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Internal Marks: 20 External Marks: 30 Total Marks: 50 Credits: 2

Computer Networks lab

S.No
List of Experiments
1 To study the different types of Network cables and network topologies.
Practically implement and test the cross-wired cable and straight through cable using clamping
2
tool and network lab cable tester.
3 Study and familiarization with various network devices.
4 Familiarization with Packet Tracer Simulation tool/any other related tool.
5 Study and Implementation of IP Addressing Schemes
6 Creation of Simple Networking topologies using hubs and switches

7 Simulation of web traffic in Packet Tracer

8 Study and implementation of various router configuration commands

9 Creation of Networks using routers.

10 Configuring networks using the concept of subnetting.

Practical implementation of basic network command and Network configuration commands like
11
ping, ipconfig, netstat, tracert etc. for troubleshooting network related problems.

12 Configuration of networks using static and default routes.

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DESKTOP COMPUTERS(29)
HARDWARE SPECIFICATIONS-
MODEL: HP Desktop
PROCESSOR: Intel i3
RAM: 4.00GB
HARDDISK: 128GB
SCREEN SIZE: 15 inch
SOFTWARE SPECIFICATIONS-
OPERATING SYSTEM: WINDOWS 7 Ultimate (32-bit Operating System)
SOFTWARE USED: NS2/3, Cisco packet tracer, Netsim

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DO’S AND DON’T’S

●​ Mark your signature in lab register at the time of entry and also mark your pc no. and signature in
that register at the time of leaving the lab.
●​ Students are advised to ask lab Incharge officer before using any equipment.
●​ Students are advised to maintain work area in a safe and reasonable condition.
●​ Keep your mobile phones switched off.
●​ Arrange chairs properly before leaving the lab.
●​ Shut down the computer before leaving the lab.
●​ Do not bring any food or drinks in the lab.
●​ Do not touch, connect or disconnect any plug or cable without your lecturer /lab technician’s
permission.
●​ Do not break or damage any part of the computer system.

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Experiment- 1

Aim: To study the different types of Network cables and network topologies.
An network cable allows the user to connect their devices such as computers, mobile phones, routers, etc,
to a Local Area Network (LAN) that will allow a user to have internet access, and able to communicate
with each other through a wired connection. It also carries broadband signals between devices connected
through it. In this article, we are going to discuss different types of network cable used in local area
networks for reliable internet connection.
Types of Ethernet Cables
Mainly there are three types of network cables used in LANs
●​ Coaxial Cables
●​ Twisted Pair Cables
●​ Fiber optic Cables
Coaxial cable
This cable contains a conductor, insulator, braiding, and sheath. The sheath covers the braiding, the
braiding covers the insulation, and the insulation covers the conductor.
The following image shows these components.

Fig. 1.1

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Sheath
This is the outer layer of the coaxial cable. It protects the cable from physical damage.

Braided shield
This shield protects signals from external interference and noise. This shield is built from the same metal
that is used to build the core.
Insulation
Insulation protects the core. It also keeps the core separate from the braided shield. Since both the core
and the braided shield use the same metal, without this layer, they will touch each other and create a
short-circuit in the wire.
Conductor
The conductor carries electromagnetic signals. Based on conductor a coaxial cable can be categorized
into two types; single-core coaxial cable and multi-core coaxial cable.
A single-core coaxial cable uses a single central metal (usually copper) conductor, while
a multi-core coaxial cable uses multiple thin strands of metal wires. The following image shows both
types of cable.

Fig. 1.2

Coaxial cables in computer networks

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The coaxial cables were not primarily developed for the computer network. These cables were developed
for general purposes. They were in use even before computer networks came into existence. They are still
used even their use in computer networks has been completely discontinued. At the beginning of
computer networking, when there were no dedicated media cables available for computer networks,
network administrators began using coaxial cables to build computer networks.

Specifications of coaxial cables

Coaxial cables have been in use for the last four decades. During these years, based on several factors
such as the thickness of the sheath, the metal of the conductor, and the material used in insulation,
hundreds of specifications have been created to specify the characteristics of coaxial cables.
Twisted-pair cables
The twisted-pair cable was primarily developed for computer networks. This cable is also known
as Ethernet cable. Almost all modern LAN computer networks use this cable.
This cable consists of color-coded pairs of insulated copper wires. Every two wires are twisted around
each other to form pair. Usually, there are four pairs. Each pair has one solid color and one stripped color
wire. Solid colors are blue, brown, green, and orange. In stripped color, the solid color is mixed with the
white color.
Based on how pairs are stripped in the plastic sheath, there are two types of twisted-pair cable; UTP and
STP.
●​ In the UTP (Unshielded twisted-pair) cable, all pairs are wrapped in a single plastic sheath.
●​ In the STP (Shielded twisted-pair) cable, each pair is wrapped with an additional metal shield,
then all pairs are wrapped in a single outer plastic sheath.

Similarities and differences between STP and UTP cables

●​ Both STP and UTP can transmit data at 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, and 10Gbps.
●​ Since the STP cable contains more materials, it is more expensive than the UTP cable.
●​ Both cables use the same RJ-45 (registered jack) modular connectors.
●​ Both cables can accommodate a maximum of 1024 nodes in each segment.
●​ The STP provides more noise and EMI resistance than the UTP cable.

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●​ The maximum segment length for both cables is 100 meters or 328 feet.
●​ The following image shows both types of twisted-pair cables.

Fig.1.3
Fiber optic cable
This cable consists of a core, cladding, buffer, and jacket. The core is made from thin strands of glass or
plastic that can carry data over a long distance. The core is wrapped in the cladding; the cladding is
wrapped in the buffer, and the buffer is wrapped in the jacket.
●​ Core carries the data signals in the form of light.
●​ Cladding reflects light back to the core.
●​ Buffer protects the light from leaking.
●​ The jacket protects the cable from physical damage.
Fiber optic cable is completely immune to EMI and RFI. This cable can transmit data over a long
distance at the highest speed. It can transmit data up to 40 kilometers at the speed of 100Gbps. Fiber
optic uses light to send data. It reflects light from one endpoint to another. Based on how many beams of
light are transmitted at a given time, there are two types of fiber optical cable; SMF and MMF.

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Fig. 1.4

●​ SMF (Single-mode fiber) optical cable

This cable carries only a single beam of light. This is more reliable and supports much higher
bandwidth and longer distances than the MMF cable. This cable uses a laser as the light source
and transmits 1300 or 1550 nano-meter wavelengths of light.
●​ MMF (multi-mode fiber) optical cable
This cable carries multiple beams of light. Because of multiple beams, this cable carries much
more data than the SMF cable. This cable is used for shorter distances. This cable uses an LED as
the light source and transmits 850 or 1300 nano-meter wavelengths of light.
Viva questions:
Q1. What is connection oriented communication?
Q2. What are different types of cables?
Q3. What are different modes of operation of optical fibres?
Q4. What is STP?

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Experiment- 1b

Aim: To study the different types of network topologies.

Network Topology
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to each other.
There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.
Types of Network Topology
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network. There are six types of
network topology which are:
Bus Topology, Ring Topology, Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.

Bus Topology

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Fig. 1b.1
●​ The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single
cable known as a backbone cable. Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop
cable or directly connected to the backbone cable.
●​ When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the network. All
the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has been addressed or
not.
●​ The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.

Ring Topology

Fig. 1b.2

●​ Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

●​ The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next node.
●​ The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
●​ The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
●​ It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no termination
point.
●​ The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.

Star Topology

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Fig.1b.3
●​ Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the central
hub, switch or a central computer.
●​ The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the server are
known as clients.
●​ Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
●​ Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
●​ Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Tree topology

Fig.1b.4
●​ Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.

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●​ A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each other in
hierarchical fashion.
●​ The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the
descendants of the root node.
●​ There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it forms a
parent-child hierarchy.
Mesh Topology

Fig.1b.5
●​ Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected with
each other through various redundant connections.
●​ There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
●​ It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of
communication.
●​ The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
●​ Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a
critical concern.
●​ Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.

Viva Questions:
Q1. What do you understand by topology and list various types of topologies in computer networks?
Q2. What is star topology?
Q3. What is mesh topology?
Q4. What are different types of connectors for different types of cables?

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Experiment-2

AIM: Practically implement and test the cross-wired cable and straight through cable using
Clamping tool and network lab cable tester.
●​ Start by stripping off about 2 inches of the plastic jacket off the end of the cable. Be very careful
at this point, as to not nick or cut into the wires, which are inside. Doing so could alter the
characteristics of your cable, or even worse render is useless. Check the wires, one more time for
nicks or cuts. If there are any, just whack the whole end off, and start over.
●​ Spread the wires apart, but be sure to hold onto the base of the jacket with your other hand. You
do not want the wires to become untwisted down inside the jacket. Category 5 cable must only
have 1/2 of an inch of 'untwisted' wire at the end; otherwise it will be 'out of spec'. At this point,
you obviously have ALOT more than 1/2 of an inch of un-twisted wire.
●​ You have 2 end jacks, which must be installed on your cable. If you are using a pre-made cable,
with one of the ends whacked off, you only have one end to install - the crossed over end. Below
are two diagrams, which show how you need to arrange the cables for each type of cable end.
Decide at this point which end you are making and examine the associated picture below.

Diagram shows you how to prepare straight through wired connection

Fig. 2.1

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Fig.2.2
Ethernet Cable Tips:
●​ A straight-thru cable has identical ends.
●​ A crossover cable has different ends.
●​ A straight-thru is used as a patch cord in Ethernet connections.
●​ A crossover is used to connect two Ethernet devices without a hub or for connecting two hubs.
●​ A crossover has one end with the Orange set of wires switched with the Green set.
●​ Odd numbered pins are always striped; even numbered pins are always solid coloured.
●​ Looking at the RJ-45 with the clip facing away from you, Brown is always on the right, and pin 1
is on the left.
●​ No more than 1/2" of the Ethernet cable should be untwisted otherwise it will be susceptible to
crosstalk.
●​ Do not deform, do not bend, do not stretch, do not staple, do not run parallel with power cables,
and do not run Ethernet cables near noise inducing components.
Viva Questions:
Q1. What is the maximum length allowed for a UTP cable?
Q2. What are Characteristics of the RJ Cable?
Q3. Which is better: coaxial cable or fiber optic cable?

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Experiment-3
Aim: Study and familiarization with various network devices.

Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking hardware, are physical devices that allow
hardware on a computer network to communicate and interact with one another. For example Repeater,
Hub, Bridge, Switch, Routers, Gateway, router, and NIC, etc.

1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to amplifies (i.e., regenerates) the signal
over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the length to which the
signal can be transmitted over the same network. When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit
and regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting following the original strength. It is a 2-port
device.

2. Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different
branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot
filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all
hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best
path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.

Types of Hub
●​ Active Hub: - These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost, and relay the
signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring center. These are used
to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
●​ Passive Hub: - These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from the active
hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be
used to extend the distance between nodes.
●​ Intelligent Hub: - It works like an active hub and includes remote management capabilities. They
also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the
traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.

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3. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality
of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and destination. It is also used for
interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single output port,
thus making it a 2 port device.

4. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(a large
number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can
perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward
packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the
switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the same.
​
5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The
router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a
dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets. The
router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

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Fig.3.1

6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that may work
upon different networking models. They work as messenger agents that take data from one system,
interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and can
operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally more complex than switches or routers. A gateway
is also called a protocol converter.

7. B-router – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of both bridge and
router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer. Working as a router, it is capable of
routing packets across networks and working as the bridge, it is capable of filtering local area network
traffic.

8. NIC – NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the computer to the
network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique id that is written on the chip,
and it has a connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an interface between the computer and

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the router or modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device which means that it works on both the physical and
data link layers of the network model.

Viva Questions:
Q1. Differentiate switch and Hub.
Q2. What is function of gateway?
Q3. List the network devices?
Q4. Differentiate Brouter and Router.

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Experiment- 4
Aim: Familiarization with Packet Tracer Simulation tool/any other related tool.

A simulator, as the name suggests, simulates network devices and its environment, so protocols in Packet
Tracer are coded to work and behave in the same way as they would on real hardware.
Packet Tracer is a cross-platform visual simulation tool designed by Cisco Systems that allows users to
create network topologies and imitate modern computer networks. The software allows users to simulate
the configuration of Cisco routers and switches using a simulated command line interface. Packet Tracer
makes use of a drag and drop user interface, allowing users to add and remove simulated network devices
as they see fit.
Installing Packet Tracer
Installation in Windows is pretty simple and straightforward; the setup comes in a single file named
Packettracer_Setup7.1.1 exe. Open this file to begin the setup wizard, accept the license agreement,
choose a location, and start the installation.
Interface Overview
The layout of Packet Tracer is divided into several components similar to a photo editor. Match the
numbering in the following screenshot with the explanations:

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Fig. 4.1
The components of the Packet Tracer interface are as follows:
●​ Area 1: Menu bar – This is a common menu found in all software applications; it is used to open,
save, print, change preferences, and so on.
●​ Area 2: Main toolbar – This bar provides shortcut icons to menu options that are commonly
accessed, such as open, save, zoom, undo, and redo, and on the right-hand side is an icon for
entering network information for the current network.
●​ Area 3: Logical/Physical workspace tabs – These tabs allow you to toggle between the Logical
and Physical work areas.
●​ Area 4: Workspace – This is the area where topologies are created and simulations are displayed.
●​ Area 5: Common tools bar – This toolbar provides controls for manipulating topologies, such as
select, move layout, place note, delete, inspect, resize shape, and add simple/complex PDU.
●​ Area 6: Real time/Simulation tabs – These tabs are used to toggle between the real and simulation
modes. Buttons are also provided to control the time, and to capture the packets.
●​ Area 7: Network component box – This component contains the entire network and end devices
available with Packet Tracer, and is further divided into two areas:
●​ Area 7a: Device-type selection box – This area contains device categories

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●​ Area 7b: Device-specific selection box – When a device category is selected, this selection box
displays the different device models within that category
●​ Area 8: User-created packet box – Users can create highly-customized packets to test their
topology from this area, and the results are displayed as a list.

Viva Questions:
Q1. Define simulator.
Q2. What is workspace?
Q3. List different type of packets.
Q4. List different menus in packet tracer.

Experiment-5
Aim: Study and Implementation of IP Addressing Schemes.

IP Address: IP (Internet Protocol) Address is an address of your network hardware. It helps in connecting
your computer to other devices on your network and all over the world. An IP Address is made up of
numbers or characters. An example of an IP address would be: 506.457.14.512. All devices that are
connected to an internet connection have a unique IP address which means there’s a need of billions of IP
addresses. This requirement is fulfilled by the new IP version IPv6.

There are two IP versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the older version which has an space of over 4 billion
IP addresses. However, the new IPv6 version can provide up to trillions of IP addresses to fulfill the need
of all internet users and devices. The IPv4 version used to configure IP addresses in numerical value
(numbers) which may conflict with other IP addresses. That’s why IPv6 adopted the hexadecimal method
to provide unique IP addresses to billions of users in the world. There are a few types of IP addresses like
private IP addresses, public IP addresses, static IP addresses and dynamic IP addresses.

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Private IP Address: A private IP address is the address of your device connected on the home or
business network. If you have a few different devices connected to one ISP (Internet Service Provider),
then all your devices will have a unique private IP address. This IP address cannot be accessed from
devices outside your home or business network. For example: 192.168.1.1. Private IP addresses are not
unique because there is limited number of devices on your network.
We can find out the private IP address of your device using a few techniques. If you are a Windows user,
then simply go to the command prompt and enter the command ipconfig. If you’re a Mac users, then you
need to enter the following command ifconfig in your Terminal app. If you are using the internet on a
mobile phone, then you can go to your Wi-Fi settings to find out the IP address. iOS users can find the IP
address by clicking on the ‘i‘ button next to the network they are connected to. Android users can click
on the network name in their Wi-Fi settings, and it will show the IP address.

All private and public IP addresses can be either static or dynamic. IP addresses that you configure
manually and fix them to the network of the device are called static IP addresses. Static IP addresses
cannot change automatically.
The dynamic IP address configures automatically and assigns an IP to the network when set up the router
with internet. This distribution of IP addresses is managed by Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP). DHCP can be your internet router that assigns an IP address to the network in the home or
business environment.
To set a static IP on your Windows computer:
Click Start Menu > Control Panel > Network and Sharing Centre. (For Windows 8 and higher, search
for and open Control Panel and select Network and Internet).
●​ Click Change adapter settings.

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Fig.5.1

●​ Right-click on Local Area Connection and click on Properties.

Fig.5.2

●​ Select Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) and click on Properties.

●​ Select "Use the following IP address" and enter the IP address, Subnet Mask, Default Gateway
and DNS server. Click OK and close the Local Area Connection properties window.

Fig.5.3

Viva Questions:

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Q1. What do you mean by IP addressing?

Q2. What are the steps involved in setting up of IP addresses?
Q3. What do you understand by subnet mask, default gateway and DNS?
Q4. What are the different versions of IP addresses?

​ ​ Experiment- 6
Aim: Creation of Simple Networking topologies using hubs and switches.

A star topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) is one in which each node is connected to a central
connection point, such as a hub or switch. Whenever a node tries to connect with another node then the
transmission of the message must be happening with the help of the central node. The best part of star
topology is the addition and removal of the node in the network but too many nodes can cause suffering
to the network.
A Cisco packet tracer is a simulation tool that is used for understanding the networks. The best part of the
Cisco packet tracer is its visualization you can see the actual flow of the message and understand the
workflow of the network devices. Implementation of Star Topology using Cisco Packet Tracer is done
using Switch.
Steps Implementing Star Topology using Cisco Packet Tracer:
●​ Step 1: We have taken a switch and linked it to six end devices.

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Fig. 6.1

●​ Step 2: Link every device with the switch.

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Fig. 6.2

●​ Step 3: Provide the IP address to each device.

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Fig. 6.3

●​ Step 4: Transfer message from one device to another and check the Table for Validation.

Fig. 6.4

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Now to check whether the connections are correct or not try to ping any device and the image below is
doing the same.
To do ping one terminal of one device and run the following command:
Command:
"ping ip_address_of _any_device"
Example:
ping 192.168.1.4
Note: If the connections are correct then you will receive the response.

Fig. 6.5

Viva Questions:
Q1. Describe a Node.
Q2. What is network topology?
Q3. What is hub?
Q4. What is a switch?

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​ ​ ​ ​ Experiment- 7
Aim: Study and implementation of various router configuration commands

Router is a Special type of computer. Connect and allow communication between two networks.
Determine the best path through the network. Configuration files to control the traffic. Generally have
two connection types: WAN connection (connection to ISP) – and LAN connection. Data is sent in form
of packets between two end devices. Routers are used to direct packets to its destination. Routers
examine a packets destination IP address and determine the best path by using a routing table. Operating
system in all of the Cisco routers or switches, which provides the following network services:
●​ Basic routing and switching functions.
●​ Reliable and secure access to networked resources
●​ Network scalability
A router provides connectivity between two logical networks. Every router in Packet Tracer can be
switched on or off by using the provided power button.
The power switch is required to make a device simulate its real counterpart. Modules can be added or
removed only after powering off the device. If the running configuration is not saved, power cycling a
device will make it lose its configuration.
Components of Router
• CPU – Executes operation systems instructions
• RAM – Stores instructions and data needed for CPU
• ROM – Boot instructions, scaled-down vers. of IOS
• Flash – Stores IOS, copied into RAM during bootup proc.
• NVRAM – Startup configuration file.
Router interfaces: A physical connector on the router, main purpose to receive and forward packets.
Interface connects to various types of networks, and different types of media and connectors are required.
Each interface connects to a separate network.
Configuring Global Parameters
To configure the global parameters for your router, follow these steps:
●​ Configure terminal
●​ Hostname name

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●​ Enable secret password

Detailed Steps

In the Topology
Two 1941 series routers are used.
●​ Router0 (interface serial 0/1/0) is connected with router1 via Serial cable or Copper cross-over
cable.
●​ Two 2950-24 series switches are connected with each router via copper straight through cable.
●​ Switch0 (interface fastethernet 0/1) is connected with router0 (interface gigabitethernet 0/0).
●​ Switch1 (interface fastethernet 0/1) is connected with router1 (interface gigabitethernet 0/0).

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●​ Switch0 has two PCs connected on interface fastethernet 0/2 and fastethernet 0/3 via straight
through cable.

Switch1 has two PCs connected on interface fastethernet 0/2 and fastethernet 0/3 via straight through
cable.

Router’s Configuration
Router 1: -
Router> enable
Router# configure terminal
Router (config)# hostname router1
Router1 (config)# interface gigabitethernet 0/0
Router1 (config-if)# ip address 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0

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Router1 (config-if)# no shutdown

Router1 (config-if)# exit

Router1 (config)# Press Ctrl+Z

Router> enable
Router# configure terminal
Router (config)# hostname router1
Router1 (config)# interface serial 0/1/0

Router1 (config-if)# ip address 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0

Router1 (config-if)# no shutdown
Router1 (config-if)# exit
Router1 (config)# Press Ctrl+Z
Router1#WR​
Building Configuration
[ok]

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Router 2: -
Router> enable
Router# configure terminal
Router (config)# hostname router2
Router2 (config)# interface gigabitethernet 0/0
Router2 (config-if)# ip address 192.168.1.2 255.255.255.0

Router2 (config-if)# no shutdown

Router2 (config-if)# exit
Router2 (config)# Press Ctrl+Z

Router> enable
Router# configure terminal
Router (config)# hostname router1

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Router2 (config)# interface serial 0/1/0

Router2 (config-if)# ip address 10.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
Router2 (config-if)# no shutdown
Router2 (config-if)# exit
Router2 (config)# Press Ctrl+Z
Router2# Building Configuration
[ok]

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Viva Questions:
Q1. What is router?
Q2. What is subnet mask?
Q3. What is the benefit of subnetting?
Q4. What is ICMP?

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Experiment- 8
AIM: Configuring networks using the concept of subnetting.

Subnetting is a combination of two words i.e. Sub and Netting. Here Sub word means Substitute and
netting word means Network. The Substitute Network created for a function to happen is known as
Subnetting. Here, Substitute Network does not mean a new network is created. A full piece of network is
broken into small pieces and each piece a different is assigned. Subnet is the name given to piece of the
broken network or can also be called as the Substitute network is known as Subnet. Subnets are the legal
small parts of IP (Internet Protocol) Addressing process Subnetting should be done in such a way that
network does not gets affected. This means that we can divide the network into different parts but all
when put together should perform the same task when done before splitting in to small parts.
Purpose of Subnetting in Computer Networks
Efficiency of the Network
By removing the need for extra routers, subnetting makes network traffic simpler. This makes sure the
data being transmitted can get to its destination as fast as possible, eliminating or avoiding any potential
diversions that may slow it down.
Provides Network Security
By isolating or removing vulnerable network regions and making it harder for intruders to move through
a company's network, subnetting helps the network managers in reducing network-wide risks.
Internet Protocol (IP) Addressing Relocation
Each class has a finite amount of possible host allocations; for instance, networks with more than 254
devices require a Class B allocation. Assume that you are a network administrator. Now, you have a task
of allocating 150 hosts among three physical networks in three distinct cities for a Class B or C network.
If so, we must either ask for additional address blocks for each network or split the single big network
into
small parts named subnets so that we could utilize a single address block across a number of physical
networks.
The IPv4 Addressing has five different classes. They are:
●​ Class A Network
●​ Class B Network

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●​ Class C Network
●​ Class D Network
●​ Class E Network
The total number of Internet Protocol Addresses (IP Address) gives the total number of Subnets that can
be formed by using a network.
●​ Class A has 24 Host ID Bits
●​ Class B has 16 Host ID Bits
●​ Class C has 8 Host ID Bits
Subnetting
Subnetting, thanks to the problem of IP address waste. By taking bits from the Host ID section of the
address, subnetting enables the creation of smaller networks (sub networks; subnets) within of a larger
network. With the help of those borrowed bits, we can build more networks with a reduced overall size.
A Subnet is created from the bits taken from the Host ID. To understand about this concept let take an
example of a network this belongs to class C.

Fig. 8.1
Our goal is to create to build a network. The capacity of each network must be Thirty (30) Devices. We
have three networks of type Class C Network based on IPv4 Addressing. Each Class C Network can
provide Two Hundred and Fifty Four (254) Internet Protocol Addresses. The Capacity of each device
which we require is very less than the Capacity which we require.
We have four Class C Networks of imaginary Internet Protocol (IP) Addresses like:
●​ Network 1 : 255.147.1.0
●​ Network 2 : 255.147.2.0
●​ Network 3 : 255.147.3.0
●​ Network 4 : 255.147.4.0
We know that each network can produce 254 IP Addresses alone. This means four networks can produce
254 * 4 = 1016 (Thousand and Sixteen ) Internet Protocol Addresses can be formed. But what we require

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is only thirty Internet Protocol Addresses from each Network. This means we only need hundred and
Twenty (120) IP Addresses only.
This means 1016 - 120 = 896
Eight Hundred and Ninety-Six Addresses created are wasted. So, we need to use the Host ID bits wisely.
So, by some calculation we will get to know that if we take 5 bits from each network we will be able to
get 30 IP Addresses from each Network.
Working of Subnets in Computer Networks
Subnetting, as we all know, separates the network into small subnets. While each subnet permits
communication between the devices connected to it, subnets are connected together by routers. The
network technology being utilized and the connectivity requirements define the size of a subnet. Each
organization is responsible for selecting the number and size of the subnets it produces, within the
constraints of the address space available for its use.
For the construction of the subnets, we usually check the MSB (Most Significant Bit) bits of the host ID
and if found wrong we make it right. In order to create two network subnets, we fix one of the host's
MSB (Most Significant Bit) bits in the table below. We are unable to alter network bits since doing so
would alter the entire network.

Fig. 8.2

We need a subnet mask to identify a subnet, which is created by substituting the number "1" for each
Network ID bit and the amount of bits we reserve for Host ID to create the subnet. A data packet from
the internet is intended to be forwarded to the specified subnet network using the subnet mask.

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A part of an address should be used as the Subnet ID is also specified by the subnet mask. In order to
apply the subnet mask to the whole network address, a binary AND operation is utilized. When
performing an AND operation, it is assumed that the result will be "true" if both inputs are. If not, "false"
is presented. This is only possible when both bits are 1.
The Subnet ID results from this. The Subnet ID is used by routers to choose the best route among the sub
– networks.

Fig. 8.3
The two components that make up an IP address are the Network Prefix (sometimes called the Network
ID) and the Host ID. Depending on whether the address is Class A, B, or C, either the Network Prefix or
the Host ID must be separated. A Class B IPv4 address, 172.16.37.5, is seen in the image below. The
Network Prefix is 172.16.0.0, and the Host ID is 37.5.

Fig. 8.4

We use permutations to the amount of bits set aside to form subnets if we wish to produce subnets of
varied length. Variable Length Subnet Masking is the name of this subnetting (VLSM).

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After setting aside some bits to indicate the subnet, the broadcast address of a subnet is computed by
setting all the remaining bits of the host id to 1.The message is sent to all network hosts using the
broadcast address.
Advantages of Subnetting
●​ Subnetting is used to decrease the presence of Internet Protocol (IP) range.
●​ Subnets helps in stopping the devices or gadgets from occupying the whole network, only
allowing the hosts to control which kind of user can have access to the important information.
Simply, we can tell that network is safe just because of the subnetting concept.
●​ Subnetting concept increases the performance of the total network by deleting the repeated traffic
causing errors.
We can convert the whole big network into smaller networks by using the concept of subnetting as
discussed earlier.
Disadvantages of Subnetting
●​ If the number of subnets increases, then the number of routers must also increase along with the
subnet increase number. This happens because each subnet has its own subnet mask, broadcast
address and network address.
●​ As told earlier, if we create many subnets many IP Addresses are wasted because of the wastage
of Host ID Bits
●​ The cost of the entire network is increased by subnetting, which calls for the acquisition of pricey
internal routers, switches, hubs, and bridges, among other things.
●​ The complexity of the network is increased through subnetting. The subnet network must be
managed by a skilled network administrator.

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Experiment- 9
AIM: Practical implementation of basic network command and Network configuration commands
like ping, ipconfig, netstat, tracert etc. for troubleshooting network related problems.
Networking Commands
Every system is connected to numerous different networks and systems through internal or external
network channels. These network settings often run into issues and affect the system’s working. Such
network problems can be resolved using ‘networking commands.’ These commands are specifically
designed to troubleshoot network problems with minimum complexity using the windows command
prompt tool.

ipconfig/all

This command can be understood as the updated version of the ipconfig command. This command tells us
the physical address of our device. It tells us various details of our computer such as IPv4,IPv6 default
Gateway ,subnet mask ,also it tells to which devices our device is connected ,configuration details of the
devices to which are devices are connected.
It also tells us about the DHCP(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)-The main use of DHCP is to
automatically assign IP addresses to our devices . The IPCONFIG network command provides a
comprehensive view of information regarding the IP address configuration of the device we are currently
working on.

The IPConfig command also provides us with some variation in the primary command that targets specific
system settings or data, which are:

●​ IPConfig/all - Provides primary output with additional information about network adapters.

●​ IPConfig/renew - Used to renew the system’s IP address.

●​ IPConfig/release - Removes the system’s current IP address.

Command to enter in Prompt – ipconfig

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Ping command

The Ping command is one of the most widely used commands in the prompt tool, as it allows the user to
check the connectivity of our system to another host. This command sends four experimental packets to
the destination host to check whether it receives them successfully, if so, then, we can communicate with
the destination host. But in case the packets have not been received, that means, no communication can be
established with the destination host.

Command to enter in Prompt - ping www.destination_host_name.co

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Netstat
The Netstat command as the name suggests displays an overview of all the network connections in the
device. The table shows detail about the connection protocol, address, and the current state of the network.

Command to enter in Prompt – netstat

TRACERT

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The TRACERT command is used to trace the route during the transmission of the data packet over to the
destination host and also provides us with the “hop” count during transmission. Using the number of hops
and the hop IP address, we can troubleshoot network issues and identify the point of the problem during
the transmission of the data packet.

Command to enter in Prompt- tracert IP-address OR tracert www.destination_host_name.com

ARP
The ARP command is used to access the mapping structure of IP addresses to the MAC address. This
provides us with a better understanding of the transmission of packets in the network channel.

Command to enter in Prompt – arp

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Experiment -12
Aim: Configuration of networks using static and default routes.
Experiment- 7
Aim: Simulation of web traffic in Packet Tracer
Part 1: Examine HTTP Web Traffic In Part 1 of this activity, you will use Packet Tracer (PT) Simulation
mode to generate web traffic and examine HTTP. Switch from Realtime to Simulation mode. In the lower
right corner of the Packet Tracer interface are tabs to toggle between Realtime and Simulation mode.
PT always starts in Realtime mode, in which networking protocols operate with realistic timings.
However, a powerful feature of Packet Tracer allows the user to "stoptime" by switching to Simulation
mode. In Simulation mode, packets are displayed as animated envelopes, time is event driven, and the
user can step through networking events.
Click the Simulation mode icon to switch from Realtime mode to Simulation mode.
Select HTTP from the Event List Filters.
HTTP may already be the only visible event. Click Edit Filters to display the available visible events.
Toggle the Show All/None checkbox and notice how the check boxes switch from unchecked to check or
checked to unchecked, depending on the current state.

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Click the Show All/None checkbox until all boxes are cleared and then select HTTP. Click anywhere
outside of the Edit Filters box to hide it. The Visible Events should now only display HTTP. Generate
web (HTTP) traffic. Currently the Simulation Panel is empty. There are six columns listed across the top
of the Event List within the Simulation Panel. As traffic is generated and stepped through, events appear
in the list. The Info column is used to inspect the contents of a particular event.
Note: The Web Server and Web Client are displayed in the left pane. The panels can be adjusted in
size by hovering next to the scroll bar and dragging left or right when the double-headed arrow
appears.
●​ Click Web Client in the far left pane.
●​ Click the Desktop tab and click the Web Browser icon to open it.
●​ In the URL field, enter www.osi.local and click Go. Because time in Simulation mode is
event-driven, you must use the Capture/Forward button to display network events.
●​ Click Capture/Forward four times. There should be four events in the Event List. Look at the Web
Client web browser page. Did anything change?
Experiment-9
Aim: Creation of Networks using routers.

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