Used as asupply source of DC motors. Shunt wound Generators DC shunt-wound generators are used for lighting purposes. Used to charge the battery, Providing excitation to the alternators, Series Wound Generators DC series wound generators are used in DC locomotives for regenerative braking for providing field excitation current, Used as a booster in distribution networks. Over compounded cumulative generators are used in lighting and heavy power supply. Flat compounded generators are used in offices, hotels, homes, school, etc. Differentially compounded generators are mainly used for are welding purpose Transformers A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. A varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic field, which in turn induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or "voltage" in a second coil. Power can be transferred between the two coils, without a metallic connection between the two circuits, Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power applications. Ideal and Practical Transformer: An ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer which does not have any loss in it, means no core losses, copper losses and any other losses in transformer. Efficiency of this transformer is considered as 100%, There is zero leakage reactance of transformer. AS we said, whenever we place a low reluctance core inside the windings, maximum amount of flux passes through this core, but still there is some flux which does not pass through the core but passes through the insulation used in the transformer Inan ideal transformer, this leakage flux is also considered nil, That means, 100% flux passes through the core and links with both the primary and secondary windings of transformer. Although every winding is desired to be purely inductive but it has some resistance in it which causes voltage drop and PR loss in it. In such ideal transformer model, the windings are also considered ideal, that means resistance of the winding is zero, Now if an altemating source voltage V, is applied in the primary winding of that ideal transformer, there will be a counter self emf E} induced in the primary winding which is purely 180° in phase opposition with supply voltage Vj. For developing counter emf E, across the primary winding, it draws current from the source to produce required magnetizing flux. As the primary winding is purely inductive, that current 90° lags from the supply voltage. This current is called magnetizing current of transformer I,.Primary Winding Secondary Winding Secondary Induced Voltage Ideal Transformer This alternating current I, produces an altemating magnetizing flux @ which is proportional to that current and hence in phase with it, As this flux is also linked with secondary winding through the core of transformer, there will be another emf E> induced in the secondary winding, this is mutually induced emf. As the secondary is placed on the same core where the primary winding is placed, the emf induced in the secondary winding of transformer, E, is in the phase with primary emf E; and in phase opposition with source voltage Vi A practical transformer differs from the ideal transformer in many respects. The practical transformer has 1. iron losses 2. winding resistances and 3. magnetic leakage, giving rise to leakage reactances. 1. Tron Losses Since the iron core is subjected to alternating flux, there occurs eddy current and hysteresis loss in it. These two losses together are known as iron losses or core losses. The iron losses depend upon the supply frequency, maximum flux density in the core, volume of the core ete, It may be noted that magnitude of iron losses is quite small in a practical transformer. 2. Winding resistances Since the windings consist of copper conductors, it immediately follows that both primary and secondary will have winding resistance. The primary resistance Rx and secondary resistance R2 act in series with the respective windings as shown in figure, When current flows through the windings, there will be power loss as well as a loss in voltage due to IR drop. This will affect the power factor and Ex will be less than V1 while V2 will be less than Ea.3, Leakage reactances Both primary and secondary currents produce flux. The flux} which links both the windings is the useful flux and is called mutual flux. However, primary current would produce some flux 6 which would not link the secondary winding. Similarly, Secondary current would produce some flux 4 that would not link the primary winding. The flux such as 61 or 62 which links only one winding is called leakage flux. The leakage flux paths are mainly through the air. The effect of these leakage fluxes would be the same as though inductive reactance were connected in series with each winding of transformer that had no leakage flux as shown in figure. In other words, the effect of primary leakage flux 4, is to introduce an inductive reactance X1 in series with the primary winding as shown. Similarly, the secondary leakage flux $2 introduces an inductive reactance Xz in series with the secondary winding. There will be no power loss due to leakage reactance, However, the presence of leakage reactance in the windings changes the power factor as well as there is voltage loss due to IX drop. Problems: 1, An ideal transformer has an input voltage of 480 V. The output current and voltage are 10 A. and 120 V. Determine the value of input current. = O)(I0) se 480 2. A transformer bas 600 primary turns connected to a 1.5 kV supply. Determine the number of secondary turns for a 240 V output voltage, assuming no losses. For a transformer, N Ni V2 ( 240 = (600)| — } (| 509 3. An ideal transformer with a turns ratio 2:9 is fed from a 220 V supply. Determine its output voltage. Secondary turns, N, wif > 96 turns = and V,=220V and V,=2400V from which, output voltage, V, = V, () | \NJ 10. A transformer has 500 tums of the primary winding and 10 turns of the secondary winding, a) Determine the secondary voltage if the secondary circuit is open and the primary voltage is 120V. ) Determine the current in the primary and secondary winding, given that the secondary winding is connected to a resistance load 15 2? iven: ‘Number of turns of the primary coil: N= 500 ‘Number of turns of the secondary coil: N.=10 a) Primary voltage U,=120V b) Secondary winding connected to a resistance load: R= 15 2 To determine: a) Secondary voltage U=7V) ) Current in the primary winding: =? (A) Current in the secondary winding: J, =? (A) To solve this, the ratio of the voltage on the secondary and on the primary coil is the same as the ratio of the number of turns of both coils: kUr/ UN2/ Ni So, unknown secondary voltage = (N2/Ni)*U; Us (10/500)* 120V=2.4V The electric power P; is determined as follows PrUh The electric power P; can be expressed as: Px=Unh= (U2) /R We substitute into pre vious relationship and evaluate the primary current: Uh= (Uy /R 1= (Uy UR Primary currentT=((2.4)' /120)*15A=3.2mA_ Secondary current 12=2.4/ 15 =0.16A Equivalent Circuit of Transformer: Equivalent impedance of transformer is essential to be calculated because the electrical power transformer is an electrical power system equipment for estimating different parameters of electrical power system which may be required to calculate total internal impedance of an electrical power transformer, viewing from primary side or secondary side as per requirement, This calculation requires equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary or equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary sides respectively. Percentage impedance is also very essential parameter of transformer. Special attention is to be given to this parameter during installing a transformer in an existing electrical power system, Percentage impedance of different power transformers should be properly matched during parallel operation of power transformers. The percentage impedance can be derived from equivalent impedance of transformer so, it can be said that equivalent circuit of transformer is aso required during calculation of % impedance. Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Primary For drawing equivalent citcuit of transformer referred to primary, first we have to establish general equivalent circuit of transformer then, we will modify it for referting from primary side. For doing this, first we need to recall the complete vector diagram of a transformer which is shown in the figure below. vb Vector diagram of Transformer on load BeIn the figure above, the applied voltage to the primary is V; and voltage across the primary winding is Ey, Total current supplied to primary is I). So the voltage V, applied to the primary is partly dropped by IZ; o liRy + 1X; before it appears across primary winding The voltage appeared across winding is countered by primary induced emf E). So voltage equation of this portion of the transformer can be written as, VY ~ (hi + jhXi) = Ei The equivalent circuit for that equation can be drawn as below, Equivalent Circuit From the vector diagram above, it is found that the total primary current I has two components, one is no - load component I, and the other is load component Iy’. As this primary current has two components or branches, so there must be a parallel path with primary winding of transformer. This parallel path of current is known as excitation branch of equivalent circuit of transformer. The resistive and reactive branches of the excitation circuit can be represented as. Ry = “and Xo Equivalent Circuit of Primary Side of Transformer The load component Jp" flows through the primary winding of transformer and induced voltage across the winding is E, as shown in the figure right. This induced voltage E; transforms to secondary and it is E> and load component of primary current Iy’ is transformed to secondary as secondary current I;, Current of secondary is I». So the voltage E across secondary winding is partly dropped by I:Z2 or IR» * j:laXa before it appears across load. The load voltage is V>. The complete equivalent circuit of transformer is shown below.4 x R OT vw I Z vo ie ¥ yv Ecuivalent Circuit of Transformer referred to Primary Now if we see the voltage drop in secondary from primary side, then it would be greater and would be written as K.Zo.J2. Again I. Ss h=h times ™ N=bN2> 2= KI}, Therefore, K Zo 12 = KZ2 KT, = K?ZoI} From above equation, secondary impedance of transformer referred to primary is, B=KZ Hence, Ry = K?Rz and X2= So, the complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary is shown in the figure below, 4 x R, R,’ x \ sw WA TOOT ty 4 a vy XE Vv, Equivalent Circuit of Transformer referred to Primary Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Secondary Ina similar way, the approximate equivalent couit of transformer referred to secondary can be drawn. Where equivalent impedance of transformer referred to secondary, can be derived at ao Ke Therefore, Ry = me aXoq = X1' + Xp Rug = Ry’ + Ry co OOD VV > a \; Zug? Zi +Z, Ve v y Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer referred to Secondary Problems: ‘A 15KVA, 2400:240-V, 60 Hz transformer has the following equivalent circuit parameters: = 2.50 ; Rr = 0.0250 ; X= 7.00; X2= 0.0702 Re= 320 Xm= 11.5 If the transformer is supplying a 10-kW, 0.8 PF lagging load at rated voltage, calculate: (a) Input voltage (b) Input current, and (c) Input power factor Solution: Reflect R, and X, to the primary side:. {2 (2) n= (“ey (0.070)=7.0.0 N; 240 (a 2400 y (0.025)=2.50 240 (a,b) Assume 7; on reference; then, a¥y =(10)(240.20°) =240020° V The load current is found by Fi. 0) 5.68 A ¥,(PF) 240(08) Ty =1,Z-cos™' (0.8) =52.082-36.87° A The reflected load current is5.2082 —36.87° A “T0 The excitation branch voltage is found by use of KVL. E=Ti(R, + 1X) +a =(5.2082-36.87°)(7.43370.35°) + 2400202 E =2432.38120.50° V The excitation branch current follows as E_2432.38140.50° _ 2432.38120.50° iX, 32,000 11,500.290° 1, = 0.2242 —69.70° A The input current can now be determined by KCL. Ti, + T, =5.2082 -36.87° + 0.2242 - 69.70° T, =5.3982-38.16° A Application of KVL yields the input voltage. A=7( )+ E =5.3982Z ~38.16°(7.433270.35°) + 2432.38120.50° F, =2466.6120.99° V V, = 2466.61 V (c) With 7; and 7, known, the input power factor is PE,, = c0s( ZV; — ZI;) = cos(0.99° + 38.16°) = 0.775 lagging Types of Losses in a Transformer: There are various types of losses in the transformer such as iron losses, copper losses, hysteresis losses, eddy current losses, stray loss, and dielectrie losses, The hysteresis losses occur because of the variation of the magnetization in the core of the transformer and the copper loss occur because of the transformer winding resistance. Tron Losses Iron losses are caused by the alternating flux in the core of the transformer as this loss occurs in the core itis also known as Core loss. Iron loss is further divided into hysteresis and eddy current loss. Hysteresis Loss. The core of the transformer is subjected to an alternating magnetising force, and for each cycle of emf, a hysteresis loop is traced out. Power is dissipated in the form of heat known as hysteresis loss and given by the equation shown belowB, = KNBLS.fV watts Where K1] is a proportionality constant which depends upon the volume and quality of the material of the core used in the transformer. Cis the supply frequency Bmax is the maximum or peak value of the flux density The iron or core losses can be minimised by using silicon steel material for the construction of the core of the transformer. Eddy Current Loss When the flux links with a closed circuit, an emf is induced in the circuit and the current flows, the value of the current depends upon the amount of emf around the circuit and the resistance of the circuit. Since the core is made of conducting material, these EMFs circulates currents within the body of the material. These circulating currents are called Eddy Currents, They will occur when the conductor experiences a changing magnetic field. As these currents are not responsible for doing any useful work, and it produces a loss (I°R loss) in the magnetic material known as an Eddy Current Loss. The eddy current loss is minimised by making the core with thin laminations, The equation of the eddy current loss is given as =K.B2RCeV watts Where, K.— co-efficient of eddy current. Its value depends upon the nature of magnetic material like volume and resistivity of core material, thickness of laminations By — maximum value of flux density in wb/m? T— thickness of lamination in meters F — frequency of reversal of magnetic V-— volume of magnetic material in m’ Id in Hz, Copper Lass Or Ohmic Loss: These losses occur due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. If I1and Ip are the primary and the secondary current. Ri and Ry are the resistance of primary and secondary ‘winding then the copper losses occurring in the primary and secondary winding will be T1"Ri and 1;'R: respectively.Therefore, the total copper losses will be Po = 17Ri + Re These losses varied according to the load and known hence it is also known as variable losses. Copper losses vary as the square of the load current. Stray Loss: The occurrence of these stray losses is due to the presence of leakage field. The percentage of these losses are very small as compared to the iron and copper losses so they can be neglected, Dielectric Loss Dielectric loss occurs in the insulating material of the transformer that is in the oil of the transformer, or in the solid insulations. When the oil gets deteriorated or the solid insulation get damaged, or its quality decreases, and because of this, he efficiency of transformer is effected ‘What is Voltage Regulation ? The voltage regulation is the percentage of voltage difference between no load and full load voltages of a transformer with respect to its full load voltage. Explanation of Voltage Regulation of Transformer Say an electrical power transformer is open circuited, means load is not connected with secondary terminals. In this situation, the secondary terminal voltage of the transformer will be its secondary induced emf Ez, Whenever full load is connected to the secondary terminals of the transformer, rated current J, flows through the secondary circuit and voltage drop comes into picture. At this situation, primary winding will also draw equivalent full load current from source. The voltage drop in the secondary is 1:22 where Z2 is the secondary impedance of transformer. Now iff at this loading condition, any one measures the voltage between secondary terminals, he ot she will get voltage V2 across load terminals which is obviously less than no load secondary voltage E, and this is because of 12Z2 voltage drop in the transformer. Expression of Vollage Regulation of Transformer, represented in percentage, is x 100% Voltage regulation(%) = Ve 1. A. 6KVA, 100 V/500 V, single-phase transformer has a secondary terminal voltage of 487.5 V when loaded. Determine the regulation of the transformer. noloadsecondary voltage terminal voltageon! _oad noloadsec ondary voltage = STS 100% = 25 100% =2.5% 500 500 2. A transformer has an open circuit voltage of 110 volts. A tap-changing device operates when the regulation falls below 3%. Calculate the load voltage at which the tap-changer operates. Regulation = x 100%noload secondary voltage _terminal voltageon!__ oad Regulation = x 100% no load sec ondary voltage Hence, 3= HEM, 100% 110 fromwhich, 221 110, 3110) , and Y,=110-= 7 = 106.7 V = voltage at which the tap-changer operates. Efficiency Of Transformer Just like any other electrical machine, efficiency of a transformer can be defined as the output power divided by the input power. That is efficiency = output / input Transformers are the most highly efficient electrical devices. Most of the transformers have full load efficiency between 95% to 98,5% . As a transformer being highly efficient, output and input are having nearly same value, and hence it is impractical to measure the efficiency of transformer by using output / input. A better method to find efficiency of a transformer is using, efficiency (input - losses) / input = 1 - (losses / input) Condition For Maximum Efficiency Let, Copper loss = 112R1 Iron loss = Wilosses efficiency = 1 - inpu differentiating above equation with respect to I, dq R, W, dl, V,cos@, VI 7cos®, dn 7 will be maximum at oa 1 Hence efficiency 1 will be maximum at R, Ww, Vicos®, V1 20030, 12R, w, ViI7cos®, VI 7cos, 12R, = W, Hence, efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper loss and iron losses are equal. That is Copper loss = Iron loss. Problems: 1. A single-phase transformer has a voltage ratio of 6:1 and the h.v. winding is supplied at 540 V. The secondary winding provides a full load current of 30 A at a power factor of 0.8 lagging Neglecting losses, find (a) the rating of the transformer, (b) the power supplied to the load, (c) the primary current, and V,=540V hence, V, 38 -s0v and I, =30A (a) Rating of transformer = V,1, =90x30 =2700 VA or 2.7kVA (b) Power supplied to load = V I cos $ = (2700)(0.8) since power factor = cos = 0.8 = 2.16 kW (1 from which, pri ts I, .( 30) =]=5 om which, primary curren vt (4) \ 2, A single-phase transformer is rated at 40 KVA. The transformer has full-load copper losses of 800 W and iron losses of $00 W. Determine the transformer efficiency at full load and 0.8power factor. output power _ input power —losses input power input power input power Full-load output power = V I cos $ = (40)(0.8) = 32 kW Total losses = 800 + 500 = 1.3 kW Input power = output power + loss 13, Efficiency = =32+13=33.3kW Hence, efficieney, 1, =0,961 or 96.10% 333 3. Determine the efficiency of the transformer in problem 2 at half full-load and 0.8 power factor. Half full load power output = F(40)(0 8) = 16kW Copper loss (or F'R loss) is proportional to current squared es Hence, copper loss at half full lad = 5) (800) =200 w 2, Iron loss == 500 W (constant) Total loss = 200 + 500= 700 W or 0.7 kW Input power at half full load = output power at half full load + losses = 16 + 0.7 = 16.7 kW losses 07 inputpower 16.7 4, A 100 kVA, 2000 V/400 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer has an iron loss of 600 W and a full load copper loss of 1600 W. Calculate its efficiency for a load of 60 kW at 0.8 power factor. Hence, efficiency, =0.9581 or 95.81% output power _ input power —losses losses Efficiency = —losses_ input power input power input power Full-load output power = V I cos = (100)(0.8) = 80 kW Load power = 60 kW full load 60 Hence the transformer is at 3 4 5 (3y Hence, copper lss at 3/4 load = | 2 (1600) = 900 W Total losses ~ 900 + 600~ 1.5 kW Input power ~ output power + losses ~ 60+ 1.5 ~61.5 kW 45. <9.9756 or 97.56% 615 Hence, efficiency, All Day Efficiency Of Transformer: ‘As we have seen above, ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer can be given as output (in watts) ordinary efficiency input (in watts) But in some types of transformers, their performance can not be judged by this efficiency. For example, distribution transformers have their primaries energized all the time, But, their secondaries supply little load all no-load most of the time during day. That is, when secondaries of transformer are not supplying any load (or supplying only littleload), then only core losses of transformer are considerable and copper losses are absent (or very little), Copper losses are considerable only when transformers are loaded. Thus, for such transformers copper losses are relatively less important. The performance of such transformers is compared on the basis of energy consumed in one day. output (in kWh) input (in kWh) Allday efficiency of a transformer is always less than ordinary efficiency of it, All day efficiency = (for 24 hours) AUTO - TRANSFORMER: An Auto-transformer (sometimes called auto-step down transformer)! is an electrical transformer with only one winding. The "auto" prefix refers to the single coil acting alone and not to any kind of automatic mechanism, In an autotransformer, portions of the same winding act as both the primary and secondary sides of the transformer. In contrast, an ordinary ‘transformer has separate primary and secondary windings which are not electrically comected, Primary side Secondary side ‘The winding has at least three taps where clectrical connections are made. Since part of the winding does "double duty", autotransformers have the advantages of often being smaller, lighter, and cheaper than typical dual-winding transformers, but the disadvantage of not providing electrical isolation between primary and secondary circuits. Other advantages of autotransformers include lower leakage reactance, lower losses, lower excitation current, and increased VA rating for a given size and mass, The primary voltage is applied across two of the terminals, and the secondary voltage taken from two terminals, almost always having one terminal in common with the primary voltage. The primary and secondary circuits therefore have a number of windings tums common, Since the volts-per-turn is the same in both windings, each develops a voltage in proportion to its number of tums. In an autotransformer part of the current flows directly from the input to the output, and only part is transferred inductively, allowing a smaller, lighter, cheaper core to be used as well as requiring only a single winding, Now we will discuss the savings of copper in auto transformer compared to conventional ‘two winding transformer, We know that weight of copper of any winding depends upon its length and cross-sectional area. Again length of conductor in winding is proportional to its number of turns and cross-sectional area varies with rated current. So weight of copper in