance
load shown in Fig. 8-23(a). Let us denote its transfer admittance by Km.
If we break the output loop of this network, we will get the structure
shown in the second half of the figure. The short-circuit transfer admit-
tance of this network will certainly be the same as Fua.
(a) (b)
Fig. 8-23. Realization of component yu function.
This observation reveals a synthesis procedure for each of the compo-
nent 2/i2 functions given in Eqs. (8-111). We simply treat each function
as the transfer admittance of a resistance-terminated lossless two-port.
After the two-port is realized, we perform the change shown in Fig. S-23(b).
The complete realization consists of the parallel connection of the resulting
two-ports.
To implement this technique, let us write
-Y,
I.'.,
-2/l2a
(8-112)
This leads to the identifications
Sec. 8-7 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS 367
(8-113)
!&. = =f (b)
where the primed quantities refer to the parameters of the two-port in
Fig. 8-23, exclusive of the resistance. The complete a network consists of
the lossless two-port with the unity resistance in its output lead. Let us
now compute the 2/22 function of the complete a network. We get
The last step is obtained by substituting for >/22a from Eqs. (8-113). Know-
ing both the j/i2 and the >/22 parameters of the complete a network, we can
form the voltage transfer ratio of this network as
TU. = =3& = ^ (8-115)
7/22a W2
by substituting from Eqs. (8-112) and (8-114) for yua and yna, respectively.
This function is the ratio of two even polynomials in s, the denominator
polynomial having only simple zeros on the ju axis. Furthermore, none
of the numerator coefficients is negative, and each is no greater than the
corresponding denominator coefficient. These conditions are true because
the two polynomials are the even parts of the numerator and denominator
polynomials of the original transfer function, for which these conditions
were true. Suppose that we now make the transformation s2 = p in this
equation. The right-hand side will become an RC transfer function real-
izable in an unbalanced network according to the Fialkow-Gerst method
described in Sec. 7-6. If we replace each R in this realization by an L
having the same numerical value, this has the effect of carrying out the
inverse transformation p — » s2. A realization of the voltage transfer ratio
Tiaa in Eq. (8-115) is thus obtained.
Before we can celebrate our victory, however, one other consideration
forces itself upon our attention. Suppose that 2/22a in Eq. (8-114) (or 2/22a
in the preceding equation) has a zero at infinity. This information is not
contained in the voltage transfer ratio in Eq. (8-1 15). In order to guarantee
the proper 2/22 function, let us take 2/22* from Eq. (8-114) and write
,7- = 1 + ^r = ! + «*- + ^--! + «*- + 4- (8-H6)
2/22a WZ2 Wl2 l/22<i
Thus, in addition to the unity resistance in the output lead, we shall have
an inductance whose value is the residue at infinity of I/J/MO- The realiza-
tion then takes the form shown in Fig. 8-24(a).
368 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
Sec. 8-7
*.
kooa I , , kaob
-nnnp—'\AAy-o o-
(a) (b)
Fig. 8-24. Component two-ports in the complete realization.
The 6 network is treated in a completely similar manner. We contem-
plate realizing the yi^ function as a lossless two-port terminated in a unity
resistance just as in Fig. 8-23. Similar to Eqs. (8-112) and (8-113), we
write
-Fi;
1 + 2/22.
1+
(a)
(b) (8-117)
2/226 —
If we now compute 2/221., we got
1
This, together with — 2/m from Eq. (8-117a), leads to the voltage transfer
ratio
Tm = ^^ = -' (8-119)
2/226 «2
This function has the same properties as TI&, (the factor s cancels from n*
and n2), and so the transformation s2 = p leads to an unbalanced RC
realization. This is then changed to an LC network by replacing all R's
by L's having the same numerical values, just as before.
This time we note that, since the factor s is canceled in the last equa-
tion, the network realizing TM, does not carry the information that 1/226 has
a zero at s = 0. Of course, if ym. has a zero at infinity, I'm does not ac-
count for this either. So we write
_L _1+™?=1+*9 + «fc
2/226 «2 '*'
Thus, in addition to the unity resistance, we shall have a capacitance an<
an inductance in the series lead of the b network as shown in Fig. 8-24 (b)
Of course, one of the two inductances &«,„ or kxb will not be present.
-Pf. (8-120)
Sec. 8-7 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS 369
It is interesting to add yna and 2/226 in Eqs. (8-114) and (8-118). The
result is
yn, + yâ„¢ = ^^ = 1 (8-121)
which is certainly heartening, inasmuch as this is the assumption we
originally made.
This procedure can easily be extended to the case in which a resistance
load is prescribed. Instead of Eq. (8-109), we shall then have
_yu_-^a._«L±«l (8_122)
1 + 2/22 m2 + n2
We can again choose yn = 1, which then requires that
nil + n,2
The same procedure can now be employed. The only difference is that
the maximum permissible value of the gain constant will now be only half
what it was.
Let us illustrate this procedure by realizing the following nonminimum-
phase transfer function:
_ (2«* - a + 2)(« + 1) _ 2«» + «' + « + 2
** - A («' + 6s + i)(5 + i) " A s3 + 7s2 + 7s +! V-M)
This is the same function that we realized in Figs. 8-11, 8-19, and 8-22.
The first job is to determine the maximum permissible value of K. The
zero-frequency and infinite-frequency values of Tu permit K = 1/2.
With K = 1/2 none of the numerator coefficients are negative, and each
is no larger than the corresponding denominator coefficient. Hence there
is no need to find the largest peak along the positive real axis. With
K = 1/2 we get
1 s3 + 7s s . 48s
- = 1 + _ ., , , = I + ^ + =z
//22a 7s- +1 '7 ' 7(7s2 + 1)
T M _ «' + «/2 _ *2 + *
_L i . 7s2 +1 , . i , 48s
2/226 s(s2 + 7) '7s ' 7(s2 + 7)
Thus the a network has an inductance in the output, but the b network
has not. When we make the transformation s2 = p, both r^ and Tm,
become first-order transfer functions realizable in an L network. The
370
Sec. 8-7
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
complete realization of the original function as an unloaded two-port is
shown in Fig. 8-25(a).
HTfOTS
(a)
(bl
Fig. 8-25. Realization of numerical: (a) as unloaded network; (b) as
resistance-loaded network.
If a unit resistance load is specified, the value of the gain constant that
can be realized will be K = 1/4. With this value of K the only difference
will be that Tj^ and Tnb will be multiplied by 1/2. The realization will
take the form shown in Fig. 8-25 (b).
B. Balanced Realization—Transmission Zeros on Positive Real Axis
To complete the discussion of a realization procedure which can be
applied to any realizable transfer function, the only remaining consider-
ation is the handling of transmission zeros on the positive real axis. We
already have one possible realization in the form of cascaded constant-
resistance networks. However, the gain constant is not known until after
the realization has been obtained and is often quite small by this procedure.
In the present realization we fix the gain constant beforehand at a
value permitted by the requirement that the size of the numerator coeffi-
cients of the transfer function be no greater than those of the corresponding
denominator coefficients. Since there are positive real zeros, some of the
numerator coefficients will be negative, so that we can write
Tl2(s) = Q(«) = Q~Q= Tlia ~ Tm
(8-125)
All the terms with positive coefficients are assigned to Pi, while those with
negative coefficients are assigned to P2. Each of the two transfer functions
Tua and Tub is realizable as an unbalanced two-port by the method just
Sec. 8-7
371
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
described. The complete realization is then obtained by connecting these
two networks in the manner shown in Fig. 8-26.
Fig. 8-26. Balanced two-port realization.
This procedure can be applied in the realization of nonminimum-phase
functions, even if there are no zeros on the positive real axis, whenever
some of the numerator coefficients of Ti2 are negative. By this procedure
we avoid using surplus factors, with the accompanying increase in network
complexity. However, we pay for this by having a balanced network
realization instead of an unbalanced one.
PROBLEMS
8-1. The following functions are presented as the transfer voltage ratio
of a resistance-terminated two-port. Obtain a ladder realization for each
one as a constant-resistance ladder and also by the matrix-factorization
methods of Sec. 8-4.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(0
(s2 + s + 2)(s + 1)
\s ~j~ £)\s ~\~ fjs ~\~ oj
(s2 + 4s + 6)(s2 + 3s + 4)
K
(s + 1)(s2 + S + 1)
K(s + 1)
(s2 + 3s + 4)(s2 + 4s + 5)
8-2. Obtain a ladder realization with resistive terminations at both
ends for each of the transfer functions given in the previous problem. Let
the ratio of input to output resistance be (a) Ri/R2 = 2. (b) fii/#2 = 10.
372
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
8-3. Obtain a Fialkow-Gerst realization of the transfer functions in
Prob. 8-1.
8-4. Discuss the possibility of realizing any minimum-phase transfer
function as a cascade of pentode amplifier stages, as illustrated in Fig.
P 8-4. The plate-circuit impedances constitute positive real functions
into which the given transfer function can be factored. Obtain such a
realization for the functions given in Prob. 8-1.
Fig. P 8-4
8-5. The following nonminimum-phase transfer functions are to be
synthesized in a resistance terminated network:
-.s + 2
(i) r„(«) = k
(2) Tu(s) = K
(3) TvM = K
s2 + 2s + 4
s+1
(s + 2)(s2 + 2s + 2)
3s+ 4
(s2 + s + l)2
(a) Obtain an unbalanced Fialkow-Gerst realization for the maximum
realizable gain constant.
(b) To avoid using surplus factors with an attendant increase in num-
ber of elements, obtain a balanced realization in the form of Fig. 8-26.
(c) Obtain a realization as a constant-resistance ladder in cascade
with simple all-pass lattices. Wherever possible, obtain an unbalanced
equivalent of the lattices.
(d) Obtain a lattice realization (not constant-resistance), and convert
to an unbalanced equivalent wherever possible.
(e) Obtain a parallel-ladders realization.
8-6. In the numerical example for which two alternative realizations
are shown in Fig. 8-17, it is seen that, in addition to the resistance termi-
nations at both ends, a shunt capacitance appears across either the input
or the output. In many situations it would be desirable to have shunt
REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
373
capacitances across both the input and the output. Use a surplus factor
s + a, with a suitable value of a, to obtain such a realization for the func-
tion under consideration.
°*
-AAA-
+
5
cf
% *S
5?
Fig. P 8-6
Show that a realization with capacitances across both input and output
in the form of Fig. P 8-6 is always possible for a minimum-phase transfer
function with no poles on the ju axis, provided only that there be a trans-
mission zero at infinity.
8-7. (a) Let Zu = (mi + n{)/m + n be a minimum-phase transfer
impedance. Discuss the possibility of realizing this function in the form
of a balanced network as shown in Fig. P 8-7.
o
LC loader
o
z = Wl
,Za m+n
ir?0
•
i
LC ladder
z -"'
|tf*
o
o
Fig. P 8-7
(b) Obtain a realization of the following transfer impedance in this
form:
7 K s2 + s + 2
12 20s3 + 41s2 + 62s + 3
(c) Let the functions given in Prob. 8-1 be transfer impedance func-
tions. Obtain realizations of these functions in the form of Fig. P 8-7.
8-8. Obtain a constant-resistance lattice realizing the transfer function
given in Eq. (8-8) with the maximum realizable gain constant K = 4.56.
Obtain both a Brune and a Bott-Duffin realization of the lattice arms.
8-9. Supply the details in the realization of the network shown in
Fig. 8-3 starting with Eqs. (8-11). Convert the lattices to unbalanced
equivalents yielding the network of Fig. 8-4.
374 REALIZATION OF GENERAL PASSIVE TWO-PORTS
8-10. Obtain an RC ladder with a unity resistance load realizing the
transfer function given in Eq. (8-8). Compare the number of elements,
ease of realization, and the achieved gain with the realization given in
Fig. 8-4.
8-11. Carry out the realization of the transfer function given in Eq.
(8-33) to obtain the network shown in Fig. 8-9.
8-12. Convert the lattice shown in Fig. 8-10(a) into the bridged-tee
equivalent shown in Fig. 8-10(b).
8-13. Obtain the realization shown in Fig. 8-17(b) by choosing the
factors given in Eqs. (8-72) in the reverse order with the choice fci = kt = 2.
8-14. Supply the details necessary to obtain the network shown in
Fig. 8-19 from the functions given in Eqs. (8-87) with the values K = 1/32,
Ka = 1, Kbi = a = 5 and Kbi = 2/a = 2/5.
9
The Approximation Problem
As pointed out in the Introduction, the two major divisions into which
the field of network synthesis is divided are approximation and realization.
The major emphasis in this book has been on the realization part of syn-
thesis. That is, we assume that the network functions are already avail-
able as realizable rational functions, and our preoccupation is with obtain-
ing an exact realization of these functions.
In any practical synthesis problem, performance criteria are specified
in some manner, either graphically or analytically or as the response de-
sired at a set of discrete points. The specified performance may be in
terms of either magnitude or angle of a transfer function or the transient
response desired for a given input function, or any combination of these.
For a physical network there are interrelationships among all these, so
that, when more than one of these functions is prescribed, we must ensure
that they are consistent.
In a filter problem, for example, the design specifications usually in-
volve a statement about the maximum permissible loss or maximum
permissible reflection coefficient in a given frequency passband, the mini-
mum allowable loss in another frequency band, the stopband, and a state-
ment about the selectivity or the tolerable interval between the two bands.
From these requirements a network function must be found which meets
the specifications. At the same time it must be a realizable rational func-
tion for the class of network desired.
Another example is that of loss equalizers or delay equalizers. Certain
fixed parts of a transmission system, such as a telephone cable, introduce
distortions in the loss or delay. In order to compensate for these distor-
tions, a corrective network is to be incorporated in the transmission system
375
376 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM
whose loss or delay characteristic is to be the inverse of the distortion
introduced by the rest of the system.
The general problem, then, is the following: An arbitrary function of
frequency is prescribed as a desirable magnitude or angle function. It is
required to find a rational function of s whose j-axis magnitude or angle
will approximate the prescribed function with a specified tolerance. At
the same time the rational function must be a realizable one. The process
of solving this problem can be labeled function synthesis or function
generation.
There is great flexibility inherent in function synthesis. A given set of
requirements may be met with many different rational functions, differing
not only in their order but also in the locations and distributions of the
poles and transmission zeros. Thus it may be possible to meet a given
requirement by means of a function appropriate for a resistance-terminated
lossless ladder, or more general unbalanced structure, or an RC network.
It is therefore essential that a function synthesizer be well acquainted
with realization procedures in order that he may generate functions which
can be realized with some advantage, either computational or economic
(in terms of number of elements) or pertaining to the network structure.
When the transient response to a given input function is specified, it is,
of course, possible to reformulate this situation as a frequency-domain
problem by the use of Laplace transforms. However, tolerances and
permissible approximation errors which may be specified in the time
domain are not easily translated, if at all, into tolerances in the frequency
domain. Hence this procedure, which is theoretically possible, is not
practically useful.
In this book we shall not treat the approximation problem in the time
domain. In fact, there is some question whether the approximation prob-
lem should be treated at all. There is a considerable body of knowledge,
both in the mathematical literature and in the literature of network theory,
bearing on this subject. To treat the approximation problem in all its
facets and with some generality requires the use of topics in mathematics
which are normally considered "advanced," such as Jacobian elliptic
functions. Even if we do not concede that these topics are advanced, we
must admit that readers of this book probably do not have these mathe-
matical topics as part of their background, at least to the same extent as,
say, matrix algebra. Consequently, in order to treat the approximation
problem effectively, it would be necessary to develop the required mathe-
matical tools in considerable detail. Such an undertaking would constitute
a considerable digression from the main theme of this book.
Sec. 9-1 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM 377
In this chapter we shall deal with certain simple cases of function gen-
eration, leaving the general treatment of the problem to a more compre-
hensive text. This does not imply that we shall just list a few isolated and
unrelated techniques. On the contrary, even the simple problems that
we treat will be handled in as general a manner as possible in the context
of the preceding discussion.
9-1. Types of approximation
Before discussing techniques for approximating a given function by
means of another, we must decide on what is meant by "approximation."
How do we tell when we have a satisfactory approximation? What is our
criterion? As a matter of fact we can state several different criteria for
approximation, each of which may be suitable in different circumstances.
In presenting the following discussion, we shall use x as the independent
variable instead of w. This serves the purpose of indicating the generality
of the discussion. Furthermore, the approximation is often carried out
after a frequency transformation has been made, so that the variable is
not always a anyway.
Let g(x) be a function of x prescribed in an interval (a,b) of the x axis,
and let f(x) be the approximating (realizable) function we are looking for.
The function g(x) may be the desired magnitude or angle function. It
may be given as an analytic expression, but more usually it will be pre-
sented graphically. On the other hand f(x) is a realizable network func-
tion. Let us assume that both g(x) andf(x) are well behaved in the interval
(a,b). Then both of them can be expanded in Taylor's series about some
point xo. Let us suppose that both series converge in the interval (a,b).
Write
g(x) = ao + ai(x - xo) + a2(x - zo)2 + . . .
fix) = ba + bi(x - xo) + b2(x — io)2 + . . .
The error in the approximation will be the difference between these two.
g(x)-f(x)
= (ao - 6o) + (a, - 6,)(x - x„) + (a2 - b,)(x - xo)2 + ... (9-2)
We shall say that f(x) approximates g(x) in the Taylor sense if the first k
coefficients in the two series are equal term by term (counting ao and bo as
the zeroth terms). In this case the error function will start out with the
(k + l)st power of x. Thus
g(x) - f(x) = (at+1 - bk+i)(* - *oY+l + • • • 0-3)
This equation is the Taylor's series of the error function about x = xo,
378 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM Sec. 9-1
and so we see that the first k derivatives of the error function vanish at
x = zo. This is a property of the Taylor approximation. As a matter of
fact, we can give the following definition :/(x) is a kth-order Taylor approxi-
mation to g(x) at x = zo if the first k derivatives of g(x) — /(x) vanish at
x = Jo-
in the Taylor-type approximation the error will vanish at x = Xo and
will become increasingly larger as x — xa increases. Thus the approxima-
tion favors values of x near ZQ at the expense of points near the ends of the
interval. In fact, the approximation is made very good at one point, xo,
where not only do the two functions coincide but several of their deriva-
tives do also.
Another error criterion is the principle of least squares. Instead of re-
quiring very good approximation in the vicinity of a single point, we
require that f(x) be so chosen that the square of the error integrated over
the interval be a minimum. More generally, we may wish certain parts
of the interval to weigh more heavily than others. Hence we multiply
the square of the error by a weighting function w(x) before integrating.
Thus the quantity that is to be minimized is
=f
*w(x)(g(x)-f(xWdx (9-4)
It should be quite apparent that the type of approximation obtained will
depend on the weighting function w(x). Normally /(x) will oscillate about
g(x). For w(x) = 1 the peaks of the oscillations will increase toward the
ends of the interval. The least-squares error criterion is difficult to apply
and has not been used in simple approximation problems in the frequency
domain. We shall not discuss it further in this chapter.
If the approximating function /(x) oscillates about the desired function
g(x), the difference between the two will have a series of peaks and valleys.
Some of these peaks may be large, and some may be small. The more
complicated we make/(x), that is, the more adjustable parameters f(x)
has, the better the approximation we should expect to get. Suppose that
we restrict /(x) to have n parameters [for instance, f(x) = 1 + aix +
. . . + anx", a polynomial with n adjustable coefficients]. One way to,
define a "best" approximation is to adjust the parameters in such a way
that the largest peak of the error is minimized. We shall call such an
approximation a "Tchebyscheff approximation." More precisely, let
/(z,Oi,O2,. . ,,On) be a function with n parameters. Then we shall say that
/(z) approximates g(x) in the Tchebyscheff sense if the parameters are deter-
Sec. 9-1
379
THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM
mined in such a way that the largest value of \g(x) — f(x) \ in the interval
(a,6) is a minimum.^
Figure 9-1 shows an arbitrary function g(x) and a function f(x) having
n parameters, which is an approximation to g(x). The error curve is shown
ab
g(x)
h(x)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 9-1. Approximating function and error.
in part (b). We shall suppose that the parameters have been determined
in order to minimize the largest peak in the error curve and that this
largest peak is actually attained at r points. In the figure we have taken
r = 3, one of the points being at one boundary of the interval. We have
set g — f = h(x,ai,. . .,on).
Let us now hold x constant and take the total differential of h.
dh = hi dai + h? da2 + . . . + hn dan (9-5)
where we have set hk = dh/dak. This gives us an expression for the change
in h at any fixed value of x when the parameters a* are changed. Let the
r points at which the maximum value of |A| is achieved be labeled xi, X2,
..., Zr- If we evaluate dh at these points, we shall get
da* + . . . + hn(xi) dan
da* + . . . + hn(x2) dan
(9-6)
dh(xr) = hi(xr) dai + h2(xr) da2 + .. . + hn(xr) dan
If we arbitrarily choose values for the left-hand sides, this will be a set of
r equations with n unknowns (the da's). The set cannot be solved if there
are more equations than unknowns. It can be solved if r < n; in the
case r = n there will be a unique solution; with r < n, n — r of the un-
knowns can be arbitrarily chosen and a solution for the rest obtained in
terms of these.
t The following discussion of the Tchebyscheff approximation is adapted from
Cauer (33).
380 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM Sec. 9-1
Let us assume that at each of the points xk at which the maximum of
\h\ is attained the value of dh(x*) has the opposite sign to that of the value
of h(xk). If the set of equations can be solved under these conditions, we
shall have a contradiction. Solving the set of equations means that we
can find values for dak, the changes in the parameters, such that dh(x*)
has the opposite sign from /i(zn). If we make these changes in the param-
eters by adding dak to a*, we shall get a new set of parameters. With these
new parameters what will happen to the largest peaks? Each positive
peak will have a negative amount added to it, while each negative peak
will have a positive amount added to it, and so the peaks will all become
smaller in size. This is not possible, since we presumably had already
chosen the parameters to give us the minimum possible peaks. The con-
clusion is that Eqs. (9-6) should not be solvable; that is, r > n. This
means that in the interval (a,6) there should be at least one more point at
which \h\ reaches a value equal to its maximum peak than there are param-
eters inf(x).
The type of approximating functions we shall be looking for will be
rational functions. Such a function having n parameters can be written
,, s I +aix+ . . . + amxm . .
«*> = i + fa + . . . + 6n_mx-»
where we have normalized with respect to the value at x = 0. The maxi-
mum number of extremum points of such a function can be determined by
finding the number of zeros of its derivative. Differentiating this function
will lead to another rational function whose numerator is of the (n — l)st
degree, so that the maximum number of extremum points is n — 1. Even
if the values of the function at all these extremum points are equal (and
so all the peaks have attained the maximum value of \h\), the condition
given in the previous paragraph will not be satisfied. If the values of \h\
at the two boundaries of the interval are also equal to the value of the
peaks, there will be a total of exactly n + 1 points at which \h\ attains its
maximum value and so the condition for a Tchebyscheff approximation
will be satisfied. We can summarize the above discussion in the following
theorem:
When a rational function f(x) having n parameters approximates a real
function g(x) in a given interval in the Tchebyscheff sense [i.e., in such a way
that the largest peak deviation of f(x) from g(x) is minimized], all the peak
deviations of f(x) from g(x) will be equal in magnitude and will be equal to
the magnitudes of the deviations at the edges of the interval.
This property leads to the nickname equal ripple for the Tchebyscheff
Sec. 9-2 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM 381
approximation. The same holds true for a polynomial approximating
function, since a polynomial is a special kind of rational function. We
shall have more to say about this type of approximation in a later section.
9-2. Filter characteristic — maximally flat response
Having discussed the approximation criteria in which we shall be in-
terested, we are now ready to consider methods of approximation. But
before we proceed with this topic, let us review briefly the notation intro-
duced in Chap. 4 regarding the magnitude and angle functions.
Let F (s) denote an output/input transfer function. Then we can write
F(ja) = «•<->) +*M (9-8)
where a(w2) is the logarithmic gain, an even function of «, and it> is the
angle. The analytic continuation of these functions can be written a( — s2)
and itii(s), respectively. If we take the square of F(ju), the resulting func-
tion will have a magnitude which is the square of that of F(ju) and an
angle which is twice that of F(ju). We can write
(9-9)
where G(«2) = F(ju)F(-ju) = \F(ju)\2 = «2"'"') (9-10)
The function G(w2), or its analytic continuation G(—s2), is referred to as
the magnitude squared function, while A(ju), or its analytic continuation
A(s), we have labeled the A function.
We are now ready to discuss the approximation problem in some simple
cases. For a low-pass filter the ideal transfer function has a uniform mag-
nitude over a frequency range extending from zero to some cutoff value
and an angle which varies linearly over this range. Thus the ideal transfer
function can be written
Fi(ju) = «-><•/«•> 0 < ^ < 1
Mo
(9-12)
Wo
where the subscript i stands for ideal and wo is the normalizing frequency.
We shall write u' = w/wo and then drop the prime for simplicity. This is
equivalent to letting ua = 1. The magnitude has also been normalized.
382 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM Sec. 9-2
This ideal function is not realizable, and so we are confronted with the
need for approximating it. The approximating function must be a rational
function whose squared magnitude approximates unity in the passband
and zero outside the band. Let us initially assume that the transmission
zeros are all at infinity. Then we can write
It remains for us to determine the index n and the B coefficients in such a
way that the desired function is approximated. The leading coefficient is
chosen to be unity in order to make the approximating function and the
desired function coincide at w = 0. In the passband the error function
will be
1 + BlU' + . . . +
Letting x = w2, this becomes
+ Bxo4 + . . . + Bnw2n _ .
The method of procedure for determining the B coefficients will depend
on the approximation criterion we apply. If we seek a Taylor-type approxi-
mation, we shall require a few of the leading derivatives of the error to
vanish at x = 0. To be more precise, for a fcth-order Taylor approximation
we should require the first k derivatives of the error to be zero. The first
three derivatives of Eq. (9-15) evaluated at x = 0 are
dx\ P /o P-a
PP" Of P'Y
II — - \ * )
,q\r.
(9-16)
d3 IP - r
dx8 \ P ,
.*) D D I?3\ /-.
— ^£>li>2 — J^l ^ v^-
r |o
The primes indicate differentiation with respect to x. If the first derivative
is to vanish, we must have BI = 0. Similarly, the vanishing of the second
and third derivatives requires BI = 0 and B3 = 0. You can readily
appreciate that a fcth-order Taylor approximation will require the vanish-
ing of Bk and all lower-order coefficients. Thus the function
Sec. 9-2 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM 383
G(w2) = l+£ww2<*+,,+ ... + £> (9-17)
will give a fcth-ordcr Taylor approximation to unity in the interval |u| < 1.
For a given value of n the highest-order Taylor approximation possible
with a function of the form of Eq. (9-13) will be n. In this case the func-
tion will reduce to
G(^ - r+b= (9-I8)
A response function such as this, in which the maximum possible number
of derivatives is zero at the origin, is called a maximally flat response.
At the nominal band edge (w = 1) this will become
od) = nb: (9-19)
The coefficient Bn will determine the level of the response at the band
edge. Thus, for Bn = 1, the nominal band edge is the half-power point.
In this case the maximally flat approximation becomes
G(<°2) - nb~" (9-20)
It remains to find the function F(s), knowing the function G(wJ). If
we replace w2 by — s2 in the last equation, we shall get
G(-s2) = F(8)F(-8) = 1 + (l1)ns2n (9-21)
The poles of this function can be found by setting the denominator equal
to zero. This will give s2" = ± 1, the plus and minus signs holding for n
odd or even, respectively. For the two cases we obtain
. 2<â– - 1 T
sk = t n 2 n even
sa = e "2 n odd
(9-22)
(a)n=3 (b) n=4
Fig. 9-2. Pole locations for maximally flat response.
384 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM Sec. 9-2
These show that the poles lie on a unit circle with equal angular spacing.
Figure 9-2 shows the pole positions for n = 3 and n = 4.
It is now a simple matter to form F(8). All the poles of F(s) should lie
in the left half plane, while all those of F(—8) should lie in the right half
plane. Thus all the poles of Eq. (9-21) which lie in the left half plane
belong to F (s). The low-pass maximally flat transfer function can now be
written
where the polynomial Pan is called the nth-order Butterworth polynomial.
It should not be necessary to compute the required Butterworth poly-
nomial each tune the maximally flat approximation is to be used. These
can be computed and tabulated once and for all. Tables 9-1 and 9-2 give
the coefficients and the factors, respectively, of the Butterworth poly-
nomials up to order 10 when the half-power angular frequency has been
normalized to unity.
We have obtained a special kind of rational function giving a Taylor-
type approximation of the ideal filter function — one that has all its trans-
mission zeros at infinity. Let us now consider the case when F(s) has
finite zeros as well. However, we shall require at least a simple zero at
infinity to satisfy the requirement outside the band. With this restriction
we can write
.. .
(9-24)
Again putting w = x and considering the error function (?, — G in the
passband, we get
. . . + (Bm - Am)x«
(9-25)
The first three derivatives of this expression evaluated at x = 0 are
-
dx\ P
P
PI
- A, (a)
\P_2-P2P") - ZPKPiPt - P2P'i
PI
(9-26)
(B2 - A2) - 2Bi(Bi - Ai) (b)
Sec. 9-2 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM 385
—d - -
dz3\ P
= 6(58 - AJ - 4B,(£2 - A2) + 2(AlB2 -
+2Bi(3Bi - 4B2 - 2)(B, - Aj (c)
The vanishing of the first derivative requires AI = Bi. Similarly, the
vanishing of the second derivative requires A2 = 52 in addition to the
previous requirement. The expressions for the higher derivatives become
algebraically complicated, but you can appreciate that for a fcth-order
Taylor approximation corresponding coefficients of the numerator and
denominator must be equal up to the fcth power of x, provided that the
numerator is at least of the fcth power. If A; is greater than m (the degree
of the numerator), then the denominator coefficients from Bm+i to Bk must
vanish. For example, suppose that the numerator of Eq. (9-24) is 1 + -Aiw2,
that is, that A2 and higher coefficients are zero. Then, to make the second
derivative in Eq. (9-26) vanish, besides Ai = Bt we must have B% = 0.
Similarly, the vanishing of the third derivative will require these condi-
tions plus the condition B3 = 0.
So, for a given value of n, the highest-order Taylor approximation
with a function of the form of Eq. (9-24) is
G(of) 1 + By2 + ... + A*,2-
f"i" ) - 1 + BiB2 + ... + Bmo*" + B«a*, (''-')
The B coefficients are still arbitrary and can be chosen to satisfy other
requirements. One relationship among the B's is obtained by specifying
the half-power frequency. The numerator coefficients are often chosen to
give desired zeros of transmission. The problem of finding the pole loca-
tions now is the problem of factoring a polynomial of high degree. This
is a tedious task for hand computation but becomes a simple one for a
high-speed electronic computer.
Up to this point in the discussion of the maximally flat approximation,
we have concentrated on the behavior of the approximating function in
the passband. It is also of interest to determine the behavior in the stop-
band, in particular the asymptotic behavior for large values of u. In this
respect it is more convenient to talk about the logarithm of the magnitude
function rather than the magnitude itself.
Glance back at Eq. (9-10). We shall refer to a as the logarithmic gain
or simply the gain. The negative of a is referred to as the loss. It is meas-
ured in nepers. However, it is common practice to use the unit decibel
(db), which is 20 log « = 8.686 times the number of nepers. We shall be
deliberately inconsistent in our notation to the extent that we shall use
the symbol a to represent In \F(ju)\ as well as 20 log \F(ju)\ in order to
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388
Sec. 9-2
THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM
avoid defining a new symbol that differs from a merely by a multiplicative
constant.
It is also common practice to change the frequency variable as well.
Let us write
u = 10'
(9-28)
or v = log u
The variable v is measured in decades. Thus the frequency interval be-
tween one frequency wi and a second frequency w2 = 10wi is a decade.
Another unit, called an octave, is also in common use. This is defined by
writing u = 2" or n = log 2 log u = 0.3 log w. Hence /i = 0.3v.
Now return to the maximally flat function in Eq. (9-20). The band
edge is at w = 1. For large values of w
G = t2n__L
or -a = 20nlogw (9-29)
If we now substitute for log w from the previous equation, we shall get
-a = 20nv (9-30)
This is the equation of a straight line with a slope of 20n db per decade.
In terms of octaves, since an octave is approximately three-tenths of a
decade, the slope is approximately Qn db per octave.
When we combine this information with the fact that the maximally
flat response is asymptotic to unity magnitude (or zero loss) in the pass-
band, we get the diagram shown in Fig. 9-3. The band edge, w = 1, corre-
40n
20n
-aindb
v (decades)
Fig. 9-3. Asymptotic behavior of Butterworth response.
sponds to the point v = 0 according to Eqs. (9-28). The farther we go
from the band edge in either direction, the closer is the maximally flat
approximation to its asymptotic values. The greatest error occurs at
v . 0 (a = 1). At this point G = 1/2 so that -a = 10 log 2 = 3 db.
This is seen to be independent of the order n of the approximation.
Let us now illustrate the use of the maximally flat approximation by
Sec. 9-2 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM 389
generating a suitable transfer function satisfying a given set of specifica-
tions. It is desired to design a low-pass filter with a useful band extending
to wo = 10,000 radians per sec to operate between a current source and a
resistive load of 500 ohms. In this band the magnitude of the transfer
impedance is not to deviate from its nominal value by more than 10 per
cent. At and beyond w = 3ojo, \Zu\ should remain below 5 per cent of its
nominal passband value.
Note that the half-power (or 3-db) frequency is not specified. The
specified value of the load resistance has no bearing on the approximation;
it will affect the element values after a realization has been obtained.
Let us normalize the frequency variable with respect to wo. In the
present case we must use Eq. (9-18) since Bn is not unity. At w = 1 we
shall have
I/W| = Vow = ^=L= = 1-0.1
Hence we find
Bn = 0.245
A glance at Eq. (9-18) will show that the half-power frequency, which we
shall label w*, is obtained by setting Bnwln = 1. Hence, before we can
find UK, we must determine the index n. This is found from the stopband
requirement. Thus
1
• -= - 0'05
It follows that
B ^ ^ ?â„¢ :f = 3'3<\
so that we must choose n = 4, the next highest integer.
With this value of re we can now find the half-power frequency from
the expression Bnwl" = l. The result is
w* = 1.192
based on the normalization wo = 1. If we want to use the tables of Butter-
worth polynomials which are based on the normalization w* = 1, we must
now change our normalization. Actually, as far as the approximation
problem is concerned, we do not do anything. After a network is realized,
we compute the "unnormalized" element values, using 1.192wo as the
normalizing frequency rather than wo. Using Table 9-1, we get for the
desired transfer impedance
1
l-(s> ~~ 1 + 2.0131s + 3.4142s2 + 2.6131s3 + S4
390 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM Sec. 9-3
This function can be realized as a resistance-terminated lossless ladder
network with series inductances and shunt capacitances.
9-3. Maximally flat delay
In the preceding section we directed attention to the approximation of
the magnitude of the ideal function given in Eqs. (9-12). Let us now con-
sider the problem of approximating the angle of the function. The ideal
angle function is a linear function of w. Instead of dealing with the angle
function, it is often convenient to consider the delay D (also called group
delay). This is defined as the negative derivative of the angle. Thus
where iti(u) is the angle of F(ju). The analytic continuation of this func-
tion can be written
(9.33)
Since <tii(s) reduces to jiti(u) when s = ju, this equation reduces to the
previous one when s = ju.
The ideal delay is obtained by differentiating the ideal angle function,
which is just it> = — u/wo. Thus the ideal delay is just a constant, <o = !/&*•
Since we normalize by taking uo = 1, the ideal delay is just unity.
Let us again seek a rational approximating function F(s) all of whose
zeros lie at infinity. Thus the function we are seeking is
where P(s) is a Hurwitz polynomial. To obtain the delay function corre-
sponding to this transfer function, let us first write the function itii(s) in
terms of F(s) by taking the logarithm of the A function defined in Eq.
(9-11). The result is
*l(s) = 2
When this is substituted into Eq. (9-33) and when Eq. (9-34) is used for
F(s), we get
+(2a2 -af)s2 +(2a4-2a,a3
(9-36)
Sec. 9-3 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM 391
Since ifo is an odd function of s, the delay will be an even function. Hence
we can treat it in the same manner that we treated the squared magnitude
function.
The ideal i/ii(s) function corresponding to the ideal transfer function
in Eqs. (9-12) is fa = —s. Hence the ideal delay function is D, = 1.
Our problem, then, is to choose the coefficients of F(s) in such a way that
the right-hand side of Eq. (9-36) approximates unity in the desired manner.
Let us consider a Taylor-type approximation for the delay. According
to what we established in the previous section, a maximally flat approxima-
tion requires corresponding coefficients in the numerator and denominator
of the right-hand side of Eq. (9-36) to be equal up to the highest power of
the numerator. With this condition a set of simultaneous equations in-
volving the a coefficients will be obtained. These equations will be non-
linear and difficult to solve when F(s) is of high order.
Let us illustrate the procedure for a relatively simple case. Suppose
that
(9-37)
,,.,
1 + ais + a2s2 + a3s3
Then P(s) = 1 + ds + atf" + a3s3
P( — s) = 1 — ais + a2s2 — a3s3
P'(s) = a, + 2atf + 3a3s2
P'(-s) = -a, + 2a2s - 3a3s2
n, . __ a< + (3a3 - aia2).s2 + a^ , ,
= 1 + (2a2 - a?)s' + (a! - 2< - ° ( ***
For a maximally flat delay we equate all the numerator coefficients to the
corresponding denominator coefficients and get
a,= 1
3a3 — aiO2 = 2a2 — a?
a2O3 = ai — 2aia3
The solution of this set of equations leads to
ai =1 a-, = f o3 = T's
so that F(.) = 2 , (9-39)
Figure 9-4 shows the comparative pole locations of this function and
the third-order maximally flat magnitude function. The delay scale has
been reduced by a factor 2.32 in order to make the two real poles coincide
The procedure for obtaining a maximally flat delay that has just been
392
Sec. 9-3
THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM
Deloy-^y.
Magnitude
and delay
Fig. 9-4. Pole locations for third-order maximally flat magnitude and
delay.
outlined is straightforward. However, solution of the simultaneous non-
linear equations for the a coefficients becomes extremely difficult for high-
order transfer functions.
Let us now consider an alternative approach to the problem of approx-
imating a flat delay. The following discussion is based on some work of
LeoStorch (112).
The ideal transfer function that we wish to approximate can be written
Fi(s) = «- = 1 =
1
cosh s + sinh s
What we would like to do is to approximate the denominator of the right-
hand side by means of a polynomial. Of course, this polynomial must be
Hurwitz. Let us write
bo bp bo
F(s) =
(9-41)
bo + hs + . . . + bns" m(s) + n(s) P(s)
We have written the denominator in the familiar form of the sum of its
even and odd parts. The constant in the numerator is included in order
for the function to have a unit magnitude at the origin. We want to de-
termine the b coefficients in such a way that Eq. (9-41) approximates
Eq. (9-40).
One method of procedure that is natural to think of is to expand e'
in Eq. (9-40) in a Maclaurin series and retain only the first n terms. This
will provide an approximation—what kind of approximation we do not
know, but an approximation. We have no assurance beforehand that the
nth degree polynomial we get by this method will even be Hurwitz. As a
matter of fact, it turns out that, for n > 4, the polynomial is not Hurwitz
(68). Hence, we cannot use this procedure for high-order functions, no
matter how good the approximation.
Sec. 9-3 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM 393
A glance back at Eq. (9-40) shows that the denominator is already
written as the sum of an even and an odd function. Suppose that we take
the ratio of the even part (cosh s) to the odd part (sinh s). The desired
approximation of this function is m/n, which is a reactance function, in
view of the fact that m + n must be a Hurwitz polynomial. Both cosh s
and sinh s can be expanded in a Taylor's series about the origin. Then
1 4. 4_ j.
cosh s i-r 2 "r4!'r 6!
_
sinh s . s3 . s6
(9-42)
Let us now expand the right-hand side of this equation in an infinite con-
tinued fraction. The result is easily found to be
cosh si. 1
sinh s s 3 1
« + 5 . 1 (9-43)
Up to this point, no approximation has been made. Suppose that this
infinite expansion is cut off at the nth term. The result will be an approx-
imation to cosh s/sinh s in the vicinity of s = 0. Again, we do not know the
type of approximation. The truncated continued-fraction expansion is
m(s) = 1 1
n(«) == s + 3 1
s+5
s ^ . (9-44)
+
2n -
Note that all the coefficients are positive. Hence this looks like the Cauer
expansion of a reactance function. If we recombine the expansion, we shall
get a reactance function which is the ratio of an even to an odd poly-
nomial. (The left-hand side of the last equation was written in anticipation
of this fact.) The sum of m and n will be the desired Hurwitz polynomial.
It is clear that the coefficients of m and n will depend on the number
of terms that are retained in the continued-fraction expansion. Let us
consider the case when n = 3; in this case the continued-fraction expansion
will be
394 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM Sec. 9-3
m _ 1 _1 __ 15 + 6s2
n ~ «3 l ~ 15s
The corresponding transfer function will be
(V~
15 + 15s + 6s2 + s3 1 + s + |«2 +&s3
An extremely interesting observation can be made by comparing this ex-
pression with Eq. (9-39), which is the transfer function for a maximally
flat delay approximation — the two are identical! Thus the procedure we
have just followed gives a maximally flat approximation to the delay, at
least in the case n = 3. The question naturally arises, Is this also true for
other orders of approximation? To provide the answer to this question will
require a slight digression.
We have already noted that the coefficients in the polynomial P(s),
which we get by recombining the continued fraction in Eq. (9-44), will
depend on the order n. For any desired order we can get the numerical
values of the coefficients. However, it would be useful to have a general
expression for the coefficients. Let us make the substitution p = l/s
in Eq. (9-44); the left-hand side will now be a function of p — call it
TOD(p)/nc(p). Upon recombining the continued fraction and adding the
numerator and denominator, we shall get a polynomial which we shall
label PD(P). For a few low orders these will be
PD(p) = 1 + 3p + 3p2 n = 2
PD(p) = 1 +2-3p + 3-5p2 + 3-5p3 n = 3 (9-47)
PD(p) = 1 + 2-5p + 3-3-5p2 + 3-5-7p3 + 3-5-7p4 n = 4
where
PD(p) = mD(p) + nn(p) - K + b{p + Up2 + . . . + tip" (9-48)
From these expressions we can work out the following general formula for
the b' coefficients:
Hence we can write the nth order polynomial as
„_
It turns out that these polynomials arise in other applications as well
Sec. 9-3 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM 395
and have been called Bessel polynomials.! (We should therefore label
them PB. However, we have already used the subscript B for the Butter-
worth polynomials. The subscript D was chosen to imply Delay.) To
convert back to the variable s, note that
P.(«) = s"PDn(p) = s"PDn Q (9-51)
so that P.O,) = g yj"**]!^ *"-* (9-52)
For convenience, we can replace the index n — k by k to get the following
final form:
- k)\
The desired approximating function can now be written
F(t.\ — bo bo _ _ 6o _
*W Pa(s) s"PDn(l/s) &o + M + ... + M"
where bk = j,jj,'*^, (9-55)
These coefficients are the same as those in Eq. (9-49) except that the sub-
scripts are inverted. That is, 6* = 6^_*.
Let us now investigate the magnitude and angle of the transfer function
F(s) for s = ju. A tremendous simplification in this job is made by ob-
serving some relationships between the Bessel polynomials and Bessel
functions of half-integral order. One of these relationships is
,*(£)-
\w
(9-56){
Using this in Eq. (9-54) with s = ju, we get
F(jw) = - 7= - - - «-J" (9-57)
This equation puts the transfer function in an extremely useful form. It
t These polynomials satisfy the differential equation
p> g + C2p + 2) g =n(» + l)»
See H. L. Krall and O. Fink, "A New Class of Orthogonal Polynomials: the Bessel
Polynomials," Trans. Am. Math. Soc., 65, Jan. 1949.
J See Krall and Fink, op. cit.
396 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM Sec. 9-3
is the product of two functions, one of which is the ideal function e~;u,
while the other can be considered to be the error. Thus
F(ju) = F.(jw)F((jw) = VG.,(w2) e*.Me-*, (9-58)
b2
where G.(w2) = , /0. .,.irn — ° , n - -r^ (9-59)
(T/2)w'.+I[^+,(w) + ^L ,.+„(«)]
tan*. = (-!)". •/" + *(w> (9-60)
^ -<" + »)(»)
and where the subscript e stands for error. The last two equations give the
error in the squared magnitude and the angle function. The usefulness of
these equations derives from the fact that, for a given order of approxima-
tion n, the errors can be computed by using tabulated values of half-
integral-order Bessel functions.
We have yet to find what kind of approximation to the ideal transfer
function is obtained by this procedure. Since the angle of the right-hand
side of Eq. (9-58) is
«(w) = -w + «,(«) (9-61)
with 4i, given in Eq. (9-60), we can compute the delay, denned in Eq.
(9-32), to be
Dfr) = -£ = 1 - -1 [tan- (-I), /"+tH
du dw\_ j_(,, + j)(w
('Q_R9'1
The numerator of the second term has been evaluated t to give 2/iroj.
Hence the delay becomes
/ . ,2 - TT| (9-63)
(w) -f «/'c"+»)(w)J
This is in the form of the desired delay minus an error term, which we
can label De(jui). A more readily interpretable expression for the delay
error can be obtained by substituting the series definition of the Bessel
function,! thus obtaining the following power series for the delay error,
[,.2n+2
•••-£=1
o-
t G. N. Watson, A Treatise on the Theory ofBcssd Functions, p. 42, Cambridge, 1948.
The desired expression is J.(x)J'_.(x) — J'.(x)J..(x) = — --
r(x) is the gamma function.
Sec. 9-3 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM 397
where - K = - (9-65)
"K OQ
The right-hand side is obtained by expanding the gamma function and
using 6o as given in Eq. (9-55).
Since the Maclaurin series of the delay error starts with the nth power
of w2, the first n — 1 derivatives with respect to w2 are zero. Hence, by
definition, the transfer function F(s) given in Eq. (9-54) provides an
(n — l)st-order Taylor-type (maximally flat) approximation to the delay!
This result was certainly not anticipated when the continued fraction was
truncated, but it is nevertheless welcome.
Another very interesting fact becomes apparent upon comparison of
the delay error De(ju) in Eq. (9-63) and the squared magnitude in Eq.
(9-59). Thus
G.(o,2) = ^-nZ,.O) (9-66)
Using the power series for De(ju), we can now find the series representing
the squared magnitude. It is
r < 2\ _ i w2 , 2(n - IX . _.
''M"'
'' '2 (2n - l)'(2n - 3) ' ''
Several observations can now be made. Since the delay is a monotonic
function of frequency, so also is the squared magnitude. However, all the
powers of w2 are present in the series expansion of Ge(w2) so that it is not
maximally flat. On the other hand, the coefficients (which are the zero-
frequency derivatives) decrease with increasing n. This means that G,(w2)
approaches a maximally flat shape for large values of n.
Let us now review the preceding discussion. We used some mathe-
matics (Bessel functions) that is not normally met in network theory.
Many of the steps in the development had to be left for you to carry out.
However, the results obtained are easily interpreted and applied.
The squared magnitude, the phase, and the delay of the transfer
function given in Eq. (9-54) are expressed, respectively, in Eqs. (9-59),
(9-60), and (9-63) in terms of the order of approximation n. Remember
that the variable u here refers to the actual angular frequency multiplied
by the flat delay <o = 1/wo with respect to which we have normalized.
In a given problem the order n is chosen to satisfy three requirements:
(1) the flat delay to, (2) the frequency to which this delay is to be main-
tained within a specified tolerance (the delay bandwidth), and (3) the
frequency to which the magnitude is to be maintained within a specified
398
Sec. 9-3
THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM
tolerance (the magnitude bandwidth). The last will usually (but not neces-
sarily) be specified as the 3-db bandwidth. After n is chosen, the coefficients
of F(s) are calculated from Eq. (9-55) and the approximation is complete.
Because all the transmission zeros are at infinity, the realization is easily
obtained according to the methods of Chaps. 5 and 6.
Let us now illustrate the approximation procedure with a numerical
problem. It is desired to synthesize a low-pass network for which the
flat delay is ta = 25 microseconds. It is required that the delay error
be no greater than 2 per cent up to a frequency of w = 10*. In this range
the loss should be no greater than 3 db.
All that is required is to find the order n. However, the smallest value
of n that would satisfy the delay-error requirement may not be large
enough to satisfy the loss requirement, or vice versa. Hence, it may be
necessary to use a larger value of n than necessary for satisfying one of
the requirements in order to satisfy the second one.
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
^ 2-5
.a
1.5
1.0
n=3\
n=7\
n-9
0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
tt
Kijf. 9-5. Curves of delay error as a function of frequency.
Sec. 9-3
399
THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM
In Figs. 9-5 and 9-6 we have drawn universal curves representing the
delay error in per cent and the loss in decibels vs. the normalized frequency
with the order n as a parameter. The curves were calculated from Eqs.
(9-63) and (9-66).. In the present problem the normalizing frequency is
wo = l/<o = 4 X 10*. Hence the normalized value of the band edge is
u = 2.5. If we enter the delay chart at a normalized frequency of 2.5,
we see that n = 3 will cause a delay error of more than 2 per cent but
n = 5 will be more than adequate. However, Fig. 9-6 shows that a value
of n = 5 will keep the loss below 3 db only up to a normalized frequency
of n = 2.4. If the requirements are to be absolutely satisfied, we must
choose the next higher value for n, namely, n = 6. If we can tolerate
slightly poorer performance in the loss requirement, n = 5 will suffice. In
any case, n will be determined.
We have tabulated the coefficients and the factors of the Bessel poly-
nomials in Tables 9-3 and 9-4. In the present problem, with n = 6, with
the help of Table 9-3 we find the desired transfer function to be
, . 10,395
(S) == 10,395 + 10,395s + 4725s2 + 1260s3 + 210s4 + 21s* + s°
.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Fig. 9-6. Curves of loss as a function of normalized frequency.
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402
Sec. 9-4
THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM
9-4. Filter characteristic—Tchebyscheff response
We have now discussed procedures for obtaining a maximally flat
approximation to a flat-top filter function and to a constant-delay function.
These approximations are monotonic functions of frequency. The approxi-
mation is very good near the center of the band (w = 0) but gets pro-
gressively worse as frequency increases, the poorest approximation
occurring at the band edge.
Let us now look for an approximation that oscillates about the desired
function with the hope that the error can thereby be distributed more
evenly over the band. In Section 9-1 we have already discussed a rippling
kind of approximation. There we denned a Tchebyscheff approximation
as one that minimizes the largest peak of the error. We also showed that
this type of approximation is likewise an equal-ripple approximation.
We shall again seek an approximation to a low-pass flat-top magnitude
squared function and again assume that all the transmission zeros are at
infinity. Thus the output/input magnitude squared function is a constant
divided by an even polynomial similar to Eq. (9-13). The reciprocal of
this function will be simply a polynomial. Since it is so much easier to
deal with a polynomial rather than its reciprocal, we shall deal with the
input/output function in the following development.
We have the general problem, then, of determining the coefficients
of an mth-degree polynomial, which, in the interval ( — 1,1), approximates
Fig. 9-7. Equal-ripple error.
a constant in the Tchebyscheff sense. (We have normalized the a axis
such that the band edges are ±1.) The error function itself will be an
mth-degree polynomial which we shall call h(u). A sketch of the error is
shown in Fig. 9-7, where the peak value of \h\ has been normalized to unity.
In Sec. 9-1 we established that the error of an mth-order Tchebyscheff
Sec. 9-4 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM 403
approximation must attain its peak value exactly m + 1 times in the
approximating interval: at m — 1 interior points and at the two edges.
At the interior peak points the derivative of h must be zero, and all the
zeros of the derivative must be simple. Now let us form the polynomial
I — h2; this will be zero at all the m + 1 peak points of h since h is ±1 at
these points. Furthermore, it will have double zeros at the interior peak
points. This can be seen by noting that the derivative of 1 — h2 is —2hh',
which is also zero at these points. At the end points w = ±1, 1 — h*
has simple zeros. Thus 1 — h2 has the factors (h'Y and (1 — w)(l + w)
and no other factors. Hence we can write
(9-68)
1 - o,2
where A" is a constant. The solution for h is obtained by integrating this
equation. The result is
cos-i h = ±77 cos-i w (9-69)
A
We know that, when w runs from —1 to +1, h oscillates between ±1
exactly m times. This determines the constant K to be l/m so that we get
h = cos (m cos-i o,) \u\ < 1 (9-70)
We can alternatively write
h = cos my
(9-71)
w = cos y
That the right-hand side of the equation for h is a polynomial in w is easily
demonstrated by expressing cos my as a polynomial in cos y and using
u = cos y. These polynomials are designated Tm(u) and are called
"Tchebyscheff polynomials"; m is the order of the polynomial. Thus
Tm(w) = cos (m cos-i w) -1 < w < 1 (9-72)
or jTm(w) = cos my, w = cos y (9-73)
Some of the lower-order Tchebyscheff polynomials are shown in Table
9-5. Some of these are sketched in Fig. 9-8. A glance at the figures or a
consideration of the polynomials in the table will show the following
properties:
T*(0) = (-1)* IWi(0) =0
T2*(rbl) = 1 Tu+i (±1) = ±1 (respectively)
The denning equation for the Tchebyscheff polynomial given in
404
Sec. 9-4
THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM
Eq. (9-72) is valid only in the range |w| < 1. However, the polynomials
listed in Table 9-5 are defined for all values of w. Actually, we can general-
Table 9-5
Order
n
Tchebyscheff polynomial, Tn(u) = cos (n cos"1 w)
0
1
1
w
2
2w2- 1
3
4ul — 3d)
4
8«4 - &,' + 1
5
l&o' - 20u3 4- 5w
6
32u,« - 4&>4 + !&.' - 1
7
G4<o ~~ 112to ~t" 5Gw — 7w
8
128u« - 256w« + 160u* - 32u2 + 1
9
256u• - 576u7 + 432u' - 120w3 + 9w
10
512Ulo - 1280u>« + 1 120o,« - 400oi4 + 50uJ - 1
ize the definition to include complex values as well. Let w = x + jy, and
consider the functions
T = cosh w (a)
= cosh mw (b)
Upon expanding the hyperbolic cosines, these become
w — ja = cosh x cos y — j sinh x sin y (a)
/s\
Tm{ -.} = cosh mx cos WIT/ — j sinh mx sin m2 / (b)
(9-75)
(9-76)
When x = 0, the first of these equations requires a = 0. Hence these
equations reduce to Eq. (9-73). Thus Eqs. (9-75) may be considered the
general definition of the Tchebyscheff polynomials.
Let us return now to a consideration of the approximation. We have
shown that, if the error between the squared magnitude of the realizable
input/output function (that is, l/G) and the ideal (which is unity in the
passband) is a Tchebyscheff polynomial, then an equal-ripple approxi-
mation will be achieved. The magnitudes of the peak error above and below
unity will be equal. Several observations can be made: If we now considei
the magnitude rather than its square, we shall no longer have an equal-
ripple approximation. Likewise, if we take the reciprocal, G("i2),
nc
Sec. 9-4
405
THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM
(a) TZM
(b)
-/
(cl Tilv) (d) T5
Fig. 9-8. TchebyschefT polynomials.
longer have an equal ripple. However, the difference is extremely small,
assuming the error is not large in the first place. Let us consider the
quantitative aspects of these observations.
Consider Fig. 9-9, which shows a sketch of l/G(oi2). The peak-to-peak
deviation is labeled «2. Since the functions involved are all even, we must
have only even-ordered polynomials.
For the error, we can write
1 • <2- ',) (9_77)
406
Sec. 9-4
THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM
/ w >-
Fig. 9-9. Sketch of equal-ripple approximation.
By writing 2n for the order, we ensure even-order Tchebyscheff
polynomials. The error oscillates between ±«2/2. If we solve this for
G(w8), we get
G(«2) - . ^_,.,/ovr ,.* (9-78)
(<2/2)T2n(w)
Using the trigonometric identity cos 2ny = 2 cos2 ny — \, the Tche-
byscheff polynomial of order 2n in the last equation can be replaced
by the square of a polynomial of order n. The result is
G(«2) = ! - (e2/2)!+ e2Tg(M) (9"79)
Note that, although the function approximating l/G(w2) oscillates about
unity in an equal-ripple manner in the passband, the right-hand side of
the last equation is not an equal-ripple approximation of unity. However,
for small enough values of e the difference between the two is quite small.
Since TJl(u) varies between zero and unity, the value of G will vary
between the limits
11
1^7/2 and T+7/2
The difference between these two quantities, which is the peak-to-peak
ripple, is
^7~ ~ ^~^ = !T7T2 (9"80)
The value about which the approximation ripples can now be found by
adding half this amount to the trough in the ripple. The result is
1 , 1 «2 1
Thus the approximation of G(w2) ripples about a value slightly greater
than unity.
Sec. 9-4
407
THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM
It has become standard in the literature to modify the approximating
function given in Eq. (9-79) by neglecting «2/2 in comparison with unity
in the denominator. With this modification the approximating function
is taken to be
GV) = F+TTfM <9-82>
With this change the approximating function ripples about the value
1 + «2/2
with a peak-to-peak ripple of €2/(l + «2)- Figure 9-10 shows a sketch of
the approximation for n = 4 and n = 5. In view of Lqs. (9-74) the odd-
FIR. 9-10. Odd- and even-order Tchebyschcff approximations.
order approximations start from the peak of the ripple, while the even
ones start from the trough. This is illustrated in the figure. At the band
edge (w = 1) they all go through tho minimum value.
The next order of business is to Cnd the pole locations of G( — s2),
which is the analytic continuation of the function in Eq. (9-82). This is
dene by setting 1 + «27'*(s/j) equal to zero, or eTn(s/j) = ±j. By the
use of Eqs. (9-76) this condition yields
Tn( - J = cosh nx cos ny — j sinh nx sin ny = ± - (9-83)
Equating the real and imaginary parts on both sides of the equation
yields
cosh nx cos ny = 0
(9-84)
sinh nx sin ny = Tl/e
The first of these equations can be satisfied only if cos ny vanishes, which
is possible if ny is an odd multiple of ir/2. With this value of y it is possible
to solve the second equation for x. The simultaneous solution of the two
equations results in
408 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM Sec. 9-4
2k - 1 v . .
ii
z* = ±- sinh-i - (b)
n(
We have here used the fact that the hyperbolic sine is an odd function.
These expressions locate the poles in the w plane. To find the corre-
sponding locations in the s plane, we use the relationship between the s and
w planes whose expanded form is given in Eqs. (9-76). The result is
, /I . . 1\ . 2k - IT . .
= ± smh I - sinh '- 1 sm — — — (a)
, /I . , . 1\ 2fc - 1 * ,, .
= cosh I - sinh"i - I cos - — ^ (b)
(9-86)
These expressions look extremely complicated. However, given the
parameters n and e and a table of hyperbolic functions, they can be readily
calculated. A very interesting property of the pole locations can be
derived from these equations. Let us divide each of them by the
hyperbolic function appearing on the right; square both sides, and add.
The result will be
- al - -
sinh2 [ - sinh"i - ) cosh2 [ - sinh-i - 1
\B «/ \n e)
This is the equation of an ellipse whose axes are the a and w axes of the
s plane. Since the hyperbolic cosine is always larger than the hyperbolic
sine, the major axis of the ellipse lies along the ju axis. Thus the poles of
G(—s2) are distributed on an ellipse in the s plane.
For fixed values of n and « the hyperbolic functions appearing in
Eqs. (9-86) will be constants. If we now compare these expressions with
the real and imaginary parts of the maximally flat pole locations given in
Eqs. (9-22), we observe an interesting fact. We find that the real part at
has the same value it would have if the poles were distributed uniformly
on a circle, as in the maximally flat response, except that the radius of the
circle is not unity but equal to the minor axis of the ellipse. Similarly, w*
has the same value it would have if the poles were distributed on a circle
whose radius is equal to the major axis of the ellipse.
These observations lead to a simple method for finding the pole
locations of the Tchebyscheff approximation. For given n and e we draw
two concentric circles with radii equal to the two axes of the ellipse, as
given by the hyperbolic functions in Eqs. (9-86). We locate 2n points
equally spaced on each circle at the angles 2/* given in Eqs. (9-85). The
Sec. 9-4 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM 409
poles that we are to locate on the ellipse are to have the same real part as
the points on the small circle, while they are to have the same imaginary
part as the corresponding points on the large circle. Hence the poles are
located at the intersections of vertical lines drawn from each of the equally
spaced points on the small circle with horizontal lines drawn from the
corresponding points on the large circle. This is illustrated for the case
n = 4 in Fig. 9-11.
Fig. 9-11. Construction for locating poles of equal-ripple approximation.
Once the poles of G( — s2) are found, it is again a simple matter to find
those of F(s); they are simply all the left-half-plane poles of G( — s2). In
the present case we cannot tabulate the denominator polynomial of F(s)
against the order n as we did in the cases of maximally flat magnitude and
delay because of the additional parameter«. It is possible to tabulate these
polynomials for several representative values of «. However, our purpose
here is to concentrate on developing the methods rather than to provide
design tables.
Note that the coefficient of the highest-power term in the denominator
of Eq. (9-82) is not unity but 22<n_1)*2. However, if we multiply together
the factors representing the poles of F(s), the coefficient of the highest
power of s will be unity. Hence we must multiply the product of the pole
factors by 2n-1e in order to obtain the correct F(s).
It is of interest to compare the asymptotic behavior of the equal-
ripple approximation with that of the maximally flat. For large values
of u the highest-power term of Tn(w) will be the most important. A glance
at Table 9-5 will show that the highest-power term of Tn(ui) is 2n-1wn.
From Eq. (9-82) we find that, when e2T;|(w) is much greater than unity,
which occurs for large values of w, then
410 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM Sec. 9-4
The loss in decibels will then be
-a = 10 log ^ = 20 log eTn(u) = 20 log 2"-i«on
Cr
= 20w log w + 20(n - 1) log 2 + 20 log e (9-89)
Finally, remembering that log w is equal to v in decades and that
log 2 = 0.3, we get
-a = 20ra; + 6(n - 1) + 20 log« (9-90)
Values of t normally required to satisfy passband tolerances range from
a high of unity, corresponding to 3 db ripple, down to a low of about one-
tenth, corresponding to less than 1/2 db ripple. Thus the last term in this
expression will always be negative with a value that ranges from zero to
—20. It follows that, for a high enough order of n, the asymptotic stop-
band loss for the Tchebyscheff approximation is greater than the cor-
responding loss for a maximally flat approximation of the same order,
even with a much closer in-band tolerance. Alternatively, it is clear that,
for the same in-band tolerance and stopband loss, a Tchebyscheff approx-
imation of lower order than a maximally flat approximation can be used.
5=^ Let us now illustrate the Tchebyscheff approximation by reworking
the numerical example for which a maximally flat approximation was
obtained in Sec. 9-2. The statement of the problem is repeated here for
easy reference. It is desired to design a low-pass filter with a useful band
extending to wo = 10,000 radians per sec to operate between a current
source and a resistive load of 500 ohms. In this band the magnitude of
the transfer impedance is not to deviate from its nominal value by more
than 10 per cent. At and beyond w = 3wo, \Za\ should remain below
5 per cent of its nominal passband value.
We again normalize frequency with respect to wo- The passband
requirement is translated to mean that the magnitude of Zu(ju) should
be no smaller than 0.9 in the passband. Hence the tolerable peak-to-peak
ripple in the magnitude squared function is 1 — 0.92, or 19 per cent. We
can now determine e from the relation
T-V-; = 0.19
which gives t- = 0.235 and e = 0.485.
To find the order n, we use the stopband requirement in Eq. (9-82).
fTTriKl) * (0-05)'
or T"(3) > 41.2
Sec. 9-5 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM 411
By consulting the Tchebyscheff polynomials in Table 9-5 we find that
T"2(3) = 17, while T«(3) = 99. Hence the lowest order of Tn we can use
is n = 3. Using Eqs. (9-86) for the pole positions, we find the poles of
Za(s) to lie at -0.51 and -0.255 ± J0.972. Hence, finally, for Zu(s) we
get
9-5. Transformations of the frequency variable
In the preceding sections of this chapter we concentrated exclusively
on approximating the magnitude and angle of a transfer function in a
low-frequency band. We are also interested in problems involving intervals
on the jw axis not centered about w = 0. It would not be necessary to solve
the approximation problem separately for such problems if we could find
a frequency transformation which would map the desired passband onto
the low-pass interval. The problem could then be solved in the low-pass
interval. Applying the inverse transformation would then lead to the
solution in the desired interval.
It is not difficult to find such transformations. Let s = 5 + ju be a
normalized low-pass variable. That is, the frequency band of interest in
this plane is centered about the origin and extends from w = — 1 to
u = +1. Let s = a + ju be a general unnormalized complex-frequency
variable. Now consider the transformation
5 = ^° (9-92)
This transforms the interval extending from — j«o through infinity to
+.7'oio in the s plane to the low-pass interval on the j axis in the s plane. It
is a low-pass to high-pass transformation. In particular, with wo = 1
the cutoff points in the two cases are the same.
Now suppose that a magnitude function is prescribed over a high-pass
interval. With the use of Eq. (9-92) this is transformed into a function over
the low-pass interval. Suppose that the low-pass problem is then solved and
a realization obtained. This network gives the desired performance, but
not in the correct band. We can achieve the desired result if we change the
elements in the network in such a way that the impedance of each resulting
element (or elements) at a point in the high-pass interval is the same as
the impedance of the corresponding element at the corresponding frequency
in the low-pass interval. Thus let Lo and Co designate, respectively, an
412
Sec. 9-5
THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM
inductance and a capacitance in the low-pass realization. With the trans-
formation s = O>Q/S we require
r « T **° / \
LOs = Lo— = jr~ W
(9-93)
^ = ^- = Lks (b)
(., oS L oWo
where the subscript A refers to high-pass quantities. Hence we find
1
Lk =
1
(a)
(b)
(9-94)
We conclude that, if in the normalized low-pass realization we replace
each inductance by a capacitance and each capacitance by an inductance
with the values given in Eqs. (9-94), we shall obtain a network which
realizes the desired high-pass function.
Bandpass problems can be handled in a similar manner. Consider the
transformation
where
W \Wo
w? = wcloic2
(a)
(b)
(9-9G)
This transformation is illustrated in Fig. 9-12. The two edges of the band
s-pf one
s-plane
-Jud /
Fig. 9-12. The transformation « = —(—+—)•
« \wo ;«;
(corresponding to the cutoff frequencies in the case of filters) are labeled
wci and wc2. The geometric mean of the cutoff frequencies is designated
wo, while w is the bandwidth.
Sec. 9-5 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM 41 3
Note that s remains unchanged if we replace s in Eq. (9-95) by uo/s.
It follows that s is a double-valued function of s. In particular, a point in
the low-pass interval in the s plane corresponds to two points in the s
plane, one in the positive passband and one in the negative passband.
Now suppose that a bandpass function G(w2) is prescribed over the
passband of the s plane. With the transformation of Eq. (9-95) this
becomes G(di2) = G(«2). If this is to be a single-valued function, we must
require that the value of G(u2) at a point «i in the passband be equal to
its value at the point — w?/wi because both these points correspond to a
single point on the low-pass interval. That is, the prescribed magnitude
function should satisfy the condition G(w2) = G( — wj/u2). We refer to this
as geometrical symmetry. The same condition also applies if the prescribed
function is the angle [or the A function defined in Eq. (9-11)].
For the case of a filter function, which requires a uniform magnitude
in the passband, the geometrical-symmetry condition is fulfilled. Hence
Eq. (9-95) can be used to convert the problem to a low-pass one. After
a low-pass realization is obtained, the required bandpass network is
realized by modifying each element in the low-pass realization in such a
way that the impedance of this element as a function of s is the same as
the impedance of the modification as a function of the bandpass variable
s. Let us designate bandpass quantities with a subscript b. Then we can
write
O , joa r 4' / \
= — s + - - = Lbis + TT~ (a)
w ws CHs
(9-97)
11 1
Cows
It is clear that each inductance in the low-pass realization should be re-
placed by a series-resonant circuit with the element values
LM = £ (a)
(9-98)
Similarly, each capacitance should be replaced by a parallel-resonant
circuit with element values
(9-99)
41 4 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM Sec. 9-6
This idea of transforming the frequency variable can be used for
other more complicated problems as well. In the case of multiple pass-
band filters we require certain points on the ju axis, the band centers, to
map onto the origin of the low-pass plane. Other points, corresponding
to the cutoffs, should map onto w = 1, while still other points, which we
can think of as constituting the centers of the stopbands, should map onto
the point at infinity. If we glance back at the two transformations we
have already considered, Eqs. (9-92) and (9-95), we notice that these
are reactance functions. A little thought will show that reactance functions,
as a class, are well suited to the contemplated mappings, since proper
choice of the zeros and poles will perform the transformation of desired
frequencies onto the origin and infinity. Further development of this
idea will be left to you.
9-6. Predistortion
The topic under consideration in this section might seem out of place
in a chapter on approximations since it is closely related to realixntion.
However, as we shall see, the main problem is one of function synthesis.
From this point of view it belongs in the present chapter.
The networks which we realize for a prescribed driving-point or
transfer function by any one of the methods we have discussed in this
book will contain ideal inductance and capacitance elements. However,
when the networks are actually constructed with the physical counter-
parts of these ideal elements, parasitic elements invariably appear. These
elements have the effect of shifting the locations of the poles and zeros of
the function for which the network was synthesized. In this way the efforts
expended in obtaining a suitable approximating function to satisfy
specified performance criteria may be vitiated.
The greatest amount of difficulty is caused by the incidental dissipation
associated with the reactive elements. This incidental dissipation can be
accounted for in an approximate manner by combining a resistance in
series with each inductance and in parallel with each capacitance. Let us
assume that the time constants of the series RL combinations and the
parallel RC combinations are all equal. The impedance of these com-
binations can be written
ZL = Ls + RL = L(8 + d) = Lp (a)
1_ _!_ _!
Zc ~ sC + 1/flc " C(s + d) ~ < p (b)
Sec. 9-6
415
THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM
73
d=-=
1
where d = -j- = ^777- (a)
L CKc (9-101)
p = s + d (b)
With the change of variable p = s + d, the impedance of a series R and L
is the same function of the variable p that the impedance of a pure in-
ductance is of the variable s. A similar statement applies to the
capacitance. The transformation p = s + d moves the vertical axis of
the s plane parallel to itself d units to the right.
Suppose that we start with a prescribed transfer function and syn-
thesize a network realizing this function. When the network is actually
constructed, the actual response function will differ from the prescribed
one because of the incidental dissipation. If we assume that the time
constants of all the lossy inductors and capacitors arc the same, then the
actual transfer function realized by the network will be the desired one,
but with p = s + d substituted for s. Thus all zeros and poles will be
shifted to the left by a constant amount d.
The faint trace of an idea begins to appear here. Since the actual
network distorts the desired function by shifting all zeros and poles a
constant amount to the left, why do we not compensate for this by
deliberately shifting all of them to the right? In other words, let us prc-
distorl the desired function by replacing s by p — d. The resulting transfer
function will not be the one we want, because all the poles and zeros will
be moved an amount d to the right. If we now synthesize a network
realizing this undesirable function, the incidental dissipation will restore
the function to its original desired form.
To illustrate this idea, consider Fig. 9-13. The transfer impedance
functions of the two networks are
(a)
1
(9-102)
(s + RL/2) (s + 2/Rc) +
fa} (b)
Fig. 9-13. Modification of a network by incidental dissipation.
416
Sec. 9-6
THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM
respectively. If we assume that RL/2 = 2/Rc = d, the last expression
will become
Zrf.) = %(p) = p. + lp+l (9-103)
This is seen to be the same function of p that Eq. (9-102a) is of s.
Now suppose that we set s = p — d in Eq. (9-102a). The predistorted
transfer impedance will become
1
Zu(p -d) = Z,',(p) =
(p - d)2 + }(p - d) + 1
1
- (1 - d/2
(9-104)
The realization of this function is shown in Fig. 9-14(a). With the
incidental dissipation explicitly shown this takes on the form of
1-4d
(a)
Fig. 9-14. Example of predistortion.
Fig. 9-14 (b). The resistances are calculated from RL = Ld&ndRc = l/Cd.
This network has the transfer impedance of Eq. (9-102a), as you can readily
verify in this simple case.
We note from this example that the predistortion not only introduces
resistive elements but may increase the number of reactive elements as
well. Another observation follows by considering Eq. (9-104). If the
value of d is made greater than 1/4, the predistorted function will have
poles in the right half plane. Hence there is a limit to the amount of
predistortion that is possible. In terms of the pole locations of the original
transfer function the permissible value of d is limited by the closeness of
the poles to the jw axis. The largest value of d that can be used is the magni-
tude of the real part of the pole of ZU which is closest to the jw axis. In this
example Eq. (9-102a) shows this value to be 1/4. For practical purposes,
values of d close to this maximum limit are not suitable, as a consideration
of the element values in Fig. 9-14 will show.
Sec. 9-6 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM 41 7
Another practical problem needs to be considered. In developing the
idea of predistortion it was assumed that all R/L values for inductors
and all l/RC values for capacitors are the same. This assumption is not
really valid, especially in regard to the capacitors. Practical capacitors
are available with very little dissipation. In an actual problem a pre-
liminary realization shows the range of inductance values that will be
needed. A value of d is chosen equal to R/L for the inductor with the
lowest Q (assuming that this falls in the permissible range). In the physical
realization all other inductors will require additional series resistance,
while all capacitors will require additional parallel resistance. Thus the
price that must be paid for the luxury of predistortion is the requirement
of additional elements with its attendant power loss. Even if no additional
elements are used, the predistortion technique with some average value of d
will permit considerable improvement in the distortion caused by incidental
dissipation.
In the illustrative example that we considered, all the transmission
zeros were at infinity. More generally, the transfer function appropriate
for the synthesis of a resistance-terminated lossless two-port may have
finite zeros represented by an odd or even polynomial in the numerator.
The denominator is of course a Hurwitz polynomial. The transformation
s = p — d will leave the denominator polynomial Hurwitz (assuming that
d is chosen small enough), but now the numerator will no longer be even
or odd. (For example, s2 becomes p2 — 2dp + d2.) Thus the predistorted
function cannot be realized as a resistance-terminated lossless two-port
but must be realized as a more general RLC network according to the
methods of the last chapter.
This added complexity could be avoided if it were possible to retain
the numerator as an even or odd polynomial. Let us consider the possi-
bility of using the transformation s = p — d in the denominator only,
leaving the numerator the way it is. (We actually put s = p in the
numerator.) When the network is realized, the incidental dissipation will
replace p by s + d throughout the entire function. Thus the desired
denominator will be obtained, but the numerator will have s replaced by
s + d. It is of interest to determine the error that we shall get in such a
case.
The transfer function of a resistance-terminated lossless two-port will
be of the form
F(s) = .s.. (9-105)
m(s) + n(s)
where JV.« is an even polynomial. (It may also be odd, but the same
41 8 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM Sec. 9-6
results will apply to this case.) Let us predistort only the denominator.
After the network is realized and the dissipation is added, the error in
the transfer function will be
_ (9_108)
To determine the error, we shall need an estimate of the quantity in-
side the brackets, for s = ju. Let us give the following definitions:
In [#«(t*+»] = «(i*,«) +j8(d,u) (a)
(9-lU, )
In [JV«0«)] = uo(«) + J%(«) (b)
It is clear that, when d = 0, w(d,w)|d..o = Wo(w) and 0(d,oi)|i/_o = 0o(w).
The functions w(d,o>) and 0(rf,w) are the real and imaginary parts of the
analytic function In [Nu(d + ju)]. Hence they satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann
equations
du _ 30 .
3d " du W
(9-108)
86 du
dd= ~~du
Let us now consider the ratio of Na(d + ju) and Nu(ju), which will
determine the error. In view of the definitions in Eqs. (9-107) we can
write
- ««»«
) (9-109)
To determine the extent to which w differs from UQ and fl from 0o for small
values of d, let us expand u and 0 in power series in d. The results will be
i \ / \ , j d7*o d2 d2?/o , , x
w(rf,o,) = uo(«) + d jj + 2" ^F + • • • (a)
(9-110)
If we retain only the first two terms of these series and use the Cauchy-
Riemann conditions in Eqs. (9-108), the ratio in Eq. (9-109) becomes
This equation indicates that, to a first-order approximation, which is
good for small values of d, the magnitude of the ratio on the left-hand side
depends on the derivative of the angle of Nu(ju). But Nu(ju) is an even
polynomial in w. If it has no j-axis zeros, its angle will be zero for all w
and so the derivative will also be zero. Suppose that A'u has zeros on the
Sec. 9-6
419
THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM
jw axis. The angle of Nn changes discontinuously by ir at such zeros so
that the derivative will become infinite. The actual error, of course, will
not be infinite but quite large at such points.
Although we have not obtained a quantitative determination of the
error, we have demonstrated that the error resulting from the contemplated
procedure (predistorting the denominator only) will be small for all
values of w except near the j'-axis transmission zeros. Since such zeros do
not fall in the passband, we see that the results of predistorting the de-
nominator only will be quite acceptable, at least in the passband.
PROBLEMS
9-1. A low-pass filter is to be designed to be inserted between a current
source and a resistive load. The half-power frequency is to be w* = 10,000
radians per sec. There is to be no transmission at the second harmonic of
this frequency, while at very high frequencies the loss should increase at
the rate of at least 20 db per decade.
(a) Determine a maximally flat Zn(s) for this network.
(b) Predistort the resulting function by a value of d equal to one-half
the distance of the pole of Zn which is closest to the ju axis.
(c) Obtain a ladder realization of the predistorted function.
9-2. Determine an expression in terms of Bessel polynomials for the
transfer function of an all-pass network that is to have a maximally flat
delay. Show that such a function can be realized as a constant-resistance
lattice.
9-3. It is desired to obtain a maximally flat delay network which
provides taps corresponding to different amounts of delay. These taps
are fed to networks with constant input impedances of different amounts.
Discuss the possibility of using a cascade of constant-resistance all-pass
lattices of the type mentioned in Prob. 9-2 to achieve this result. The
taps are brought out at the connection between lattices, as shown in Fig.
P9-3.
Constont-R
all-pass
lattice
Constont-R
all-pass
lattice
Constant-R
a II-pass
lot tice
Fig. P ')-.!
420 THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM
9-4. Based on the results of the previous problem, design a delay
network having a delay of 400 ^sec with taps at every 100 jusec. The delay
error is to be no more than 5 per cent up to a frequency of u = 106. The
load resistance is 100 ohms. The input resistances of the networks to
which the taps are fed are as follows:
100-Msec tap, 100 ohms
200-Msec tap, open circuit
300-jusec tap, 200 ohms
9-5. Design a delay network to be realized as a ladder having a
delay of 1 millisecond. The delay error should be no greater than 3 per
cent up to a frequency of w = 104. In this band the loss should be no
greater than 3 db. The network is to be fed with a voltage source and is
to be terminated in a 500-ohm resistance. The realization is to use lossy
coils but lossless capacitors.
9-6. (a) Find the transfer function of a low-pass filter with the
following specifications: The passband loss should stay within 1 db of its
nominal value up to a frequency of wo = 5000 radians per sec. At and
beyond the fourth harmonic of this frequency the loss should be no less
than 50 db. The network is to have a resistive load of 500 ohms and is to
be driven by a voltage source. Obtain both a maximally flat function
and an equal-ripple function.
(b) Predistort the functions obtained in part (a), using a value of d
equal to half the magnitude of the real part of the pole closest to the ju
axis.
(c) Obtain a realization for the prcdistorted functions.
9-7. A bandpass filter is to have cutoff frequencies wci = 106 and
wc2 = 4 X 106 radians per sec. A 2-db loss can be tolerated in the pass-
band, but at and beyond 106 radians per sec the loss should be not less
than 50 db below its nominal passband value. The terminating resistance
is 100 ohms, and the network is driven with a current source.
(a) Obtain an equal-ripple approximating function.
(b) Predistort this function by a suitable amount.
(c) Obtain a realization of the predistorted function.
9-8. Design a high-low constant-resistance filter pair with a 1-db
equal-ripple passband approximation. The stopband loss of the low-pass
filter at and beyond three times the cutoff frequency should be no less
than 40 db. What is the restriction on n, the order of approximation, if
both the filters are to be realized as ladders with no mutual inductance?
9-9. Suppose the magnitude squared of a transfer impedance function
THE APPROXIMATION PROBLEM
421
is given graphically. With \Zi-,\2 = e2a we can assume that the loss —a
is plotted with logarithmic frequency (in decades) as abscissa. Discuss a
procedure for approximating this curve with a series of straight lines
whose slopes are integral multiples (positive or negative) of 20 db per
decade. The intersections of these lines are the break points. Each line
is to be regarded as the asymptotic behavior of a maximally flat function
so that an approximation to the given magnitude squared function
becomes
where the n/s correspond to the slopes of the lines and the w/s correspond
to the break points.
9-10. The curve shown in Fig. P 9-10 is a prescribed loss function.
Find a rational function F(s) such that — 2Q\ogF(ju) approximates the
given curve in the manner described in the last problem.
40
20
I \2 3 4
-20
-40
Fig. P 9-10
9-11. Obtain a realization of the approximating functions given in Eqs.
(9-31) and (9-91), giving actual "unnonnaUzed" values of the elements,
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Index
A BCD-parameters, see Chain parameters
All-pass function, 103
synthesis of, 329
Antimetric network, 217
Asymptotic gain:
of Butterworth response, 388
of Tchebyscheff response, 410
Bessel polynomials, 395, 400
Bilinear transformation, 73, 104
Bott-Duffin synthesis, 105
as balanced bridge, 109
modification of bridge balance, 110
Brune, synthesis procedure, 92
appearance of perfect transformers in,
102
cycle, 102
Butterworth polynomial, 384
Butterworth response, see Maximally flat
approximation
Cascade synthesis:
of lossless two-ports, 226
of RC two-ports, 297
condition for, 302
Cauchy-Riemann equations, 39
Cauer form:
of RC immittance synthesis, 59
of reactance function synthesis, 47
of RL immittance synthesis, 62
of transfer function synthesis, 220
Chain parameters, definition, 11
Complementary functions, 04, 141, 243
Complex frequency variable, 7
Constant-resistance filter pairs, 245
Constant-resistance ladder, 331
Constant-resistance lattice, 35
realization of, 323
Constant-resistance L network, 332
Constant-resistance networks, 35
synthesis of, 323
Continued-fraction expansion
of reactance function, 48
Darlington synthesis:
of driving point impedance, 205
of lossless two-port, 226
Delay error, 396
curves of, 398
Driving point function:
construction from even part, 113
by Bode method, 116
by Gewertz method, 114
by Miyata method, 120
synthesis:
by Bott-Duffin method, 104
by Brune method, 92
by Darlington method, 205
by imaginary-part reduction, 91
by Miyata method, 117
by partial fraction expansion, 132
by real-part reduction, 91
Energy functions, 27
Equal ripple approximation, see Tcheby-
scheff approximation
Frequency transformations, 411
low-pass to band-pass, 412
low-pass to high-pass, 411
Gewertz procedure, 114
Hurwitz polynomial, 77
ratio of even and odd part of, 81
Impedance function, in terms of energy, 31
Insertion ratio, definition, 18
synthesis for given, 214
Insertion voltage ratio, definition, 19
Ladder networks, 151
conditions for low puss, 235
constant resistance, 331
locations of transmission zeros of, 152
realization by matrix factorization, 343
realization of low pass, 237
431
432
INDEX
Lattice network:
constant resistance, 35, 323
realization, 170, 338
unbalanced equivalent of, 172
LC network function, see Reactance func-
tion
lossless two-ports, 153
synthesis of:
by Cauer's method, 220
by Darlington's method, 226
by ladder, 184, 230
by paralleled ladders, 194
by symmetrical lattice, 170
transmission zeros of, 154
Magnitude function, 158
Maximally flat approximation:
of delay, 390
of magnitude, 381
pole locations for, 383
Maximum modulus theorem, 71
Minimum functions, 90
Minimum-phase transfer function:
definition, 158
synthesis of:
by constant-resistance ladder, 331
by matrix factorization, 343
Minimum-reactance functions, 89
Minimum-susceptance functions, 89
Miyata realization procedure, 117
extensions of, 124, 135
locations of evenport zeros for, 127
Natural frequency, 7
location in s-planc, 33
Natural mode, 7
Nonminimum-phase transfer function,
realization:
in constant-resistance network, 337
in parallel ladders, 353, 357
in symmetrical lattice, 338
in tree structure, 365
Normalization:
of frequency, 23
of impedance, 22
One-port, definition, 9
One-terminal pair, see One-port, definition
Ozaki separation theorem, 261
Ozaki synthesis:
of non-symmetrical networks, 276
of symmetrical networks, 255
Ozaki synthesis, Cont.:
of zero-producing section, 305
Partial fraction expansion:
of positive real function, 132
of reactance function, 46
Partitioning, 36, 314
Positive real function:
definition, 32, 67
necessary and sufficient conditions for,
73
of the Miyata class, 119
polar form of, 77
poles and zeros of, 70
properties of, 99
testing of, 77
zeros of even part of, 85, 125
Predistortion, 414
Quadratic forms, 30
necessary and sufficient conditions for
positive definiteness, 138
positive definite, 30
positive semi-definite, 30
RC driving-point function:
partial fraction expansion of, 54
properties of, 56
synthesis of, 58
RC one-port, 52
RC two-port:
residue condition for, 250
synthesis of:
by Dasher's method, 297
by Fialkow-Gerst method, 280
by network partitioning, 314
by Ozaki's method, 255
in ladder network, 290_._
in parallel ladders, 293
non-symmetrical, 276
pole locations for maximum gain, 272
symmetrical, 255
Reactance function:
alternation of poles and zeros of, 40
as ratio of even and odd parts of Hurwitz
polynomial, 81
Cauer forms of, 47
definition, 43
Foster forms of, 45
frequency pattern of, 41
necessary and sufficient conditions, 43
partial fraction expansion of, 44, 46
INDEX
433
Reactance function, Cont.:
positiveness of slope, 39
synthesis of, 43
Reactance reduction, 89
Real-part reduction, 90
Real rational function, 7
Reflection coefficient, 19
zeros of, 215
Residue condition, 139
compactness, 155
for RC two-ports, 250
Resistance reduction, 90
Richard's theorem, 105
RL driving-point function, 60
Schwarz's lemma, 75
Steady-state, 7, 8
Sturm, functions, 85
test, 86
Sturm's theorem, 86
Surplus factors:
in Darlington synthesis, 209
in Miyata synthesis, 129
to satisfy Fialkow's condition, 200
Susceptance reduction, 89
Tangent function, 159
construction of transfer function from,
160
Taylor approximation, 378
Tchebyscheff approximation:
definition, 380
of magnitude, 402
Tchebyscheff approximation, Cont.:
pole locations for, 408
Tchebyscheff polynomial, 403
Transfer admittance, definition, 16
Transfer impedance, definition, 17
Transfer voltage ratio, definition, 16
Transient, 7
Transmission function, 21
Transmission zeros, 143
Two-port, definition, 10
balanced, 149
Fialkow's condition for, 150
interconnections, 23
lossless (see Lossless two-port)
unbalanced, 144
Fialkow's condition for, 146
Two-terminal pair, see Two-port, definition
2/-parameters, definition, 10
positive definite matrix:
of j-axis real parts of, 139
of /-axis residues of, 139
positive real matrix of, 139
Zero-producing section, 298
realization of, 304
ro shifting, 185
z-parameters, definition, 11
positive definite matrix:
of j-axis real parts of, 139
of j-axis residues of, 138
positive real matrix of, 138
private poles of, 140
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