Global Positioning Systems Inertial Navigation and Integration Mohinder S. Grewal Download PDF
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MOHINDER S. GREWAL
California State University at Fullerton
LAWRENCE R. WEILL
California State University at Fullerton
ANGUS P. ANDREWS
Rockwell Science Center
Copyright # 2001 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form
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ISBN 0-471-20071-9.
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Contents
PREFACE ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii
ACRONYMS xv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 GPS and GLONASS Overview 2
1.2 Differential and Augmented GPS 5
1.3 Applications 7
GLOSSARY 370
REFERENCES 374
INDEX 383
Preface
This book is intended for people who will use Global Positioning Systems (GPS),
Inertial Navigation Systems (INS), and Kalman ®lters. Our objective is to give our
readers a working familiarity with both the theoretical and practical aspects of these
subjects. For that purpose we have included ``real-world'' problems from practice as
illustrative examples. We also cover the more practical aspects of implementation:
how to represent problems in a mathematical model, analyze performance as a
function of model parameters, implement the mechanization equations in numeri-
cally stable algorithms, assess its computational requirements, test the validity of
results, and monitor performance in operation with sensor data from GPS and INS.
These important attributes, often overlooked in theoretical treatments, are essential
for effective application of theory to real-world problems.
The accompanying diskette contains MATLAB2 m-®les to demonstrate the
workings of the Kalman ®lter algorithms with GPS and INS data sets, so that the
reader can better discover how the Kalman ®lter works by observing it in action with
GPS and INS. The implementation of GPS, INS, and Kalman ®ltering on computers
also illuminates some of the practical considerations of ®nite-wordlength arithmetic
and the need for alternative algorithms to preserve the accuracy of the results. If the
student wishes to apply what she or he learns, then it is essential that she or he
experience its workings and failingsÐand learn to recognize the difference.
The book is organized for use as a text for an introductory course in GPS
technology at the senior level or as a ®rst-year graduate level course in GPS, INS,
and Kalman ®ltering theory and application. It could also be used for self-instruction
or review by practicing engineers and scientists in these ®elds.
Chapter 1 informally introduces the general subject matter through its history of
development and application. Chapters 2±5 and 9 cover the basic theory of GPS and
ix
x PREFACE
connected by arrows indicate that the material represented by the upper boxes is
background material for the subject in the lower box.
MOHINDER S. GREWAL, Ph.D., P.E.
California State University at Fullerton
M.S.G dedicates this work to his wife, Sonja Grewal, in recognition of her active
support in the preparation of the manuscript and ®gures.
L.R.W. wishes to thank his mother, Christine R. Weill, who recently passed away,
for her love and encouragement in pursuing his chosen profession. He also is
indebted to the people of Magellan Systems Corporation, who so willingly shared
their knowledge of the Global Positioning System during the development of the
World's ®rst hand-held receiver for the consumer market.
A.P.A. dedicates his work to his wife, Geraldine Andrews, without whose support
and forbearance this could not have happened.
M.S.G also acknowledges the assistance of Mrs. Laura Cheung, graduate student
at California State University at Fullerton, for her expert assistance with the Matlab
programs, and Dr. Jya-Syin Wu and N. Pandya of the Raytheon Systems Company
for their assistance in reviewing the manuscript.
xiii
Acronyms
xv
xvi ACRONYMS
1
Introduction
These forms of navigation can be used in combination as well [16, 135]. The subject
of this book is a combination of the fourth and ®fth forms of navigation using
Kalman ®ltering.
Kalman ®ltering exploits a powerful synergism between the Global Positioning
System (GPS) and an inertial navigation system (INS). This synergism is possible, in
part, because the INS and GPS have very complementary error characteristics.
Short-term position errors from the INS are relatively small, but they degrade
without bound over time. GPS position errors, on the other hand, are not as good
over the short term, but they do not degrade with time. The Kalman ®lter is able to
take advantage of these characteristics to provide a common, integrated navigation
1
2 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 GPS
The GPS is part of a satellite-based navigation system developed by the U.S.
Department of Defense under its NAVSTAR satellite program [54, 56, 58±63, 96±
98].
1.1.1.1 GPS Orbits The fully operational GPS includes 24 or more (28 in
March 2000) active satellites approximately uniformly dispersed around six circular
orbits with four or more satellites each. The orbits are inclined at an angle of 55
relative to the equator and are separated from each other by multiples of 60 right
ascension. The orbits are nongeostationary and approximately circular, with radii of
26,560 km and orbital periods of one-half sidereal day (11:967 h). Theoretically,
three or more GPS satellites will always be visible from most points on the earth's
surface, and four or more GPS satellites can be used to determine an observer's
position anywhere on the earth's surface 24 h per day.
1.1.1.2 GPS Signals Each GPS satellite carries a cesium and=or rubidium
atomic clock to provide timing information for the signals transmitted by the
satellites. Internal clock correction is provided for each satellite clock. Each GPS
satellite transmits two spread spectrum, L-band carrier signalsÐan L1 signal with
carrier frequency fl 1575:42 MHz and an L2 signal with carrier frequency
f2 1227:6 MHz. These two frequencies are integral multiples f1 1540f0 and
f2 1200f0 of a base frequency f0 1:023 MHz. The L1 signal from each satellite
uses binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), modulated by two pseudorandom noise
(PRN) codes in phase quadrature, designated as the C=A-code and P-code. The L2
1.1 GPS AND GLONASS OVERVIEW 3
signal from each satellite is BPSK modulated by only the P-code. A brief description
of the nature of these PRN codes follows, with greater detail given in Chapter 3.
Compensating for Propagation Delays This is one motivation for use of two
different carrier signals L1 and L2 . Because delay varies approximately as the inverse
square of signal frequency f (delay / f 2 ), the measurable differential delay
between the two carrier frequencies can be used to compensate for the delay in
each carrier. (See [86] for details.)
Code Division Multiplexing Knowledge of the PRN codes allows users indepen-
dent access to multiple GPS satellite signals on the same carrier frequency. The
signal transmitted by a particular GPS signal can be selected by generating and
matching, or correlating, the PRN code for that particular satellite. All PRN codes
are known and are generated or stored in GPS satellite signal receivers carried by
ground observers. A ®rst PRN code for each GPS satellite, sometimes referred to as
a precision code or P-code, is a relatively long, ®ne-grained code having an
associated clock or chip rate of 10f0 10:23 MHz. A second PRN code for each
GPS satellite, sometimes referred to as a clear or coarse acquisition code or C=A-
code, is intended to facilitate rapid satellite signal acquisition and hand-over to the P-
code. It is a relatively short, coarser grained code having an associated clock or chip
rate f0 1:023 MHz. The C=A-code for any GPS satellite has a length of 1023 chips
or time increments before it repeats. The full P-code has a length of 259 days, during
which each satellite transmits a unique portion of the full P-code. The portion of P-
code used for a given GPS satellite has a length of precisely one week (7.000 days)
before this code portion repeats. Accepted methods for generating the C=A-code and
P-code were established by the satellite developer1 in 1991 [42, 66].
Navigation Signal The GPS satellite bit stream includes navigational information
on the ephemeris of the transmitting GPS satellite and an almanac for all GPS
satellites, with parameters providing approximate corrections for ionospheric signal
propagation delays suitable for single-frequency receivers and for an offset time
between satellite clock time and true GPS time. The navigational information is
transmitted at a rate of 50 baud. Further discussion of the GPS and techniques for
obtaining position information from satellite signals can be found in Chapter 3 and
in [84, pp. 1±90].
1
Satellite Systems Division of Rockwell International Corporation, now part of the Boeing Company.
4 INTRODUCTION
1.1.2 GLONASS
A second con®guration for global positioning is the Global Orbiting Navigation
Satellite System (GLONASS), placed in orbit by the former Soviet Union, and now
maintained by the Russian Republic [75, 80].
1.1.2.1 GLONASS Orbits GLONASS also uses 24 satellites, but these are
distributed approximately uniformly in three orbital plans (as opposed to four for
GPS) of eight satellites each (six for GPS). Each orbital plane has a nominal
inclination of 64.8 relative to the equator, and the three orbital planes are separated
from each other by multiples of 120 right ascension. GLONASS orbits have smaller
radii than GPS orbits, about 25,510 km, and a satellite period of revolution of
8
approximately 17 of a sidereal day. A GLONASS satellite and a GPS satellite will
complete 17 and 16 revolutions, respectively, around the earth every 8 days.
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