Metals and alloys

Chapter-8
 Introduction
• Metals and alloys are very important engineering materials. Metals are the
elements represented in the left bottom of the periodic table.
• Alloys are the homogeneous mixture of two or more metals. They possess the
properties such as ductility, malleability, plasticity, tenacity, conductivity, etc
and are used extensively in civil engineering in various fields.
• It can be said that metals and alloys are the backbone of the civil engineering
construction and production activities.
• Some metals like copper, gold, silver, etc. are found in free state in the
nature while other metals e.g. iron, manganese, aluminium, etc. are found
in the combined form as their oxide, carbonate, sulphate, etc. the metal in
their combined form or in the natural state is known as the ore.
• Metals with the engineering importance are classified as ferrous and
non-ferrous metals.
• Ferrous metals are those which contain iron as the main constituents and
those which do not contain iron as main constituent are known as non-
ferrous metals.
1. Ferrous metal
• As already stated, ferrous metals are those metals which contain iron
as the principal constituent. Iron cannot found in pure state in nature.
They are found in combined form with other elements and are known
as ores.
• Iron is first extracted as pig iron from different ores of iron.
• Cast iron, wrought iron and steel are the three general categories of
ferrous metal.
• All these categories are obtained by converting the extracted pig iron
by various metallurgical process, the major difference lies in the
amount of carbon. Ferrous metals are widely used for structural
purposes like building frames, beams, columns, reinforcement
bars, heavy structures and roofing sheets.
Types of ferrous metals
1. Iron:
• Iron can be extracted from the different ores available in nature. Some
of the important ores of iron and their iron content are:
 Types of iron
i. Pig iron: It is the basic from which wrought iron and steel are manufactured. In
addition to iron, pig iron contains varying quantities of other elements like silicon,
manganese, Sulphur and phosphorus.
Source of pig iron: Hematite → Fe₂O₃
Magnetite → Fe₃O₄
Limonite → FeO(OH)·nH₂O (a mixture of hydrated
iron oxides)
Composition :
Iron (Fe): 92–94%
Carbon (C): 3.5–4.5% (mainly as graphite or cementite)
Silicon (Si): 1–3%
Manganese (Mn): 0.5–1.5%
Sulphur (S): 0.04–0.1%
Phosphorus (P): 0.1–1%
Properties of pig iron:
i. Brittle: Breaks easily, not malleable or ductile.
ii. Hard: Due to high carbon content.
iii. High carbon content: Around 3.5–4.5%, making it less pure.
iv. Low melting point: About (1150–1200)°C.
v. Not weldable or machinable: Cannot be shaped easily.
vi. High compressive strength: Can bear heavy loads but cracks under tension
Uses
• Steel production: Converted into steel in basic oxygen or electric arc furnaces.
• Cast iron products: Used to make pipes, engine blocks, and machine parts.
• Manufacturing wrought iron: Further refined to remove impurities.
• Alloy production: Used in making special iron alloys like ductile iron and gray
iron.
• Foundry industry: Melted and cast into various shapes for industrial use
ii. Cast iron: The product of the blast
furnance i.e, pig iron is unsuitable for
casting as it contains impurities in
high percentage. To render it suitable
for desired purpose it is refined in
the furnance known as cupola. The
refined product is termed as cast iron.
Sources: pig iron

Fig: cupola
Properties:
• High compressive strength – Can withstand heavy loads
• Brittle – Breaks under tension, not flexible.
• Good wear resistance – Durable and long-lasting.
• High carbon content – Around 2–4%, making it harder.
• Low melting point – (1150–1300)°C, easier to cast.
• Good machinability – Can be cut and shaped easily.
• Corrosion-resistant – Especially in certain types like ductile iron.
Uses of cast iron:
 Machine parts – Engine blocks, gears, and
pulleys.
 Pipes and fittings – Water and sewage
pipelines.
 Cookware – Pans, pots, and grills.
 Construction – Columns, bridges, and
decorative elements.
 Automobile industry – Brake drums,
cylinder heads, and engine blocks.
 Agricultural tools – Plows and tractor
parts.
•.
iii. Wrought iron: It is virtually pure iron, containing a large number of
minute thread of slag lying parallel to each other, thereby giving the metal a
fibrous appearance when broken. It contains practically no carbon and
therefore does not harden when quenched in water.
Source: pig iron
Properties of wought iron:
• Malleable and Ductile: Can be easily hammered or bent without
breaking.
• High tensile strength: Strong under tension, making it ideal for
construction.
• Corrosion-resistant: Resists rust better than other types of iron,
especially with surface coatings.
• Low carbon content: Typically less than 0.1%, making it soft and
workable.
• Good weldability: Can be easily welded into different shapes.
• Smooth surface finish: Ideal for decorative elements
Uses of wrought iron:
• Construction: Used in structural applications like beams, fences, and
gates.
• Architectural elements: Decorative items such as railings, window grills,
and balconies.
• Tools and hardware: Nails, bolts, and chains.
• Historical and ornamental applications: Decorative sculptures, gates, and
furniture
iv. Steel:
• Steel is one of the most widely used metals in construction.
• It is known for its high strength and durability.
Composition of steel: iron, carbon and other alloying metals
• steel containing only iron and carbon is known as plain carbon streel.
• Steel containing less than 0.25% of carbon is low carbon steel
• Steel containing 0.25% to 0.7% of carbon then it is medium carbon
steel
• If carbon content is greater than 0.7% then it is high carbon steel.
• If the steel contains other metal also in the form of alloy with iron,
steel is known as alloy steel.
Example of alloy steel : stainless steel, nickel steel, vanadium steel,
tungsten steel etc.
Properties of steel
• Steel possesses high strength than other forms of iron such as cast iron or wrought
iron.
• It can absorb shock and is elastic.
• Heat treatment can be done in the steel to improve the gain distribution and the
quality of steel.
• Some steel alloy has corrosion resistance, but plain carbon steel is affected by
corrosion.
• It can be welded to plain carbon steel easily.
uses
• Steel is used in the construction of buildings, bridges, and infrastructure such as
roads and railways.
• It is also used in reinforcing concrete structures, as well as in the fabrication of
beams, columns, and trusses.
vi. Stainless Steel:
• Stainless steel is a corrosion-resistant alloy of steel that contains
chromium and other elements.
• It is used in applications that require resistance to moisture,
chemicals, and harsh environments.
• Stainless steel is commonly used in kitchen equipment, handrails,
and structural components exposed to the elements.
 Assignment
1. Difference between wrought iron and cast iron
and pig iron
Non-ferrous metal
• These metals do not contain iron as principal constituent. Non-ferrous
metals and their alloys have been used with great advantages in
different fields.
• In some cases, these non-ferrous metals have been far better than iron
and steel and have been replaced them to a great extent.
• But they are costlier and are selected only when they satisfy specific
requirement.
• Most commonly used non-ferrous metals are aluminium, copper, zinc,
etc.
Uses of Different metals in construction.
• Metals are widely used in construction due to their strength, durability,
and versatility.
• Different metals are chosen for specific applications based on their
properties.
• Here are some common metals and their uses in construction:
i. Aluminum:
• Aluminum is lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and has good thermal
conductivity.
• It is used in the construction of structures that require a high strength-
to-weight ratio, such as aircraft hangars, stadiums, and large-span
roofs.
• Aluminum is also used in windows, doors, cladding, and curtain walls
due to its aesthetic appeal.
Formation:
• It is never found in free state in nature. It is found as the hydrated
oxide of aluminum known as the bauxite ( mixture of mono-hydrated
Al2O3⋅H2O and tri hydrated aluminum oxide Al2O3⋅3H2O ).
• It is first crushed and treated with caustic soda to be precipitated out. It
is then calcinated to obtain alumina (Al3O3).
• Alumina thus obtained is deoxidized by the process of electrolysis and
the aluminium is obtained.
• Aluminium thus obtained contains 99 to 99.5% purity.
Properties
• It is highly malleable and ductile.
• Pure aluminium has high resistance against corrosion than that of the
steel.
• It shows the silvery bright luster.
• It is light metal with specific gravity of 2.7.
• It has low melting point of 658 °C.
• It is good conductor of heat and electricity.
ii. Copper:
• Copper is valued for its excellent electrical
and thermal conductivity.
• It is used in electrical wiring, plumbing
systems, and HVAC (heating, ventilation,
and air conditioning) systems.
• Copper is also used in roofing, gutters, and
downspouts due to its corrosion resistance.
Ores:
• copper glance (Cu2S),
• malachite (CuCO3.CuO2H2),
• azurite (2CuCO3CuO2H2)
Physical and Mechanical Properties:
• Copper is reddish brown metal
• Best conductor of heat and electricity
• Copper heated to red heat and cooled slowly becomes brittle but if
cooled rapidly it becomes soft malleable and ductile
• MP = 1084°C, BP = 2595°C; Sp. Gr =8.9; Electric resistivity
=1.682µΩ/cm
• Tensile strength varies from 300 to 470 MN/m²
iii. Zinc:
Ores: Zincite (ZnO), calamine (ZnCO3) and Zinc blende (ZnS)
Physical and Mechanical Properties:
• Bluish grey metal
• Become brittle at 200°C and can be powder at this temperature
• MP = 481°C; Sp. Gr. = 6.2;
Uses:
• Used in sheet form as a corrosion resistance surface
• Protective coating on iron and steel in the form of galvanized
or sprayed surface
• Used in electric cells and in making brass and other alloys
iv. Magnesium
Ores: Magnesite (MgCO3), Dolomite (CaCO3, Mg CO3),
kieserite(MgSO4.H2O) and Carnallite (MgCl2.KCl.6H2O)
Physical and Mechanical Properties:
• Lightest metal used in engineering material
• MP = 650°C, BP = 1107°C; Electric resistivity = 4.46µΩ.
• Can be welded since it combines with oxygen more readily than other common
metal.
• Ignites easily at above its ignition temperature
• Readily attacked by weak acid but not affected by most alkaline solution
Uses:
• Used in the form of sheets, wires, rods, tubes etc
• In the form of powder form, it is used for manufacture of flash light powder
v. Nickel
Ores: nickel bearing iron sulphide
Physical and Mechanical Properties:
• Silvery white metal capable of taking a high polish
• Almost as hard as steel
• Resistance to most attack of most acid but dissolve readily in nitric acid
• Ferromagnetic below 360oC
• MP = 1452°C, BP =2732°C; Sp. Gr. = 0.85; Electric Resistance= 10.9
µΩ/cm3
• Forging temperature is 1100°C to 1250°C
Uses:
• Used as alloying metal in some types of steel and cast iron.
• Extensively used to plate iron and brass as a protective coating.
vi. Tin
Ores: Tinstone (or Cassiterite) SnO2
Physical and Mechanical Properties:
• Brightly shine white metal
• Soft and malleable and can be hammered into thin foils
• MP = 232°C, BP =765°C; Sp. Gr. = 7.3; Electric Resistance = 7.59 µΩ.
Uses:
• Coating other metals and alloys owing to resistance to corrosion
• Used for making low melting point alloys
• Used as moisture proof packing
Heat treatment process
• Heat treatment may be defined as a sequence of heating & cooling
designed to get the desired combination of properties in the steel.
• The changes in the properties of steel after heat treatment are due to
the phase transformations & structural changes that occur during the
heat treatment.
• Its purpose is to change a mechanical property or combination of
mechanical properties so that the metal will be more useful,
serviceable, and safe for definite purpose.
• By heat treating, a metal can be made harder, stronger, and more
resistant to impact, heat treatment can also make a metal softer and
more ductile.
Objective of heat treatment
• To harden the surface of the ductile steel.
• To improve machinability of steel.
• To remove the voids entrapped during the process of manufacture.
• To improve mechanical & electrical properties.
• To remove the concentration of stresses developed during working
operation of steel.
 Methods of heat treatment
1. Annealing:
• Annealing may be defined as heating the steel to austenite phase & then cooling
slowly through the transformation range in the furnace.
• Annealing is a heat treatment process that changes the physical and sometimes
also the chemical properties of a material to increase ductility and reduce the
hardness to make it more workable.
• Slow cooling is generally achieved in a closed furnace by switching off the
supply.
• Annealing is done for:
Reduce hardness 727°C
Remove internal stresses
Improve machinability
Facilitate further cold working by restoring ductility etc.

Note: The austenite phase refers to a solid solution of iron and carbon (or other
alloying elements) that exists in certain types of steel and iron at high temperatures.
2. Normalizing: (become brittle & crack)
• Normalizing may be defined as the process of heat
treatment in which steel is heated up to 5°C above the
critical temperature and allowed to cool in still air.
• This process is used to improve the quality of casted,
welded or forged steel. It is also used to improve the
quality of over heated or non-uniformity heated steel.
• It is done to achieve for following:
 To improve machinability of low carbon steel.
 To obtain desired microstructure & mechanical
properties.
 To eliminate coarse-grained structure obtained in
previous working operations such as rolling,
forging etc.
3. Quenching/Hardening:
• Quenching (also called hardening) is a heat treatment process used
to increase the hardness and strength of metals, particularly steel.
• It involves rapid cooling from the austenite phase to form a hard
microstructure, usually martensite.
• Steps of Quenching:
i. Heating :The metal is heated to a temperature above its critical
point (typically 800–950°C for steel) to form austenite.
ii. Soaking : The material is held at this temperature to ensure
uniform transformation.
iii. Rapid Cooling (Quenching): The metal is quickly cooled using a
quenching medium such as:
Water (fastest cooling, highest hardness, but risk of cracking)
Oil (moderate cooling, used for alloy steels)
Air (slowest, used for certain tool steels)
Brine (saltwater, faster than water quenching)
iv. Formation of Martensite: The rapid cooling prevents diffusion,
leading to the formation of hard, brittle martensite.
4. Case hardening/Surface hardening:
• Surface hardening may be defined as a process of hardening a ferrous
material in such a manner that the surface layer (case) is substantially
harder than the remaining material (core).
• Such a case-hardening of material can be obtained by having different
chemical composition & structure at the surface and at the core.
• This can be achieved by two different methods:
 Firstly, without changing the chemical composition at the surface
of steel. It is called surface hardening.
 Secondly, by changing the chemical composition at the surface of
steel. It is called case hardening.
Surface hardening can be done by following ways:
i. Nitriding
ii. Cyaniding
iii. Flame/ induction/ laser hardening
i. Nitriding: It is the process of hardening the surface of low carbon and alloys
steels by adding carbon and nitrogen.

ii. Cyaniding: Cyaniding is a case hardening process in which steel or iron is

iii. Induction: it involves placing the steel components within a coil through
which high frequency current is passed. The current in the coil induced eddy
current in the surface layers and heat the surface layers upto austenite state. Then
the surface is immediately quenched with the cold water to transfer the austenite to
martensite.

Note: Martensite is a metastable, hard, and brittle phase formed when steel is rapidly cooled (quenched) from the austenite
phase.
5. Tempering:
• The process of tempering consists of heating
quenched hardness steel, steel is martensitic
condition, to some predetermined temperature
between room temperature & critical
temperature of the steel for a certain length of
time, followed by air cooling.
• By direct quenching steel are hard & strong but
unfortunately are also brittle. So, tempering is
done for the ductility.
Commercial product of metals
1. Steel
• Widely used material in engineering purposes
• Some important standard shapes of rolled steel section available in market
are discussed below:
Bars: Round Bar, Square Bar, Flat Bar
Plates
Angle Section: Equal angle section, Unequal angle section
T-section: Available in sizes varying from 20 X 20 X 3 mm³ to 150 X
150 X 10mm³ corresponding weight per meter length being 9N and
228N respectively
• Widely used as structural members of steel roof trusses and also in build-
up sections.
2. I – section
• commonly called rolled steel joints (RSJ) or beams.
• Widely used as floor beams, door lintels, stair treads columns
etc.
3. Channel Section
• widely used as structural members of the framed steel
structures such as purlins, built up columns etc.
4. Angular section
• Theses are extensively used in structural steel works, especially
in roof truss, joists floors etc.
4. Corrugated Sheet
• usually galvanized with layer of zinc and widely used
as a roof covering materials.
5. Expanded metal
• available in various size and shape
• Widely used for reinforcing concrete in foundations,
roads, floors, bridges, partition, etc.
• Used as a temporary fencing around building and other
constructions.
Cast Iron
• Cast Iron is available in the form of Pipes ,Pipe fittings ,Cast plates,
Bars, Casting of Particular shapes etc
• Copper Alloy ,Wire, strips, sheet, screws, rivets, washers, pipe fittings
etc. Aluminium, Tubes, Sheets, Rivets, wires, screws, rods of various
section, etc.
Corrosion and its prevention in steel
Corrosion in steel
• It is the gradual chemical or electro chemical attack on metal by its
surroundings such that the metal is converted into oxide, salt or some
other compounds. The factors influencing corrosion:
Chemical nature
Environment
internal structure
Nature of engineering application for which is used
Ability of metal to form surface
Different theories of corrosion
• There are two theories of corrosion:
1. Dry or chemical corrosion theory
2. Wet or galvanic or electrochemical theory
 1. Dry or chemical corrosion theory
• According to this theory, corrosion on the surface of a metal is due to
direct reaction of atmospheric oxygen, halogens, gases like oxides
Sulphur oxides of nitrogen, hydrogen sulphide and fumes of chemicals
with metal.
• Depends on chemical affinity of the metal towards reactive gas.
• Dry corrosion is typical in environments without moisture, such as high-
temperature gases, or in a vacuum.
• Example: Rusting of metals like aluminum or steel in a dry, oxygen-
rich environment.
2. Wet or galvanic or electrochemical theory
• It is a common type of corrosion of metal in aqueous corrosive
environment.
• This type of corrosion metal comes in conducting liquid.
• According to this theory there is the formation of a galvanic cell on the
surface of metals.
• Some parts of the metal surface act as anode and rest act as cathode.
• This type of corrosion is more common in everyday environments like
water pipes, steel ships, or structures exposed to rain.
• Example: Rusting of iron when it is exposed to moisture and oxygen
Control and preservation of corrosion
• As the corrosion is unwanted phenomenon, it is controlled or
prevented as per the requirement and ability. Following methods are
adopted for this:
1. Enameling: Enameling is an effective method for preventing
corrosion in steel by applying a glassy, inorganic coating that protects
the metal from environmental factors. The process involves fusing a
layer of enamel (usually a silicate-based material) onto the steel surface
at high temperatures (750–900°C), creating a strong, durable, and
corrosion-resistant coating.
2. Applying metal coatings:
i. Galvanizing
ii. Tin plating
iii. Electroplating
iv. Galvanizing:
• It is the process of coating iron or steel sheets with a thin coat of zinc
to prevent the sheets from rusting.
• The base metal sheet of iron or steel is cleaned by acid pickling
method with dilute sulphuric acid for 15 – 20 minutes at 60 - 90°C
which removes any scale, rust or impurities and then washed and
dried.
• It is then dipped in a bath of molten zinc maintained at a temperature of
425-430 °C and after taking out of bath it is passed between hot rollers
to remove excess zinc to produce a uniform coating and then annealed
(slow cooling). During the process the surface of the bath is covered
with flux (NH₄Cl) to prevent any oxide formation.
ii. Tin plating:
• The process of coating metallic tin over the iron or steel articles is called
tinning.
• The surface of base metal i.e., iron sheet is cleaned by acid pickling with
dilute sulphuric acid and passed through a bath of ZnCl₂ flux which
prevents any oxide formation and helps the molten metal to adhere to the
iron metal sheet surface.
• Then the sheet is passed through the molten tin bath maintained at 250 –
290°C and pressed between two rollers with a layer of palm oil.
• The oil will help to protect the tin coated layer from any oxidation. The
rollers also remove excess tin and produce a uniform coating.
• Tin metal processes good resistance against atmospheric corrosion and is
non-toxic. Hence such containers can be safely used for storing food
material.
iii. Electroplating:
• The process of depositing or coating a metal on the surface of base metal/
non metal by electrolysis is called electroplating.
• It is widely adopted to coat base metals with protective metallic coatings of
Zn, Au, Ag, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sn etc.
Process:
• The base metal surface is cleaned thoroughly. The article to be electroplated
is made as cathode.
• The anode is made of pure metal, which is to be coated on the article.
• The electrolyte is the salt of the metal, which is to be coated on the article. A
direct current is passed through the electrolyte.
• The anode dissolves, depositing the metal ions from the solution on the
article at cathode in the form of fine thin metallic coating.
Assignment
1. Define ferrous and non-ferrous metals with examples.
2. Differentiate between mechanical and heat treatment of steel.
3. Different methods of heat treatment with short explanation.
4. What are the purpose of heat treatment process of metal?
5. What is the importance of carbon in steel. Distinguish between plain
carbon steel and alloy of steel.
6. Describe the importance of steel and what are the types of steel?
Explain in short