ASSIGNMENT No.

01
Research Methods in Mass Communication (Part–I) (5629) MSC Mass Communication

Spring, 2022
Q.1 Explain steps involved in scientific method of Research Process?(20)

The scientific method is the system used by scientists to explore data, generate and test hypotheses,
develop new theories and confirm or reject earlier results. Although the exact methods used in the
different sciences vary (for example, physicists and psychologists work in very different ways), they
share some fundamental attributes that may be called characteristics of the scientific method. The
scientific method is the process through which a scientific hypothesis is proposed, tested and then
analyzed. Introduced to most people in elementary school, having children apply the six steps of the
scientific method to a project of their own choosing is a great way to have them think about their
results in a logical manner.

Questions

The first step of the scientific method is to propose a question. This can be as open-ended as "What
killed the dinosaurs?" or as specific as "Why does an egg float in saltwater?" Keep in mind that the
more specific the question is, the easier it will be to setup an experiment, but open-ended questions
allow for more discovery through the experimentation.

Researching

Once you have a question in mind, you will want to research all about the question, partly to find out
everything that has been discovered regarding your question and partly to see if any similar
experiments have been performed. The Internet makes it easier than ever to research and find
information regarding your question.

Hypothesizing

The next step in the scientific method is to propose a hypothesis. A hypothesis is merely an informed
guess as to what the answer to the question is based on all of your research. It can be as specific as
you want. For example, if you chose to ask "Why does an egg float in saltwater?," based on your
research, you could hypothesize that, for some reason, the salt is what makes the egg float.

Experimenting

The experiment should be designed to determine whether or not your hypothesis is correct. You can
setup the experiment however you want, but keep in mind that it should lead you to an answer
regarding your question. If you are continuing with the "egg" hypothesis, you could place an egg in
both saltwater and freshwater. Additionally, you could add a step to see if other objects float in
saltwater.

Analyzing

The analysis is the easiest part of the scientific method. Once you have completed the experiment, you
simply write down what the results of the experiment were. It is important that you be as precise and
specific as possible when recording the results.

Conclusions:

Finally, you will determine whether your hypothesis was correct and if your question was answered
based on the analysis of the results of your experiment. Additionally, you can determine whether or
not the experiment was helpful and whether more testing is necessary.

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Empirical

The scientific method is empirical. That is, it relies on direct observation of the world, and disdains
hypotheses that run counter to observable fact. This contrasts with methods that rely on pure reason
(including that proposed by Plato) and with methods that rely on emotional or other subjective factors.

Replicable

Scientific experiments are replicable. That is, if another person duplicates the experiment, he or she
will get the same results. Scientists are supposed to publish enough of their method so that another
person, with appropriate training, could replicate the results. This contrasts with methods that rely on
experiences that are unique to a particular individual or a small group of individuals.

Provisional

Results obtained through the scientific method are provisional; they are (or ought to be) open to
question and debate. If new data arise that contradict a theory, that theory must be modified. For
example, the phlogiston theory of fire and combustion was rejected when evidence against it arose.

Why is inquiry important for teaching and learning science?

Inquiry allows students to learn and experience science firsthand, by taking on the roles of scientists.
Like scientists, students use the inquiry process to develop explanations from their observations
(evidence) by integrating what they already know with what they have learned. They learn discrete
science concepts and skills, and how to solve problems using practical approaches the goal of science
education. Incorporating inquiry into science classrooms empowers students. They play an active role
in their learning rather than the passive role commonly seen in traditional science classrooms. This
self-empowerment positively affects students’ perceptions about science. According to the Institute for
Inquiry, students doing inquiry-based science.

Objective

The scientific method is objective. It relies on facts and on the world as it is, rather than on beliefs,
wishes or desires. Scientists attempt (with varying degrees of success) to remove their biases when
making observations.

Systematic

Strictly speaking, the scientific method is systematic; that is, it relies on carefully planned studies
rather than on random or haphazard observation. Nevertheless, science can begin from some random
observation. Isaac Asimov said that the most exciting phrase to hear in science is not "Eureka!" but
"That's funny." After the scientist notices something funny, he or she proceeds to investigate it
systematically.

Inquiry transition:

Teachers and classrooms new to inquiry often begin with structured inquiry activities and transition to
more open inquiry activities. Moving gradually from structured classrooms to open-inquiry classroom
environments is often less overwhelming. Radical changes can be frustrating and upsetting to some
students, particularly because inquiry-based classrooms are typically more student centered. Students
in inquiry-based settings are more actively involved in their discovery and subsequently more
responsible for their learning. Teachers using inquiry-based instruction play more of a “facilitator of
learning” role than teachers in traditional settings. Teachers and students may need practice to get
comfortable with learning experiences that require less guidance and fewer teacher interventions.

What are some considerations for implementing inquiry in science?

Teachers can foster better experiences with inquiry in various ways and ultimately positively affect
students’ science process skills and understanding of science. Whether the inquiry activity is
structured, guided, or open, these suggestions can help alleviate students’ fears about doing inquiry
and build their science process skills, as well as help them learn science concepts.
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Q.2 What are the criteria of selecting a good research topic? Illustrate the criteria by giving
your own example. (20)

Write Research Paper in Parts

Writing Research Essays is easier if you break the paper up into parts. That is what I do in these
instructions. You could adapt these instructions to other topics. use the book Perspectives on Argument
by Nancy Wood. If you are allowed to choose any topic, you might want to consider following this
outline which breaks up the paper into manageable sections and generally leads to an excellent paper
with interesting conclusions.

Non-Profit Research Paper Overview

Writing a research paper about a non-profit organization allows you the chance to incorporate a variety
of evidence and perspectives. You will also do a variety of types of writing in the paper. Ultimately,
your paper will be an evaluation of this non-profit, attempting to decide whether they fulfill the mission
they have set out for themselves, and whether they effectively serve their clients. Here is a basic
description of the smaller parts of the paper:

 Description: Introduce the issue and describe the problem like an Explaining Paper.
 Exploratory: Explore the different positions on the problem. You will explore different views on
one or more of the following: What is the problem? What causes the problem? What are the
different solutions which have been suggested or tried?
 Profile: Profile one non-profit Organization which attempts to solve the problem (use your
survey of the Organization as the basis of this). This part of the paper is like a Summary of
Organization's website, as well as other information you may have found from other sources.
 Evaluation: Establish criteria for analyzing the effectiveness of this Organization, and then
evaluate how effective this organization is at solving the problem.
 Conclude with your personal response or plea to the audience (you will imagine an audience
that is interested in either volunteering or giving money to this non-profit). This is like the
Response in a Summary Response Paper.

Introduction of Research Paper

Describing the issue and problem: Your introduction should describe the issue and the problem,
perhaps ending with a question or thesis statement (although in some cases the thesis/claim may not
be fully stated until the conclusion).You can mention your organization in this introduction and/or use
information from your organization to help you introduce the issue.If you want to address a specific
audience, be sure to make your introduction appeal to that audience. Of course, you can use the
typical introductory techniques like: statistics, stories, anecdotes, quotes, vivid descriptions, startling
facts, or personal testimony.

Research Essay Introduction and Conclusion Ideas

Introduction Conclusion

start of real story end of story

made up story about problem conclude with solution

vivid picture of problem vivid picture of solution
statistics about problem how solution will solve

interesting quote or conversation conclude conversation an do plea to reader

Your personal story What you want to do now

Next, you will explain one group which has tried to solve this problem, this is the non-profit charity.
Your profile of this organization will be like a definition or explaining essay. Generally, you can use

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evidence from the organization's website for this section. If you are able to do a site visit and interview
an employee that is also an excellent way to get evidence for this section

Transition to this section by indicating how your particular organization fits into the rhetorical
positions you described above.

Format: How you organize this section will depend on what you find most interesting about your
organization. You want to make this a vivid description for the reader so that they will feel like they
have a good grasp on why this organization exists and what it does.

Content: Each of the following questions could be a paragraph you would include, but you do not have
to do them in this order or cover all of the questions:

1. What is the history of this organization? Who started it? When, where, how and why?
2. Does it have ties to a national organization? Are there any unique local aspects?
3. What is the philosophy of this organization?
4. What are their claims about the facts of this problem?
5. The causes? The best policy to create positive change?
6. What does this group want to do?
7. What are their goals?
8. How to they seek to reach those goals?
9. What programs to they offer?
10. Whom do they serve? What are the clients like? Is there a typical client? Does this organization
limit the scope of the clients they serve or is it open to anyone?
11. Who supports and/or volunteers? What draws them to this organization?
12. How is the organization funded?
13. Has this organization changed over time? How has it changed? What sorts of changes would
they like to do in the future?
14. How do they measure success of program? Are there specific examples of change this
organization has accomplished? Any failures?
15. Do not do your own evaluation at this time—that is the next section-- but you can discuss how
the organization self-evaluates. If you include a paragraph about this, it will be a nice transition
to the next section.

Criteria Evaluation Method: use the list of criteria to organize this section, using one criterion per
paragraph and then telling how well the organization meets those criteria. In evaluating how well it
meets that objective, you can discuss the different views of the four perspectives above. (Examples of
criteria for evaluating a food pantry: Does it have broad support in the community? How many clients
does it serve? Do clients seem to like and use the food given? What is the percentage of overhead
costs vs. the amount given to the poor? Are there clear instances where the food made a difference in
people’s lives?)

Four Perspective Evaluation Method: Each paragraph would talk about the evaluation of a different
group: the organization leaders, the clients, the volunteers/community and you. Probably you would
put your opinion last. In this organization technique, you would want to point out what criteria each
group uses to evaluate and note any differences.(For example: at a food pantry, the organization
leaders might say they are successful because they serve a lot of clients. The clients may say they are
unsuccessful because their criterion is the type of food they get and they don’t like what is provided.
The volunteers might say that the food pantry is successful at providing food and that the clients are
ungrateful. You might observe that allowing clients to choose their own food would make a more
successful food pantry.)

Compare and Contrast Evaluation Method: To do this method, you will need to have at least one
other organization which tries to solve the same problem but by another method (or perhaps they do
the same thing but more or less effectively).

 Your claim statement would be:” Organization X is more/less effective at solving the
problem of Y than organization M.”(You might want to add “because.....” if you can think of
a specific reason why one is better).
 You will then list how this organization is more/less effective and why.

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  It may be that the evaluation will be mixed. One organization is better at some things and
the other organization is better at other things.
 The ways that you compare them are the criteria in this organization method. You will
devote one paragraph to each criteria describe how your organization compares to the
other(s) in meeting that criteria and also evaluate why you think one organization does
better.

Conclusion of Research Paper

Your conclusion should be one or more of the following:

1. Personal Response. Your own response to this issue and the work of this organization
(especially if this has caused you to want to work in this area in the future).You can talk about
what you learned, how you felt, and what you personally want to do about this issue.
2. Plea to Reader. A plea to the reader to care about this issue and perhaps join in the work of
this organization.
3. Suggestion for Organization. A suggestion for how this organization (or other organizations)
could better solve the problem.
4. Vivid Story. If you have one particular story you want to tell, which could be of your own visit
to this organization or something you learn in an interview, you can use it as a frame story—
part of it at the beginning and the final part in the conclusion.

Q.3 What is problem statement in research? Explain the significance of problem statement
for any research study and elaborate the techniques of stating research problem. (20)

The first step in the research process is to choose a problem to investigate. The researcher begins with
a general topic and then narrows it to a specific problem statement, which is a detailed description of
the problem and its importance. Almost every college student needs to write research papers for all
types of classes. These papers may include a problem statement, sometimes referred to as a thesis,
which will determine the framework for the report. Nursing students, for instance, often critique
research paper problem statements to assess the validity and relevancy of the paper. Ask several basic
questions to help you critique the problem statement accurately.

Features

A problem statement describes the research problem and identifies potential causes or solutions. A
problem statement also conveys the reason the problem is important and who is affected by the
problem.

Types

There are two general types of problem statements: quantitative and qualitative. The problem
statement in a quantitative research study names the variables and population to be studied, and asks
a question about the relationship between the variables. A qualitative study, on the other hand, also
begins with a problem statement, but it is stated much more broadly than in a quantitative study. In
other words, it states the general purpose of the study, but the focus may change as the study
progresses.

Characteristics

According to "Introduction to Research in Education," a good research problem has five basic
characteristics. The problem must be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of research;
the problem must be one that will lead to more research; it must be possible to investigate the
problem through the collection of data; the problem must be interesting to the researcher and suit his
skills, time and resources and the problem is ethical and will not harm others. A Research Problem is
not the same as a business problem, ie it is not a “problem” in the normal sense of the word; it is
research jargon that happens to be a bit confusing. You can think of your Research Problem as the
unknown part of your business problem.

Basic objectives and techniques

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A persuasive problem statement consists of three parts: 1) the ideal, 2) the reality, and 3) the
consequences for the reader of the feasibility report. Well constructed problem statements will
convince your audience that the problem is real and worth having you investigate. Your strategy is
one of contrast: by situating the the ideal scenario next to the situation as it exists, you can not only
persuade the reader that a problem exists, but then go on to emphasize the consequences of ignoring
or addressing the problem.

Remember, your problem statement is the backbone of the proposal and the feasibility report. By
giving careful consideration to how you construct it now (for the proposal), you can use it when doing
your research and writing for the proposal as well as the progress and the feasibility report.

Specific kind of written

‘’
In various situations, you may be asked to come up with the specific kind of written item that is known
as a problem statement. Whether you encounter this as a student, or as someone involved in planning
or other scenarios, take some time to understand what it means to craft one of these specific
documents. A problem statement is essentially a clear description of an issue that faces a group or
individual. In academic situations, a problem statement can be used for accommodating research
purposes, or for general learning, for example, in setting up a mathematical problem or other
educational puzzle. In planning, it generally helps to make existing problems more concrete in helping
to develop potential solutions.

A construct is deliberately and consciously invented or adopted for a special scientific purpose.
"Intelligence" is constructing based on observation of presumably intelligent and less intelligent
behaviors or having a value of more or less. Constructs are used in theoretical schemes and is related
in various ways to other constructs. e.g. school achievement is in part a function of intelligence.
Intelligence is so defined and specified that it can be observed and measured. e.g. administering
intelligence tests, interview teachers about their students.

Independent and Dependent Variables

An independent variable (IV) is the variable that is presumed cause a change in the dependent variable
(DV). The independent variables is the antecedent while the dependent variable is the consequent. See
Figure 3 which describes a study to determine which teaching method (independent variable) is
effective in enhancing the academic performance (dependent variable) of students.

The independent variable

(teaching method) can be manipulated ‘Manipulated’ means the variable can maneuvered, and in this
case it is divided into ‘discussion method and ‘lecture method’. Other examples of independent
variables are gender (male-female), race (Malay, Chinese, Indian), socioeconomic status (high, middle,
low). Other names for the independent variable are treatment, factor and predictor variable.

The dependent variable in this study is academic performance which cannot be manipulated by the
researcher. Academic performance is a score and other examples of dependent variables IQ (score
from IQ tests), attitude (score on an attitude scale), self-esteem (score from a self-esteem test) and
so forth. Other names for the dependent variable are outcome variable, results variable and criterion
variable.

Research problems

Research problems are questions that indicate gaps in the scope or the certainty of our knowledge.
They point either to problematic phenomena, observed events that are puzzling in terms of our
currently accepted ideas, or to problematic theories, current ideas that are challenged by new
hypotheses. This chapter first looks at the role of such questions in the research process, and
especially the ongoing debate among social scientists as to when and how problems should be
formulated. Second, we consider methodology’s effect on defining problems, and how the multimethod
approach can be used to focus research more sharply upon the substance of research problems.
Finally, we consider the role of theory in problem formulation, and how the multimethod approach
integrates theory and research more closely in posing these research questions

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Q.4 What is a variable in research? How a variable is different from concept and construct?
Discuss the various kinds of variables. (20)

A variable is an observable characteristic of an object or event that can be described according to some
well-defined classification or measurement scheme.

Examples of variables

Examples of variables studied in the behavioral or social science research include: gender, income,
education, social class, organizational productivity, task orientation, recall memory, recognition
memory, and achievement (Kerlinger & Lee, 2001).

Types of Variables

Independent and Dependent Variables

Independent Variables

An independent variable is a phenomena that is manipulated by a researcher and is predicted to have

an effect on other phenomena (Williams & Monge, 2001).

An example of an independent variable would be a teaching method, a medical treatment, or training

regimen.

Dependent Variables

A dependent variable is a phenomenon that affected by the researcher's manipulation of another

phenomena.

For instance, achievement is the effect of a teaching method, cure or not the effect of a medical
treatment, and higher skill level or not (achievement) the effect of a training regimen.

Another integrated example, suppose a educational researcher wants to know how a certain teaching
style affects learning in the classroom and will measure the difference by giving students a pre-test
before the teaching style is applied and then retesting those same students afterwards. The
independent variable would be the new teaching method (the cause) and the dependent variable would
be the resulting test scores or the outcome or effect).

Active and Attribute Variables

Kerlinger and Lee make another distinction in variables between active and attribute.

Active Variable

An active variable is a variable that can be manipulated. Active variables are also called experimental
variables. Examples of this type of variable are teaching methods, training regimens, and the like
which can be altered to gauge there affect on a phenomena.

Attribute Variable

An attribute variable is a variable that cannot be manipulated. An example of an attribute variable is

gender, race, psychological condition, and or any characteristic that is inherent or pre-programmed
and cannot be altered.

Business research deals with physical objects as well as ideas. “How sound is an idea” is parallel to
assessing “how well you like a song, a painting or personality of your boss”. While physical objects are
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measured directly, ideas or concepts are measured with the help of an operational definition.
Obviously, salesmanship cannot be measured directly but it is easy to set a benchmark for a good
salesman as one having sold 200 cars per year without any complaint.

Four scales are used to measure any object or to quantify any concept or idea or properties. These are
discussed as follows:

NOMINAL SCALE

It is just a label having no intrinsic value or quality. It cannot be used in grading or ranking, There are
no overlaps and nominal scale are mutually exclusive. One can be either Muslim or non-Muslim, not
both at the same time as it requires an item to be placed in one and only one class. It is used for
counting or cross-tabulation.

Hair could be black or grey, blood can be A,B,O or AB. In cricket, there is left arm or right arm
spinners.

It is used for obtaining personal data and is usally exhaustive to include all categories or segmentation.

ORDINAL

It used for ranking, rating or grading. It can show best to worst status or first to last preference. But
distance between two ordinal scales is not the same. income level of poor, middle and rich class are
like less than Rs.10,000, between Rs.11,000 to Rs.50,000 and 51,000 and above. The distances are
10,000, 39,000 and infinitve respectively.

It is evident that ordinal scale can rank some items in an order like less than or more but not “how
much more”

INTERVAL

It is more powerful than nominal and ordinal as it not only orders or ranks or rates but also shows
exact distances in between. But it does not start from zero. If there is zero like zero temperature it is
not natural but arbitrary as 0 degree does not mean no temperature. Likewise, year 0 in a forecast is
the end of construction year.

This scale is used in addition or substraction of scale value to calculate mean, range, variance,
standard deviation, correlation and regression.

Difference between interval and ordinal scale:

Ordinal scale only ranks but does not measure difference between the two ranks like “satisfactory” and
“not-satisfactory”. Interval scale not only ranks but also give exact distance between them by
assigning a value. Difference in temperature of 20 degree and 40 degree is 20 but 40 is not double hot
than 20.

RATIO SCALE

This scale can perform all functions. It can show all mathematical and geographical indicators. It is
useful when exact figures are required in objective matters are required.

If a person is drawing a salary of Rs.20,000 and another Rs.40,000, it can be said that the latter is
getting double the salary of the former.

FOUR SCALES COMPARED

NOMINAL ORGINAL INTERVEL RATIO

Classification but no Classification but order but Classificatiion, ordered and Classification, order,
order, distance or no distance or unique distance but no unique origin distance and unique

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 NOMINAL ORGINAL INTERVEL RATIO
origin origion origin
Determinition of Determinination of greater Determination of equlity of Determination of
equality or lesser value intervals or differences equality of ratios
Only Label Ranks, Rating and Grade equal grouping Weight, hieght
Doneness of meat, (well,
Gener (male, female) medium well, medium rare, temperature in degrees Age in years
rare)
Addition/substraction but no
Counting Frequency Distribution All functions
multiplication or division
Can say no
Black & While AAA, BBB, CCC personality measure measurable value like
zero sales
Mean, range, variance,
Religion Levels, one-star & 4-star Annual Income
standard deviation

Conceptualization and operationalization of variables

Conceptualization

in research, when we speak of variables, we need to be careful about what we mean. We can’t use our
words casually as we often do in conversation. Concepts can be defined in different ways by different
people. If we aren’t careful in specifying exactly how we are defining something, we may end up
thinking we are talking about the same thing when in reality we’re talking about different things.

When we refer to a particular variable, whatever that variable might be, we need to spend time
defining it very precisely so everyone will know exactly what we mean.

Conceptualization is the process by which researchers define what they are attempting to study as
precisely as possible.

Say our research question is a descriptive one: are religious people less likely to commit crime?
Before pursuing this question, we need to define what we mean by religious. What does it mean that a
person is religious rather than non-religious? The answer isn’t obvious, but we need to settle on a
definition in order to move forward. Sometimes our definition of a concept is influenced by
considerations of how we might measure it. Considerations of measurement are referred to as
operationalization.

Operationalization

In the process of defining a term, we also need to think about how we’re going to measure the
concept. Operationalization refers to the process of figuring out how to measure the concepts that
interest us. When we operationalize something, we figure out how we are going to measure it. Many
of the most common concepts are not tangible. We cannot really point to them directly. Instead, we
have to find a way to measure them, often indirectly.

Consider again the concept of religiosity. This is not something we can directly observe. We can’t look
in someone’s brain and see how much time they spend thinking about God. We can’t tell for sure how
much considerations of the supernatural govern the decisions they make in life. Instead, we can only
make indirect measurements of religiosity. For example, we can infer that someone is religious when
they report attending religious services every week. In addition, we might infer that someone is
religious if they pray on a daily basis or report to us that religion is very important in their lives.

Consider again the concept of religiosity. This is not something we can observe directly. We can’t look
in someone’s brain and see how much time they spend thinking about God. We can’t tell for sure how
much considerations of the supernatural govern the decisions they make in life. Instead, we can only
make indirect measurements of religiosity. For example, we can infer that someone is religious when
they report attending religious services every week. In addition, we might infer that someone is
religious if they pray on a daily basis or report to us that religion is very important in their lives.

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The diagram below illustrates what I’m talking about. The concept I’m trying to measure – religiosity –
is enclosed in a circle. We can’t measure what’s in the circle directly. What we can observe – through
survey questions – is enclosed in the squares. Through surveys, we can query how often people
attend religious services, how often they pray, and whether they tell us that religion is important to
them. People’s answers to these questions can then be used to help define whether someone is
religious or not.

Q.5 Highlight the differences between the various levels of measurement. (20)

What is Measurement?

Normally, when one hears the term measurement, they may think in terms of measuring the length of
something (e.g., the length of a piece of wood) or measuring a quantity of something (ie. a cup of
flour).This represents a limited use of the term measurement. In statistics, the term measurement is
used more broadly and is more appropriately termed scales of measurement. Scales of measurement
refer to ways in which variables/numbers are defined and categorized. Each scale of measurement has
certain property which in turn determines the appropriateness for use of certain statistical analyses.
The four scales of measurement are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

Nominal:

Categorical data and numbers that are simply used as identifiers or names represent a nominal scale of
measurement. Numbers on the back of a baseball jersey and your social security number are examples
of nominal data. If we conduct a study and I'm including gender as a variable, may code Female as 1
and Male as 2 or visa versa when we enter my data into the computer. Thus, we are using the
numbers 1 and 2 to represent categories of data.

Ordinal:

An ordinal scale of measurement represents an ordered series of relationships or rank order.

Individuals competing in a contest may be fortunate to achieve first, second, or third place. first,
second, and third place represent ordinal data. If Roscoe takes first and Wilbur takes second, we do
not know if the competition was close; we only know that Roscoe outperformed Wilbur. Likert type
scales (such as "On a scale of 1 to 10, with one being no pain and ten being high pain, how much pain
are you in today?") also represent ordinal data. Fundamentally, these scales do not represent a
measurable quantity. An individual may respond 8 to this question and be in less pain than someone
else who responded 5. A person may not be in exactly half as much pain if they responded 4 than if
they responded 8. All we know from this data is that an individual who responds 6 is in less pain than if
they responded 8 and in more pain than if they responded 4. Therefore, Likert-type scales only
represent a rank ordering.

Interval:

A scale that represents quantity and has equal units but for which zero represents simply an additional
point of measurement is an interval scale. The Fahrenheit scale is a clear example of the interval scale
of measurement. Thus, 60 degree Fahrenheit or -10 degrees Fahrenheit represent interval data.
Measurement of Sea Level is another example of an interval scale. With each of these scales there are
direct, measurable quantities with equality of units. In addition, zero does not represent the absolute
lowest value. Rather, it is point on the scale with numbers both above and below it (for example, -
10degrees Fahrenheit).

Ratio:

The ratio scale of measurement is similar to the interval scale in that it also represents quantity and
has equality of units. However, this scale also has an absolute zero (no numbers exist below zero).
Very often, physical measures will represent ratio data (for example, height and weight). If one is
measuring the length of a piece of wood in centimeters, there is quantity, equal units, and that
measure cannot go below zero centimeters. A negative length is not possible.

Various levels of measurement:

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When data are prepared for analysis by computer, values of variables are usually entered as numbers.
Sometimes such coding is natural for example, the population of a country or the number of votes
received by a candidate. Sometimes, artificial numerical codes are created for convenience of
processing. In a file containing data on members of the U.S. Congress, for example, Democrats might
be coded numerically as 1, Republicans as 2, and independents as 3. Numerical, however, is not the
same thing as quantitative. In fact, whether data are coded numerically or not, there are different
levels of measurement.

Nominal Data:

The values of a nominal variable do not indicate the amount of the thing being measured, nor are they
in any particular order. If coded numerically, the numbers chosen are arbitrary. For example, if we
list the regions of the United States as Northeast, South, Midwest, and West, we are not indicating the
amount of "regionness" each possesses, nor listing them in order of "regionness." We may code the
regions as "1," "2," "3," and "4" respectively, but this is done merely for convenience and in no way
quantifies what we are doing. Each value, numerical or otherwise, is merely a label or name (hence
the term "nominal").

Ordinal Data

Sometimes the values of a variable are listed in order. (Alternatively, we say that the values are
"ranked" or "rank ordered.") For example, the army orders (ranks) military personnel from general to
private. At a college or university, class standing of undergraduates (freshman to senior) is another
example of an ordinal variable. In both of these examples, the values of the variable in question
(military rank or class standing) are ranked from highest to lowest or vice versa. There are other kinds
of ordering. For example, respondents in a survey may be asked to identify their political philosophy
as "very liberal," "liberal," "moderate," "conservative," or "very conservative," creating a scale rank
ordered from most liberal to most conservative.

Interval Data:

Sometimes, in addition to being ordered, the differences (or intervals) between any two adjacent
values on a measurement scale are the same. For example, the difference in temperature between 80
degrees Fahrenheit and 81 degrees is the same as that between 90 degrees and 91 degrees. When
each interval represents the same increment of the thing being measured, the measure is called an
interval variable.

Ratio Data

Finally, in addition to having equal intervals, some measures also have an absolute zero point. That is,
zero represents the absence of the thing being measured. Height and weight are obvious examples.
Physicists sometimes use the Kelvin temperature scale, in which zero means the complete absence of
energy. The same is not true of the Fahrenheit or Celsius (Centigrade) scales. Zero degrees Celsius,
for example, represents the freezing point of water at sea level, but this does not mean that there is
no temperature at this point. The choice to put zero degrees at this point on the scale is arbitrary.
There is no particular reason why scientists could not have chosen instead the freezing point of beer in
Golden, Colorado (other than that water is a more common substance, at least for most successful
scientists). With an absolute zero point, you can calculate ratios (hence the name). For example, $20
is twice as much as $10, but 60 degrees Fahrenheit is not really twice as hot as 30 degrees. Ratio
data is fully quantitative: it tells us the amount of the variable being measured. The percentage of
votes received by a candidate, Gross Domestic Product per Capita, and felonies per 100,000 population
are all ratio variables.

Dichotomous Variables:

Dichotomous variables (those with only two values) are a special case, and may sometimes be treated
as nominal, ordinal, or interval. Take, for example, political party affiliation in a two-party legislature.
Party is, on its face, a pure example of a nominal variable, with the values of the variable being simply
the names of the parties (or arbitrary numbers used, for convenience, in place of the names). On the
other hand, we could treat party (and other dichotomous variables) as ordinal, since there are only two
possible ways for the values to be ordered, and it makes no difference which way is chosen. There is,
therefore, no way that they can be listed out of order.
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Why It Matters:

Level of measurement is important because the higher the level of measurement of a variable (note
that "level of measurement" is itself an ordinal measure) the more powerful are the statistical
techniques that can be used to analyze it. With nominal data, you can count the frequency with which
each value of a variable occurs. A voter's choice in the 2008 presidential race, for example, is a
nominal variable (with the values of the variable being "McCain, "Obama," “Nader," "Barr," "McKinney,"
etc.), and so you can count the number of votes received by each candidate. You can also calculate
the percentage of votes each candidate received. You can calculate joint frequencies and percentages
(how many and what percent of votes were cast by Midwestern Obama supporters, for example). You
can also use certain measures that tell you how strong the relationship is between region and vote,
and the likelihood that the relationship occurred by chance. On the other hand, there are other
operations you cannot legitimately perform with nominal data. Even if you use numbers to label
candidates (e.g., 1 = Obama, 2 = McCain, 3 = Nader, etc.), you cannot very well say that Obama plus
McCain equals Nader, or that Nader divided by McCain is half way between Obama and McCain.
Unfortunately, there are many statistical techniques that require higher levels of measurement.

If you use a technique that assumes a higher level of measurement than is appropriate for your data,
you risk getting a meaningless answer. On the other hand, if you use a technique that fails to take
advantage of a higher level of measurement, you may overlook important things about your data.
(Note: in addition to level of measurement, many statistical techniques also require other assumptions
about your data. For example, even if a variable is interval, some otherwise appropriate techniques
may yield misleading results if the variable includes some values that are extremely high or low
relative to the rest of the distribution.)

The distinctions between levels of measurement are not always hard and fast.

Sometimes it depends on the underlying concept being measured. This applies, for example, to the
question of whether to treat a dichotomous variable as nominal or ordinal. Do our values indicate two
distinct categories (e.g., male and female), or do we think of them as two points along a spectrum
(e.g., for or against capital punishment, since some people may favor or oppose capital punishment
more strongly than others) In designing research, there can be tradeoffs between having data that
are at a higher level of measurement and other considerations. Aggregate data (data about groups of
people) are generally interval or ratio, but usually provide only indirect measures of how people think
and act. Individual data get at these things more directly, but are usually only nominal or ordinal.
Official election returns, for example, can provide us with ratio level data about the distribution of
votes in each precinct. These data, however, tell us little about why individual people vote the way
they do. Survey research (public opinion polling), which provides data that are for the most part only
nominal or ordinal, allows us to explore such questions much more extensively and directly.

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