Department of Engineering and Technology

EET210L –1 Electronics Laboratory Practices LAB

LABORATORY REPORT No 02

Impedance Matching

Professor: Rubén Velásquez,Ph.D.

Spring 2025

Student’s Name: Blaih Y.E. Gbetibouo

Submission date: Due date:

February 15, 2025 February 15, 2025
Table of content

Table of content ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2

Team Laboratory Report Contribution: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
Objective ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
Laboratory Materials --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
Description of the Lab Equipment ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
Background Theory: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
Procedure ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 8
Data Collection and Tables ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
Data Analysis ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 12
Questions ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 17
Observations ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
Discussion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
Conclusion: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
References: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20

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Team Laboratory Report Contribution

Blaih Y.E. Gbetibouo, will be responsible for composing the laboratory report, task includes:
Objective Statement: Clearly define the objective of the laboratory, focusing on understanding the behavior and
characteristics of analog communication.
Background Information: Provide a brief overview of analog communication, including its fundamental principles
and relevance to the experiment.
Data Presentation: Organize and present the collected data in a clear and concise manner.
Tables and Figures: Create relevant tables and figures to visually represent the experimental data.
Post-Lab Questions: Address and answer the post-lab questions to reinforce understanding of the experiment.
Observations from Work: Document any relevant observations made during the experiment that contribute to the
overall findings.
Conclusion: Summarize the main findings and conclusions drawn from the experiment on analog communication,
ensuring clarity and coherence in conveying the results.

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Objective
To design, build, and test an L network that effectively matches the output impedance of a transmitter to the
impedance of an antenna, ensuring optimal power transfer and minimal standing wave ratio (SWR):

1. Calculate Component Values: Determine the required values of inductance (L) and capacitance (C) for
the L network to match a given load impedance (simulated antenna) to the transmitter's output
impedance.
2. Build and Test the L Network: Construct the L network using the calculated component values and
measure the standing wave ratio (SWR) to ensure minimal signal reflection and effective impedance
matching.
3. Investigate Reactive Components: Explore the effects of reactive components (capacitive or inductive)
in antenna impedance and demonstrate how the L network compensates for these reactances to achieve
a purely resistive match.
4. Gain Practical Experience: Acquire hands-on experience with impedance-matching techniques to
optimize power transfer in RF systems, while understanding the role of L networks as low-pass filters
to attenuate harmonic frequencies.

Laboratory Materials
▪ Agilent 33220A 20MHz Function Generator
▪ Rigol Oscilloscope DS1104 4 channels 100 MHz
▪ Bread Board
▪ 1 51-Ω potentiometer
▪ Capacitors: 2 3.8nF
▪ Inductors: 3.9µH
▪ 1 BNC to alligator clips probe, 1 BNC to BNC probe
▪ Connection pins

Description of the Lab Equipment

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 Figure 1. Rigol Oscilloscope DS1104 100 MHz

Oscilloscope
o Description: An oscilloscope is an electronic instrument that visualizes electrical signals by displaying
their waveforms on a screen.
o Function: It is essential for analyzing signal characteristics like frequency and amplitude, helping
engineers troubleshoot circuits and verify theoretical predictions.

Figure 3. Agilent 33220A 20MHz Function Generator

Function Generator
o Description: An instrument used to measure electrical properties such as voltage, current, and
resistance.
o Function: Essential for taking precise measurements of circuit parameters to verify theoretical
predictions.

Background Theory
One of the most essential components of any transmitter is the output impedance-matching network. Various
configurations, including L, T, and pi (π) networks, are used between transmitter stages and between the final
amplifier and the antenna to facilitate maximum power transfer. While technicians may not typically work
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 with interstage impedance-matching networks, they often need to design specific impedance-matching
networks between a transmitter and an antenna. An L network is frequently employed for this purpose, as it
minimizes standing wave ratio (SWR) and maximizes power transfer to the antenna. Commercial impedance-
matching units, commonly known as antenna tuners, are available and feature a variety of adjustable capacitors
and inductors that can be configured in multiple ways to achieve the desired impedance match.

Although antennas are designed to act as resistive loads, they often do not perform as such. If operated at
frequencies even slightly different from their design center frequency, their impedance can become reactive.
Moreover, the overall impedance of an antenna is affected by its height above the ground and the influence of
nearby structures and objects. To optimize the impedance matching between the transmitter and the antenna,
an L network is placed between the transmitter output and the coaxial cable connecting to the antenna.

A typical L network is illustrated in Figure 8-7(a). This particular configuration is used when the load
impedance is lower than the transmitter's output impedance, which is a common scenario. The L network also
functions as a low-pass filter, helping to attenuate unwanted harmonics that frequently arise from the
transmitter output. The values of the inductor (L) and capacitor (C) can be calculated to ensure that the antenna
impedance appears equal to the transmitter output impedance.

When the circuit is redrawn as shown in Figure 8-7(b), it illustrates how this matching is accomplished. The
coil and capacitor create a parallel resonant circuit, where the resistive antenna is in series with the coil,
effectively acting as the coil's apparent series resistance. The goal of these calculations is to determine values
for L and C so that the parallel circuit appears resistive at the operating frequency, ensuring that its impedance
matches the transmitter output impedance.

Recall that you can find the impedance of a parallel resonant circuit (Zp) with either of the following formulas:
𝐿
𝑍𝑝 =
𝐶𝑅𝑠
𝑍𝑝 = 𝑅𝑠(𝑄 2 + 1)

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Fig. 8-7L-matching network: (a) basic L network; (b) equivalent circuit of L networks a parallel resonant
circuit, where Rs is the winding resistance of the coil plus the antenna (load)resistance.

Using the formula in the textbook, you will compute the values of L and C that will make the above
relationship come true. A common occurrence is that the antenna also contains a reactive element. For example,
assume that the equivalent impedance of the antenna is capacitive. Refer to Fig. 8-8(a). The antenna looks like a
series RC circuit. Note that this antenna capacitance appears in series with the inductor of the parallel tuned
circuit. The effect of this capacitance may be cancelled out by simply making the inductive reactance higher
than the value computed with the formulas by the amount of the capacitive load reactance at the frequency of
operation. See Fig. 8-8(b). If this is done, the antenna capacitance is effectively cancelled out. The resulting
circuit is the same as in Fig. 8-7(b). If the antenna was inductive, this inductance would simply add to the L-
network inductance value. The total value of inductance must be equal to the value that will give the reactance
calculated with the formulas. In this experiment, you will design and build an L network to demonstrate this
concept. You will use a common function generator as the transmitter and discrete components to simulate the
antenna and build the L network.

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 Fig. 8-8 L-matching network: (a) the antenna is a reactive load; (b) equivalent series reactance.

Procedure
1. Set the function generator to supply a 2-MHz sine wave of 10 Vpp with no load connected. Then connect
a 51-Ω resistor as the load. See Fig. 8-9. The cable connecting the function generator will be a coax
cable with a characteristic impedance of 50 Ω.
Measure the voltage across the 51-Ω load.
a. Calculate the power in the load.
b. Will this arrangement supply maximum power to the load?
No, this arrangement will not supply maximum power transfer because the load impedance does not
match the generator impedance.

Figure 1 The circuit setup using the 50Ω coaxial cable and a potentiometer as the load resistor.

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 Figure 2 Demonstrates the transmitted 2MHz sine wave signal.

2. Remove the 51-Ω load and reset the function generator no-load output voltage to 10 Vp-p. Then connect
a 22-Ω resistor as the load. Again, measure the load voltage and calculate the power. Is maximum power
being provided?
No, maximum power is not provided.

3. Design an L network to match the 22-Ω load to the 50-Ω generator, using the formulas in the text.

Fig. 8-9 Connecting the function generator to the load.

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 Fig. 8-10 Calculate L and C, using formulas in textbook.

4. Then build the circuit as shown in Fig. 8-10.

5. Before you connect the generator to the L network, set its no-load output to 10 Vp-p as before. Then
connect the L network and the 22-Ω load. Measure the voltage across the 22-Ω load and compute the
power. Is maximum power now being supplied? Also measure the voltage across the entire L network at
the generator output. Is maximum power dissipated here? Explain.
Yes, maximum power is now being supplied because the L network is designed to match impedance.
Ideally, there is a minimal voltage drop across the L network that is designed.

6. Using one of the parallel impedance formulas given in the introduction, calculate the impedance of the
circuit you designed above to see that the value matches the generator impedance. Does it match?
Explain.
Yes, the impedance of the L circit matches the impedance of the generator impedance.

7. Assume that the load is now capacitive with a complex impedance of 22 − j36. The operating frequency
is 2 MHz. What value of capacitance does this represent?
1 1
Xc= -36Ω C=− 2𝜋𝑓𝑋𝑐 = 2𝜋(2𝑥106 )(−36) =2.2µF

8. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 8-11. Set the open-circuit generator output to 10 Vp-p before you
connect the load. Measure the voltage across the resistor and calculate the output power. Is maximum
power being delivered?
Yes, maximum power is being delivered after designing the L network.

Figure 3 Circuit setup after adding capacitors and inductor to achieve maximum power transfer.

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 Figure 4 Demonstrated the 2MHz sine wave signal after maximum power transfer.

9. Design the L network to match the generator to this load. Use the procedure you followed in step 3 but
factor in the load capacitance. Draw the final circuit, labeling all component values.

10. Build the circuit and test as before. Be sure to reset the open-circuit output voltage to 10 Vp-p before you
connect the circuit. Again measure the resistor output voltage across the combined load and compute the
power. Does the L network provide maximum power?
Yes, the L network provides maximum power.

Fig. 8-11 Transmitter with reactive load.

Data Collection and Tables

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 Component Nominal Value Measured Value % Difference
Coax Cable 50 Ω 48 Ω 4%
Potentiometer 51 Ω 51 Ω 0%
Inductor 3.9 µH 3.77 µH 3.3%
Capacitor 1 3.8 nF 3.84 nF 1.05%
Capacitor 2 3.8 nF 3.84 nF 1.05%
Customer Jumper 1 - 0.14 Ω -
(1 ½’’)
Customer Jumper 2 - 0.17 Ω -
(1 ¼’’)

Actual Value Before Maximum Power After Maximum Power

Transfer Transfer
Voltage 10Vpp 4.6Vpp 5.6Vpp
Power 2w 0.428w 0.634w
.

Data Analysis
Before Maximum Power Transfer

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑆𝑊𝑅 =
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
1+𝑝
𝑆𝑊𝑅 =
1−𝑝

𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜 51Ω − 50Ω 1Ω
𝑝= = = = 0.009
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜 51Ω + 50Ω 101Ω

1 + 1.009 1.009
𝑆𝑊𝑅 = = = 1.018
1 − 0.009 0.991

(10𝑉𝑝𝑝)2
𝑃= = 2𝑤
50Ω
10𝑉𝑝𝑝
Vrms= =4.54V
2√2

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 (4.54𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠)2
𝑃= = 0.41𝑤
50Ω

𝑉 = 4.6𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝑍𝐿 = 49.4Ω
2
𝑉 (4.6 𝑉𝑝𝑝)2
𝑃= = = 0.428𝑤
𝑍𝐿 49.4 Ω
4.6𝑉𝑝𝑝
Vrms= =1.63V
2√2

(1.63𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠)2
𝑃= = 0.05𝑤
50Ω

Finding L and C values

𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝑐 = 50Ω

𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿

𝑋𝐿 𝑍𝑜 50Ω
𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑓=2𝜋2𝑀𝐻𝑧 = 3.97µ𝐻

1
𝑋𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑓

1 1
𝐶= = = 1.59𝑛𝐹
2𝜋𝑓𝑋𝑐 2𝜋(2𝑀𝐻𝑧)(50Ω)

After Maximum Power Transfer

𝑉 2 (4.6𝑉𝑝𝑝)2
𝑃= = = 0.428𝑤
𝑅𝐿 49.4Ω
4.6𝑉𝑝𝑝
Vrms= =1.63V
2√2

(1.63𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠)2
𝑃= = 0.05𝑤
50Ω

𝑉 2 (5.6𝑉𝑝𝑝)2
𝑃= = = 0.634𝑤
𝑅𝐿 49.4Ω
5.6𝑉𝑝𝑝
Vrms= =1.98V
2√2

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 (1.98𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠)2
𝑃= = 0.08𝑤
50Ω
|𝐴−𝐵| |0.634−0.428|
% difference= 𝐴+𝐵 𝑥 100% = 0.634+0.428 𝑥 100% = 38.8%
2 2

Based on the data and calculations, we achieved Maximum Power Transfer with a 38.8% improvement.

Amplitude Modulation in Aviation

Multisim Simulation & Real-World Applications

Objective
• Simulate Amplitude Modulation (AM) signals using Multisim
• Measure modulation index and carrier frequency
• Apply findings to real-world aviation communication systems
•

Multisim Simulation Overview

• Displayed AM and input signals on oscilloscope
• Used spectrum analyzer to verify frequency components
•

Figure 5 This picture is the multisim circuitry

Modulation Index and Frequency

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 • Peak of the modulated signal (Emax): 1V
• Valley of the modulated signal (Emin): 0.187 V
• Modulation Index: ~38.04%
• Carrier Frequency: ~15.76 kHz

Figure 6 This is the picture of the signal modulated on the multisim oscilloscope
AM in Aircraft Communication
• Aviation uses AM in the 118–137 MHz VHF band
• Prevents signal loss from simultaneous transmissions
• Used in ATC, ground, and en-route communications

Figure 7 this picture shows aradio in the avionics

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 Figure 8 this picture is a block diagram of an AM device in the plane

Real-World Scenario

• Pilot approaching JFK on 119.1 MHz hears both Air Trafic Control (ATC) and another pilot
• AM allows simultaneous signals to be heard clearly
• Enhances situational awareness and avoids miscommunication
•

Figure 9 this picture is simulation of how AM communication work in aircraft

Simulation vs. Reality

Simulation:
• Carrier Frequency: ~15.76 kHz
• Modulation Index: ~38%
• Learning-focused

Aircraft System:
• Carrier Frequency: 118–137 MHz
• Modulation Index: 30–100%
• Real-time communications

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Conclusion
• Simulation reinforced key AM principles
• Measured frequency and modulation index matched expectations
• Demonstrated AM's critical role in aviation safety and reliability

References
• Multisim Lab Manual
• ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS A Systems Approach JEFFREY S. BEASLEY New Mexico
State University JONATHAN D. HYMER Mt. San Antonio College GARY M. MILLER

Questions
1. What is the Q of the L networks you built and tested in this experiment?
a. < 1
b. < 5
c. > 10
d. > 100

2. If the antenna is inductive and its reactance is greater than the reactance you compute with the formulas,
how can you build this circuit and make it work?
a. This circuit cannot be used.
b. Connect a capacitor in parallel with the antenna.
c. Connect a capacitor in place of the inductor in the L network and make its value such that the
correct inductive reactance is obtained.
d. Use the other form of L network with the capacitor across the load.

3. Name a way that the L network could be made more useful over a wide range of possible load
impedances.
One way to make the L network more versatile is to use tunable components, such as variable capacitors
or inductors, allowing adjustments based on varying load impedances. Another method is to implement
a switched network where different L and C values can be selected depending on the load conditions.

4. Explain how you could make a variable inductor with a fixed inductance and a variable capacitor.

A variable inductor can be created using a fixed inductor in combination with a variable capacitor in a
resonant circuit. By adjusting the capacitance, the effective impedance of the circuit can be tuned to
achieve the desired reactance. Additionally, using a tapped inductor or a core with adjustable
permeability can also allow for inductance tuning.

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 5. What is the primary purpose of impedance matching in RF circuits?

Impedance matching aims to maximize power transfer between the source and load by minimizing
reflections and losses, ensuring efficient signal transmission.

6. Describe the role of an impedance matching network.

An impedance matching network consists of reactive components (inductors and capacitors) configured
to transform the impedance of a load to match that of the source, thereby optimizing the performance
of the circuit.

7. How can you determine the required values for components in an L-network for impedance matching?
The required values can be determined using the Smith chart or impedance transformation formulas,
which allow for calculating the necessary inductance and capacitance to achieve the desired match.

8. What measurements are necessary to evaluate the effectiveness of an impedance matching circuit?

Key measurements include the input and output voltages, current through the load, return loss, and
standing wave ratio (SWR), which help assess how well the circuit is matching the impedance.

9. What factors can affect the performance of an impedance matching network?

Factors include the quality of components used, the frequency of operation, parasitic elements (like
stray capacitance or inductance), and environmental conditions that may affect component values.

10. Explain how a transformer can be used for impedance matching.

A transformer can match impedance by using its turns ratio to step up or step down voltage and current,
effectively transforming the impedance seen by the source or load to achieve the desired match.

Observations
1. Power Transfer Efficiency: Observed that maximum power transfer occurred at specific impedance
values, confirming the theoretical expectations of impedance matching.

2. SWR Measurements: Recorded standing wave ratios (SWR) that decreased with effective impedance
matching, demonstrating improved performance of the circuit.

3. Component Behavior: Observed how variable capacitors and inductors affected the overall impedance,
particularly how adjustments impacted resonant frequency and circuit response.

4. Temperature Effects: Noted any temperature changes in components during testing, which could
influence inductance and capacitance values, impacting overall circuit performance.

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 5. Frequency Response: Documented frequency response characteristics of the circuit, noting the
bandwidth over which effective matching occurred and any shifts in resonance.

6. Load Variability: Examined how different load conditions affected the matching network's
performance, particularly under varying resistive and reactive loads.

7. Signal Integrity: Observed the quality of the output signal, noting any distortions or losses that could be
attributed to impedance mismatches or component non-idealities.

8. Circuit Stability: Noted the stability of the circuit during adjustments, particularly how quickly the
circuit stabilized after changing component values.

Discussion
1. Describe all the reasons why continuous learning is important for an engineer.

Continuous learning is essential for engineers because it helps them stay current with technological
advancements, ensuring they can effectively use new tools and methodologies. It also allows them to comply
with evolving industry standards and regulations. Continuous education opens up career growth opportunities
by making engineers eligible for promotions and leadership roles. Learning enhances problem-solving skills,
enabling engineers to think critically and innovate. Furthermore, engaging in lifelong learning fosters
networking opportunities, allowing professionals to build valuable connections in their field.

2. Describe ways in which can engage in life-long learning.

Individuals can engage in lifelong learning through several methods. They can pursue formal education, such
as attending workshops, seminars, or obtaining advanced degrees. Online courses offer a flexible way to learn
new skills or topics at one’s own pace. Joining professional organizations or community groups can provide
access to resources and networking opportunities. Reading books, articles, and research papers keeps
individuals informed about the latest trends and developments in their fields. Seeking mentorship or
collaborating with others can also enhance learning experiences.

3. Can you explain in detail why acquiring new knowledge and skills is important?

Acquiring new knowledge and skills is vital for personal and professional development. It fosters innovation
and creativity, allowing individuals to develop effective solutions to problems. Staying updated with new skills
provides a competitive advantage in the job market, making individuals more appealing to employers. Learning
also boosts confidence and job satisfaction, contributing to overall well-being. Moreover, it equips individuals
to adapt to changing environments and challenges, ensuring they remain effective and relevant in their roles.

4. Can you describe at least three ways to continue learning?

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 To continue learning, individuals can attend workshops and conferences to gain insights and practical
experience. Enrolling in online courses offers a flexible and accessible way to learn new subjects or skills.
Joining professional organizations provides access to resources, networking opportunities, and continued
education that can enhance knowledge and expertise.

Conclusion
Finally, it was concluded that we achieved maximum power transfer by carefully selecting the appropriate
values of the capacitor and inductor in our impedance matching network. The experiments demonstrated that
precise tuning of these reactive components not only optimized the circuit's impedance but also minimized
reflections, thereby enhancing overall efficiency. This reinforces the critical importance of effective impedance
matching in RF circuits and confirms the theoretical principles applied in our laboratory work. The
observations highlighted the significance of load conditions and component behavior, suggesting that future
investigations could further explore advanced matching techniques and their performance under varying
environmental factors.

References
1. Manual Laboratory, Introduction to Analog Communications FACET by Lab-Volt Lab No 1 Analog
Communication
2. Principles of Electronic communication systems by Louis E. Frenzel Jr. Fourth Edition.
3. Modern Electronic Communication Ninth ED by Micheal Beasley
4. Fundamentals of Wireless Communication by David Tse and Pramod Viswanath

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