CCA3706 - RESEARCH METHODS

Meaning of Research

• Research = Re + Search

• Research can be said as search for knowledge.

• A systematic search for an answer to a question or a solution to a problem is called

research.

• Research is an art of scientific investigation.

• It is the process finding solution to a problem.

• It’s the process of arriving as a dependable solution to a problem through planned &
systematic collection , analysis and interpretation of Data.

• It seeks answer only of those questions which answers can be given on the basis of available
facilities.

Definition of Research

• William Emory (2002) defines Research as "any organized enquiry designed and carried out
to provide information for solving a problem“.

• Redman and Mory (1921) defines, research as "a systematized effort to gain new
knowledge''.

Objectives of Research

• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights to it.

• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual situation or a group.

• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else.

• To test a hypothesis or a causal relationship between variables.

Characteristics of Research

• Research is a systematic and critical investigation into a phenomenon.

• It adopts scientific method.

• It is objective and Logical

• It is based on empirical evidence.

• Research is directed towards finding answers to questions.

• It emphasis the generalization of theories and principles.

Motivation in Research

What makes people to undertake research?

• Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits.

• Desire to face the challenges in solving the unsolved problems.

• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.

• Desire to be of service to society.

• Desire to get respectability.

Meaning of Business Research

• “Systematic study of the problems encountered by business organizations with a view to

finding solutions to the problems faced by the organizations”.

• MC Daniel and Gates define Business Research as: - “it is the planning, collection and
analysis of data relevant to business decision making and communication of the result of this
analysis to the management”.

Need & Significance of Business Research

• To increase quality of managerial decision by logical and scientific decisions.

• To enable the manager to make the right choice.

• To make predictive judgments about a new project, project feasibility and project
implementation.

• To help the management in discharging its functions- planning, coordinating, motivating,

controlling and evaluation effectively.

• To provide accurate information about business environment in which business operates -

locating threats and opportunities.

• To make innovations through R& D (Research and Development) activities of an

organization.

• To frame alternative area of purchase policies- where/when/how much/what price to buy.

• To help in financial management optimizing capital mix, cash management, cost control,
pricing.

• To help in human resource area- personnel policies, job design, job analysis etc.

Approaches to Research

• Arbitrary or Unscientific Method : Seeking answers to questions based on imagination,

opinion, blind belief or impression.
 • Scientific Method: Systematic and logical study of an issue or a problem.

• Induction Method : It is a method of logical reasoning process follows the principles of

particular to general. It involves two process, i.e., observation and generalisation.

• Deductions Method: It is the logical reasoning from general to particular. “top to down”

• Types of research

• Pure Research

• Applied Research

• Exploratory Research

• Descriptive Research

• Diagnostic Research

• Evaluation Research

• Action Research

• Experimental Research

• Analytical Research

• Historical Research

• Survey Research

• Case Study

Types of research

a. Pure Research:

 Pure Research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any

intention to apply it in practice.

 It is also known as Basic or Fundamental Research.

 It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity.

 It is not necessarily problem – oriented.

 It aims at extension of knowledge.

 It may leads to either discovery of a new theory or refinement of an

existing theory.

 The findings of the pure research formed the basis for innumerable scientific
and technological inventions like Steam Engine, Machines, Automobiles,
 Electronic Gadgets, Electronic data processing, telecommunications etc..,
which have revolutionized and enriched our human life.

b. Applied Research:

 Applied research is carried on to find solutions to a real-life problems

requiring actions or policy decision.

 Thus, it is problem - oriented and action - directed.

 The purpose of applied research is to improve a product or a process and to

test theoretical concepts in actual problematic situation . It seeks an
immediate and practical results.

 eg., Marketing research carried on for developing a new market or for

studying the post – purchase experience of customers.

c. Exploratory Research or Formulative Research:

 It is the preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the

researcher has little or no knowledge.

 Exploratory research is necessary to get initial insight into the problem for
the purpose of formulating more precise investigation.

 It is similar to a doctor’s initial investigation of a patient suffering from an

unfamiliar malady for getting some clues for identifying it.

 It usually takes the form of pilot study.

 Purposes of exploratory study may be,

a. To generate new ideas

b. To increase the researcher’s familiarity with the

problem or

c. To make a precise formulation of the problem or

d. To gather information for clarifying concepts or,

e. To determine whether it is feasible to attempt the

study.

d. Descriptive Research:

 It is a fact finding investigation describing, recording, analyzing and

interpreting conditions that exist.

 It gives proper basis for understanding current problems, and guides in

planning and formulation of policies.
  The descriptive research aims to describe the characteristics of a population
or a phenomenon.

 The major purpose of descriptive research is to describe the state of affairs

as it exist at present.

 The main characteristics of this method is that the researcher has no control
over the variables, He can only report what has happened or what is
happening.

e. Diagnostic Research:

 It similar to descriptive study,

 Its is directed towards discovery of what is happening, why it is happening

and what can be done about it.

 It aims at a cause of a problem and the possible solution for it.

f. Evaluation Research:

 It is one type of applied research.

 Its is done for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic programs

implemented (eg. family planning scheme) or for assessing the impact of
developmental projects (e.g. irrigation projects).

Types of Evaluation

1. Concurrent Evaluation:

It is a continuous process like an inspection or social audit of an on-going programme. It aims at

evaluation of the quality implementation and services as a feedback for improving the performance.

1. Periodic Evaluation :

It is done after a particular period. It is also known as mid term or interim evaluation.

1. Terminal Evaluation:

This is done after the completion of a programme or projects.

g. Action Research

 It is a type of evaluation study

 It is a concurrent evaluation study of an action programme launched for

solving a problem/ for improving an existing situation.

 it is normally applied in a class room or an organization.

 The solution of an action research cannot be applied in similar situations.

  eg. Land reform programmes, social welfare programmes, rural
development programmes, programmes for improving the quality of life in
factories and offices etc.

h. Experimental Research:

 Experimental research is designed to assess the effects of particular

variables on a phenomenon by keeping the other variables constant or
controlled.

 It aims at determining whether and in what manner variables are related to

each other.

 Variable : A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called

a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all examples
of variables.

 The factor which is influenced by other factors is called dependent variable

and other variable which is known as independent variables.

 The variables which are kept constant or control are known as extraneous
variable.

 e.g Agricultural Productivity: Dependent Variable - Crop Yield

Independent Variable – Soil Fertility, irrigation, quality of seed

i. Analytical Research or Statistical Method:

 Analytical study is a system of procedures and techniques of analysis

applied to quantitative data.

 This may consists of mathematical models or statistical techniques

applicable to numerical data.

j. Historical Research

 Historical study is a study of past records and other information sources

with a view to reconstructing the origin and development of an institution or
a movement or a system and discovering the trends in past.

 Its objective is to draw explanations and generalizations from the past

trends in order to understand the present and to anticipate the future.

k. Survey Research:

 It is a fact finding study

 It is a method of research involving collection of data directly from a

population or a sample at a particular period.
  Data can be collected by observation, or interviewing or mailing
questionnaires.

l. Case Study:

 It is an in-depth comprehensive study of a person, a social group, an

episode, a program, a community, an institution or any other social unit.

Research Process

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and
the desired sequencing of these steps.

Steps in Research Process

1. Formulating the Research Problem

2. Extensive Literature Survey

3. Formulation of Objectives

4. Preparing the Research Design

5. Collecting the Data and Processing

6. Analysis of Data

7. Report Writing

Criteria of Good Research

• The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common

concepts be used.

• The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to

permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement,
keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.

• The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield

results that are as objective as possible.

• The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance,

and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and
reliability of the data should be checked carefully.

• Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research

and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.

• Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced,

has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

Problems Encountered by Researchers in India

 • The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research

• Insufficient interaction

• There is the need for generating the confidence that the information/data obtained
from a business unit will not be misused.

• Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of
adequate information.

• There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers.

• The difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance, including computerial

assistance.

• Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places

• There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old
and new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time.

• There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data.

FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Research Problem:

A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.

Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the
given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in
the context of a given environment.

We can, thus, state the components of a research problem as under:

• There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the

problem.

• There must be some objective(s) to be attained at.

• There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the
objective(s) one wishes to attain.

• There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to
the selection of alternatives.

• There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.

Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the
given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in
the context of a given environment.

We can, thus, state the components of a research problem as under:

• There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the

problem.

• There must be some objective(s) to be attained at.

• There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the
objective(s) one wishes to attain.

• There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to
the selection of alternatives.

• There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.

Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the
given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in
the context of a given environment.

Necessity of Defining the Problem

• “A problem clearly stated is a problem half solved”. - This statement signifies the
need for defining a research problem.

• The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to
discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones.

• A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the

track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles.

Questions like:

• What data are to be collected?

• What characteristics of data are relevant and need

to be studied?

• What relations are to be explored.

• What techniques are to be used for the purpose?

• Defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the
highest importance. In fact, formulation of a problem is often more essential than its
solution. It is only on careful detailing the research problem that we can work out the
research design and can smoothly carry on all the consequential steps involved while doing
research.
Consideration in selecting a research problem

 Each problem taken for research has to be judged on the basis of some
criteria

 Relevance

 Avoidance of duplication

 Feasibility

 Political acceptability

 Applicability

 Urgency of data needed

 Ethical acceptability

 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

 A literature review is a piece of academic writing demonstrating knowledge and

understanding of the academic literature on a specific topic placed in context.

 It is a focused and directed reading towards specific purpose.

 It is also selective. The researcher has to select the kinds of literature to be reviewed and
determine the purpose for which he has to study them.

 A literature review also includes a critical evaluation of the material; this is why it is called a
literature review rather than a literature report.

 The literature review starts with the selection of a problem for research, continues through
the various stages of the research process and ends with report writing.

NEED FOR REVIEW OF LITERATURE

• To gain a background knowledge of the research topic.

• To identify concepts relating to it, potential relationship between them and to formulate
researchable hypothesis.

• To identify appropriate methodology, research design, methods, of measuring concepts and

techniques of analysis.

• To identify data sources used by other researchers.

• To learn how others structured their reports.

• Preventing duplicating work that has been done before.

• Sources of Literature
• Subject Catalogues of Libraries.

• Documentation Services.

• Social Science Documentation Centre of ICSSR.

• National Documentation center of Mass Communication, New Delhi.

• Small Enterprises National Documentation Centre, Hyderabad.

• Centre for Rural Documentation, Hyderabad.

• National Council of Applied Economic Research, New Delhi.

• Centre for economic and Social Studies, Hyderabad

• Bibliographies

• Indian National Bibliography

• The library Congress Accession List, South Asia

• Asian Social Science Bibliography

• Bibliographies of Libraries.

• List of books and publisher’ bulletins.

• Journals

• Government Reports

• Research abstracts

• ICSSR Research Abstracts

• Indian Dissertation Abstracts

• ICSSR Journal of abstract and Review : Economics

• ICSSR Journal of abstract and Review : Political Science

• ICSSR Journal of abstract and Review : Geography

• Dissertation Abstracts International

• Information on research done.

• Bibliography of doctoral Dissertation accepted by Indian Universities

• Doctorates in social science award by Indian universities

• University News
 • ICSSR Survey of research in social Sciences

• Foreign Theses on India

• American Doctoral Dissertations.

Research Gap

• A research gap is a question or a problem that has not been answered by any of the existing
studies or research within your field.

• Sometimes, a research gap exists when there is a concept or new idea that hasn't been
studied at all.

• Sometimes you'll find a research gap if all the existing research is outdated and in need of
new/updated research (studies on Internet use in 2001, for example).

• Or, perhaps a specific population has not been well studied (perhaps there are plenty of
studies on teenagers and video games, but not enough studies on toddlers and video games,
for example).

• In research gap you find an area where more studies and more research need to be
conducted.

Formulation of Objectives

• 1. Objectives

• General objectives : It states what is expected to be achieved by the study. It’s the overall
thrust of the study. Its is concerned with the main association and relationship that a person
seeks to discover or establish.

• Specific objectives : it should be numerically listed, worded clearly and unambiguously. It

addresses the various aspects of the problem and should specify what will be done, where
and for what purpose..

• 2. Hypothesis-testing:

• After analysing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had
formulated earlier.

• A hypothesis is a tentative propositions formulated for empirical testing.

• It describes in concrete terms what a researcher expects to happen in his/ her study.

• It is a tentative answer to the research question.

• Good and Hatt defines it as “ a question which can be put to test to determine validity”

• In short hypothesis is a tentative solution or explanation or a guess or assumption or

proposition or a statement to the problem facing by the researcher.
• Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.

• In exploratory study and fact finding investigation it may not be possible to setup the
hypothesis, whereas in all analytical and experimental studies, hypothesis should be setup in
order to give a proper direction.

• Types of Hypothesis

• Descriptive hypothesis : It intends to describe some characteristics of an object, a situation,

an individual or even an organization.

• Relational Hypothesis : It intends to describe the relationship between two variables. The
relationship suggested may be positive or negative correlation or casual relationship.

• Positive Hypothesis: The relationship between two variables may be either increase or
decrease.

• Negative Hypothesis: It shows the relationship between two variables in which one variable
increases and other variable decreases.

• Casual Relationship: It is a situation in which a change in one variable (independent

variable) causes or leads to an effects on another variable (dependent variable).

• Working Hypothesis: This is a hypothesis framed in early stages of research. This maybe
altered or modified as research proceeds.

• Null Hypothesis: This states that there is no significant difference between the parameter
and statistic that is being compared. Hypothesis which denying the relationship between
two variables.

• Alternative Hypothesis: They are the research hypothesis which involves the claim to be
tested

• Analytical hypothesis : These are used when one would specify the relationship between
changes in one property leading to change in other.

• Statistical hypothesis: These are statement about statistical population and which are
derived from a sample which are quantitative in nature and numerically measurable.

• Common sense Hypothesis : These are based on what is being observed with common idea
existing among people.

Variables

• Dependent and Independent Variables

a. Variable

• A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. As such the
concepts like weight, height, income are all examples of variables.
 b. Independent Variable:

• It is a variable its stands alone and isn’t change by the other variable you are trying to
measure.

• In independent variables value does not depend on and is not affected by the state of any
other variable in the experiment.

c. Dependent Variable:

• It is the variable which always dependent on other factors. You are assessing how it
responds to a change in the independent variable, Sometimes the dependent variable is
called the "responding variable”.

• If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a

dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed
as an independent variable.

• 2. Extraneous variable:

• Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the
dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.

• For e.g.

Dependent variable: Size of the Plant, Number of Leaves,

Independent Variable: Water

Extraneous Variable : Sun light

• Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is

technically described as an ‘experimental error’.