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Chapter 1
Mathematical Modeling,
Numerical Methods,
and Problem Solving

Chapter Objectives
• Learning how mathematical models can be formulated on
the basis of scientific principles to simulate the behavior of a
simple physical system.
• Understanding how numerical methods afford a means to
generalize solutions in a manner that can be implemented
on a digital computer.
• Understanding the different types of conservation laws that
lie beneath the models used in the various engineering
disciplines and appreciating the difference between steady-
state and dynamic solutions of these models.
• Learning about the different types of numerical methods we
will cover in this book.

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The Engineering Problem Solving

Process
DATA

Problem Mathematical
definition model

THEORY Problem-solving tools:

computers, statistics,
Societal interfaces: numerical methods,
scheduling, optimization, graphics, etc.
communication,
public interaction, etc.
Numerical or
Implementation graphical
results

A Simple Mathematical Model

• A mathematical model can be broadly
defined as a formulation or equation that
expresses the essential features of a
physical system or process in mathematical
terms.
• Models can be represented by a functional
relationship between dependent variables,
independent variables, parameters, and
forcing functions.

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Model Function
Dependent independent forcing 
= f , parameters, 
variable  variables functions 

• Dependent variable - a characteristic that usually

reflects the behavior or state of the system

• Independent variables - dimensions, such as time and
space, along which the system’s behavior is being
determined
• Parameters - constants reflective of the system’s
properties or composition
• Forcing functions - external influences acting upon the
system

Model Function Example

• Assuming a bungee jumper is in mid-
flight, an analytical model for the jumper’s
velocity, accounting for drag, is

𝑔𝑚 𝑔𝑐𝑑
𝑣 𝑡 = tanh .𝑡
𝑐𝑑 𝑚

• Dependent variable - velocity v

• Independent variables - time t
• Parameters - mass m, drag coefficient cd
• Forcing function - gravitational
acceleration g
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Model Results
• Using a computer (or a calculator), the model can be used
to generate a graphical representation of the system. For
example, the graph below represents the velocity of a 68.1
kg jumper, assuming a drag coefficient of 0.25 kg/m

Numerical Modeling
• Some system models will be given as implicit
functions or as differential equations - these can be
solved either using analytical methods or numerical
methods.
• Example - the bungee jumper velocity equation
from before is the analytical solution to the
differential equation
dv c
= g− d v 2
dt m
where the change in velocity is determined by the
gravitational forces acting on the jumper versus the
drag force.
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

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Numerical Methods
• To solve the problem using a numerical
method, note that the time rate of change of
velocity can be approximated as:

dv v v(ti+1) − v(ti )
 =
dt t ti+1 − ti


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Euler's Method
• Substituting the finite difference into the
differential equation gives
dv c
= g − d v2
dt m
v(ti+1) − v(ti) cd
ti+1 − ti =g− v2
m
• Solve for
cd
v(ti+1) = v(ti) + g − v(ti)2 (ti+1 − ti)
m
new = old + slope  step
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Numerical Results
• Applying Euler's method in 2 s intervals yields:

• How do we improve the solution?

– Smaller steps

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Bases for Mathematical Models

• Conservation laws provide the foundation for many
model functions.
• Different fields of engineering and science apply
these laws to different paradigms within the field.
• Among these laws are:
▪ Conservation of mass
▪ Conservation of momentum
▪ Conservation of charge
▪ Conservation of energy

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Bases for Mathematical Models

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Bases for Mathematical Models

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Summary of Numerical Methods

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Summary of Numerical Methods

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Problem 1.5
• Rather than the nonlinear relationship of Eq. (1.7), you
might choose to model the upward force on the bungee
jumper as a linear relationship:
𝐹𝑈 = −𝑐 ′ 𝑣
• where 𝑐 ′ = a first-order drag coefficient (kg/s).
• (a) Using calculus, obtain the closed-form solution for the
case where the jumper is initially at rest (𝑣 = 0 at 𝑡 = 0).
• (b) Repeat the numerical calculation in Example 1.2 with the
same initial condition and parameter values (𝑚=68.1 kg).
Use a value of 11.5 kg/s for 𝑐 ′ .

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Problem 1.5
• The force balance can be written as:
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
• The total force is given as:
𝐹 = 𝐹𝐷 + 𝐹𝑈
• The downward force is the weight of the body:
𝐹𝐷 = 𝑚𝑔
• The upward force is the drag force:
𝐹𝑈 = −𝑐 ′ 𝑣
• From Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion:
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑣
𝐹=𝑚
𝑑𝑡

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Problem 1.5
• Hence we can write:
𝑑𝑣
𝑚𝑔 − 𝑐 ′ 𝑣 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
• Dividing by m and rearranging the equation:
𝑑𝑣 𝑐′
=𝑔− 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑚

• For analytical integration of this equation, we separate the

variables as:
1
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑐′
𝑔−𝑚𝑣

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Problem 1.5
• We can now integrate both sides:

1
න 𝑑𝑣 = න 𝑑𝑡
𝑐′
𝑔−𝑚𝑣
• This will give:
𝑐′
ln 𝑔 − 𝑚 𝑣
− =𝑡+𝐶
𝑐′
𝑚
• Using initial condition (𝑣 = 0 at 𝑡 = 0):

ln 𝑔
𝐶=−
𝑐′
𝑚

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Problem 1.5
• Hence the equation becomes:
𝑐′
ln 𝑔 − 𝑚 𝑣 ln 𝑔
− ′ =𝑡− ′
𝑐 𝑐
𝑚 𝑚
𝑐′
• Multiply both sides by 𝑚
𝑐′ 𝑐′
− ln 𝑔 − 𝑣 = 𝑡 − ln 𝑔
𝑚 𝑚
• Take ln 𝑔 term to the left hand side:
𝑔 𝑐′
ln ′ = 𝑡
𝑐 𝑚
𝑔−𝑚𝑣

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Problem 1.5
• Take the exponent:
𝑔 𝑐′
= exp 𝑡
𝑐′ 𝑚
𝑔−𝑚𝑣

• Take inverse on both sides:

𝑐′
𝑔− 𝑣 ′
𝑚 = exp − 𝑐 𝑡
𝑔 𝑚

• We can rearrange to get an expression for 𝑣:

𝑚𝑔 𝑐′
− 𝑡
𝑣 = ′ 1−𝑒 𝑚
𝑐

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Problem 1.5
• The solution can be determined as:

𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒗𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍

0 0 0
2 19.62 16.6503
4 32.61357 28.52833
6 41.21871 37.00189
8 46.91756 43.04678
10 50.69169 47.35909
12 53.19115 50.43541
 58.09226 58.09226

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Problem 1.5

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Example of Draining Tank

• A cylindrical tank with diameter D, filled with
a liquid to a height h0, drains through an
orifice with a diameter d

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• Assumptions:
• 1) non-viscous flow
• 2) follows a streamline
• 3) incompressible flow

• We take point 1 at the orifice and point 2 at

the surface of the fluid in the tank

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• Writing Bernoulli’s equation at the two points

𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
• Since both points are open to atmosphere,
P1 = P2
𝑣12 𝑣22
+ 𝑧1 = + 𝑧2
2𝑔 2𝑔

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• Taking the reference point at 1, z1 = 0

𝑣12 = 𝑣22 + 2𝑔𝑧2

• z2 changes with time, since the tank is

draining, hence we replace it as a function of
time, h(t)
𝑣12 = 𝑣22 + 2𝑔ℎ(𝑡)

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• Since d << D, hence v2 << v1

𝑣12 − 𝑣22 ≈ 𝑣12

𝑣12 = 2𝑔ℎ or 𝑣1 = 2𝑔ℎ

• Also we can define v2 as the rate of change

of the liquid level in the tank:
𝑑ℎ
𝑣2 = −
𝑑𝑡
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• Using the law of conservation of mass:

𝑚ሶ 1 = 𝑚ሶ 2
𝑄1 𝜌1 = 𝑄2 𝜌2
• Since we have incompressible liquid,
𝜌1 = 𝜌2 = 𝜌
• hence
𝑄1 𝜌 = 𝑄2 𝜌
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
𝜋𝑑2 𝜋𝐷2 𝑑ℎ
2𝑔ℎ = −
4 4 𝑑𝑡
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• This can be rearranged as:

2
𝑑ℎ 𝑑
= − 2𝑔 ℎ
𝑑𝑡 𝐷
• The equation can be integrated as:
2
2𝑔 𝑑
ℎ=− 𝑡 + ℎ𝑜
2 𝐷
• where ho is the initial height in the tank

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A 2 ft tall coffee urn is full to the top and

dispenses coffee through a nozzle
located 5 in above the table surface.
The diameter of the urn and nozzle are
10 in and 0.5 in respectively. Find the
level in the urn for the first 20 s after
the nozzle is left open.

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• h in the first 20 s is given in the table below:

time (s) Coffee level (ft)
0 1.583333
4 1.484004
8 1.387893
12 1.294998
16 1.205321
20 1.118862

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• We can solve this numerically using Euler’s

method:
2
𝑑
ℎ𝑖+1 = ℎ𝑖 − 2𝑔ℎ𝑖 (𝑡𝑖+1 − 𝑡𝑖 )
𝐷
time (s) Coffee level (ft)
0 1.583333
4 1.482396
8 1.384728
12 1.290333
16 1.199212
20 1.111367

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Liquid Level in a draining tank

1.6

1.4
level (ft)

Analytical
1.2 Numerical

1
0 5 10 15 20
time (s)

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Pipe Network Example

• Problem 1.16: A fluid is pumped into the
network shown in Fig. P1.16. If
• Q2 =0.7 m3/s,
• Q3 =0.5 m3/s,
• Q7 =0.1 m3/s,
• Q8 =0.3 m3/s,

• determine the other flows.

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• This is a steady state problem

• We have 6 unknowns

Q1, Q4, Q5, Q6, Q9, and Q10

• Hence we need 6 equations

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• We can get these equations by applying the

law of continuity at the 6 nodes
1 2 3

4 5 6

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• Node 1: 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 = 0.7 + 0.5 = 1.2 m3 /s

• Node 6: 𝑄6 = 𝑄8 − 𝑄7 = 0.3 − 0.1 = 0.2 m3 /s

• Node 3: 𝑄5 = 𝑄6 + 𝑄7 = 0.2 + 0.1 = 0.3 m3 /s

• Node 2: 𝑄4 = 𝑄3 − 𝑄5 = 0.5 − 0.3 = 0.2 m3 /s

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• Node 5: 𝑄9 = 𝑄4 + 𝑄8 = 0.2 + 0.3 = 0.5 m3 /s

• Node 4: 𝑄10 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄9 = 0.7 + 0.5 = 1.2 m3 /s

• The problem can be solved numerically by

using a method to solve a system of linear
equations

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