Unit-I: Introduction to IoT

 IoT is a network of interconnected computing devices which are embedded

in everyday objects, enabling them to send and receive data.
 IoT stands for Internet of Things. It refers to the interconnectedness of
physical devices, such as appliances and vehicles, that are embedded with
software, sensors, and connectivity which enables these objects to connect
and exchange data. This technology allows for the collection and sharing of
data from a vast network of devices, creating opportunities for more efficient
and automated systems.
 Internet of Things (IoT) is the networking of physical objects that contain
electronics embedded within their architecture in order to communicate and
sense interactions amongst each other or with respect to the external
environment. In the upcoming years, IoT-based technology will offer
advanced levels of services and practically change the way people lead their
daily lives. Advancements in medicine, power, gene therapies, agriculture,
smart cities, and smart homes are just a few of the categorical examples
where IoT is strongly established.
 IOT is a system of interrelated things, computing devices, mechanical and
digital machines, objects, animals, or people that are provided with unique
identifiers. And the ability to transfer the data over a network requiring
human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction.
 Four Key Components of IOT
● Device or sensor
● Connectivity
● Data processing
● Interface
Characteristics of IoT
1. Connectivity
Connectivity is an essential feature of IoT. IoT lets you connect mobile phones,
laptops, and other internet devices. Any person can get information about anything
at any time and place.

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IoT can connect through several wireless devices, like sensors, mobile phones,
trackers, etc. This way, the person will not have to wait for an internet connection
to operate a device.
2. Identity of Things
 The collaboration of name and number gives an identity to an internet
device. Giving an identity to the device is an essential aspect of loT. Identity
helps to differentiate between various internet devices and select the device
we want to send the command.
 Every device needs a different controlling power based on the type of data
provided. It is essential to give a unique identity to every device so that we
can set up passwords or other security means. For example, fingerprints,
face recognition IP addresses, and Face lock systems are several means of
security given to the different identified devices to protect them.
3. Intelligence
 The intelligence of IoT devices depends on the sensors' intelligence. The
sensors send the data to the user for further analysis.
 We need to update the IoT devices regularly to get the smart work done. It
adds to their features and makes them smarter.
4. Dynamic
 We need to create IoT devices in a way that they can adapt to the
environment. For example, an AC should have a sensor that can send a
signal to the cloud and adjust it to the premises of the place. Similarly, the
camera can easily click photographs by adjusting to light situations, like day
and night.
5. Scalability
 Scalability means the amount of data one can handle efficiently. The IoT has
created a setup to handle enormous data and generate useful analysis.
6. Self Upgradation
 As we saw above, updating the software regularly is important. But who has
the time to remember to do that? Thus, with its artificial intelligence, IoT
upgrades itself without human help. It also allows the set up of a network for
the addition of any new IoT devices. Thus, the technology can quickly start
working without delay if the setup has already been done.
7. Architecture

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  The architecture of IoT is designed in a way that it is capable of supporting
various devices, technologies, and protocols. Its main work is to confirm
whether each connected device does not interfere with the other. This way,
the safety and security of each device's data are maintained.
8. Security
 With the increasing number of IoT devices, issues regarding the security of
personal data have arisen. There might be a chance of data leakage as a large
amount of data is collected, exchanged, and generated. There is a chance of
personal data being transferred without approval, which is a matter of
concern.
 To overcome this challenge, IoT has created networks, systems, and devices
wherein privacy is well maintained. Maintaining safety and security is a big
dare for IoT. However, it still handles it without any disruption.
9. Network
 With the increasing number of IoT devices in a network, it becomes difficult
to maintain communication for proper functioning. However, cloud service
and gateway are a few methods that can solve such problems.
 Often, one device can use the connectivity of another device to establish
network connectivity even if the second device is not connected to a
network. Because IoT devices can communicate with one another, it is more
effective and adaptable than other current technologies.
10. Data
 The data gathered from IoT devices are analyzed for future prediction. For
example, a calorie meter. It helps to regulate the number of calories each
day. We also have fitness data, thermostats, and various devices that monitor
our health. Therefore, we can use the data collected through these devices.

Internet of Things Applications

he Internet of Things (IoT) provides the ability to interconnect computing devices,

mechanical machines, objects, animals or unique identifiers and people to transfer
data across a network without the need for human-to-human or human-to-computer
is a system of conversation. IoT applications bring a lot of value in our lives. The
Internet of Things provides objects, computing devices, or unique identifiers and

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people's ability to transfer data across a network without the human-to-human or
human-to-computer interaction.

A traffic camera is an intelligent device. The camera monitors traffic congestion,

accidents and weather conditions and can access it to a common entrance.
This gateway receives data from such cameras and transmits information to the
city's traffic monitoring system.
For example, the municipal corporation has decided to repair a road that is
connected to the national highway. It may cause traffic congestion to the national
highway. The insight is sent to the traffic monitoring system
he intelligent system analyzes the situation, estimate their impact, and relay
information to other cities connected to the same highway. It generates live
instructions to drivers by smart devices and radio channels.It creates a network of
self-dependent systems that take advantage of real-time control.

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Major Components of IOT:
These are explained as following below.

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 1. Things or Device
These are fitted with sensors and actuators. Sensors collect data from the
environment and give to gateway where as actuators performs the action (as
directed after processing of data).

2. Gateway
The sensors give data to Gateway and here some kind of pre-processing of
data is even done. It also acts as a level of security for the network and for
the transmitted data.

3. Cloud
The data after being collected is uploaded to cloud. Cloud in simple terms is
basically a set of servers connected to internet 24*7.

4. Analytics
The data after being received in the cloud processing is done . Various
algorithms are applied here for proper analysis of data (techniques like
Machine Learning etc are even applied).

5. User Interface
User end application where user can monitor or control the data.

Architecture of Internet of Things (IoT)

technology has a wide variety of applications and use of Internet of Things is
growing so faster. Depending upon different application areas of Internet of
Things, it works accordingly as per it has been designed/developed. But it has not a
standard defined architecture of working which is strictly followed universally.
The architecture of IoT depends upon its functionality and implementation in
different sectors. Still, there is a basic process flow based on which IoT is built.
So. here in this article we will discuss basic fundamental architecture of IoT

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4 Stage IoT architecture.

So, from the above image it is clear that there is 4 layers are present that can be
divided as follows: Sensing Layer, Network Layer, Data processing Layer, and
Application Layer.
These are explained below.
1. Sensing Layer –
The sensing layer is the first layer of the IoT architecture and is responsible
for collecting data from different sources. This layer includes sensors and
actuators that are placed in the environment to gather information about
temperature, humidity, light, sound, and other physical parameters. These
devices are connected to the network layer through wired or wireless
communication protocols.
2. Network Layer –
The network layer of an IoT architecture is responsible for providing
communication and connectivity between devices in the IoT system. It

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 includes protocols and technologies that enable devices to connect and
communicate with each other and with the wider internet. Examples of
network technologies that are commonly used in IoT include WiFi,
Bluetooth, Zigbee, and cellular networks such as 4G and 5G. Additionally,
the network layer may include gateways and routers that act as
intermediaries between devices and the wider internet, and may also include
security features such as encryption and authentication to protect against
unauthorized access.
3. Data processing Layer –
The data processing layer of IoT architecture refers to the software and
hardware components that are responsible for collecting, analyzing, and
interpreting data from IoT devices. This layer is responsible for receiving
raw data from the devices, processing it, and making it available for further
analysis or action.The data processing layer includes a variety of
technologies and tools, such as data management systems, analytics
platforms, and machine learning algorithms. These tools are used to extract
meaningful insights from the data and make decisions based on that
data.Example of a technology used in the data processing layer is a data
lake, which is a centralized repository for storing raw data from IoT devices.
4. Application Layer –
The application layer of IoT architecture is the topmost layer that interacts
directly with the end-user. It is responsible for providing user-friendly
interfaces and functionalities that enable users to access and control IoT
devices.This layer includes various software and applications such as mobile
apps, web portals, and other user interfaces that are designed to interact with
the underlying IoT infrastructure. It also includes middleware services that
allow different IoT devices and systems to communicate and share data
seamlessly.The application layer also includes analytics and processing
capabilities that allow data to be analyzed and transformed into meaningful
insights. This can include machine learning algorithms, data visualization
tools, and other advanced analytics capabilities.

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Challenges in Internet of things (IoT)

Design challenges in IoT :

Design challenges in IoT (Internet of Things) refer to the technical difficulties and
trade-offs involved in creating connected devices that are both functional and
secure. Some of the key design challenges in IoT include:
● Interoperability: Interoperability refers to the ability of different systems,
devices, or components to work together seamlessly and exchange data
effectively. In the context of the Internet of Things (IoT), interoperability is
a critical challenge, as a large number of diverse devices are being connected
to the internet. The lack of standardization in the IoT can lead to difficulties
in communication and data exchange between devices, resulting in an
fragmented and inefficient system. To overcome this challenge,
organizations and industry groups are working to establish standards and
protocols to ensure interoperability between IoT devices. This includes the
development of common communication protocols, data formats, and
security standards. Interoperability is important for enabling the full
potential of the IoT and allowing connected devices to work together
effectively and efficiently. Ensuring that different IoT devices can work
together seamlessly and exchange data effectively.
● Security: Security is a critical concern in the Internet of Things (IoT) as it
involves the protection of sensitive data and systems from unauthorized
access, theft, or damage. IoT devices are often vulnerable to cyber attacks
due to their increased exposure to the internet and their limited computing
resources. Some of the security challenges in IoT include:
1. Device security: Ensuring that IoT devices are protected from malware and
unauthorized access.
2. Network security: Protecting the communication between IoT devices and
the network from cyber attacks.
3. Data security: Securing the data collected and transmitted by IoT devices
from unauthorized access or tampering.
4. Privacy: Protecting the privacy of individuals whose personal information is
collected and transmitted by IoT devices.
To address these security challenges, organizations should implement robust
security measures such as encryption, firewalls, and regular software

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 updates. Additionally, they should conduct regular security audits and
assessments to identify and address potential security risks. By prioritizing
security, organizations can help to protect the sensitive data and systems
involved in IoT and reduce the risk of cyber attacks.Protecting IoT devices
and the sensitive data they collect and transmit from cyber threats and
unauthorized access.
● Scalability: Scalability refers to the ability of a system to handle increasing
workloads or numbers of users without a significant decline in performance.
In the context of the Internet of Things (IoT), scalability is a major challenge
as the number of connected devices is rapidly growing, leading to an
increased volume of data and communication. Scalability challenges in IoT
include:
1. Data management: Effectively managing and storing the large amounts of
data generated by IoT devices.
2. Network capacity: Ensuring that networks have sufficient capacity to handle
the increased volume of data and communication.
3. Device management: Efficiently managing the growing number of IoT
devices and ensuring that they can be easily configured and maintained.
To address these scalability challenges, organizations should adopt scalable
architectures, such as cloud computing, that can accommodate the growing
number of IoT devices and the data they generate. Additionally, they should
implement efficient data management and storage solutions, such as distributed
databases and data lakes, to handle the increased volume of data. By prioritizing
scalability, organizations can ensure that their IoT systems can handle the
growing number of connected devices and continue to deliver high performance
and efficiency. Designing systems that can accommodate large numbers of
connected devices and manage the resulting data flow effectively.
● Reliability: Reliability refers to the ability of a system to perform its
intended function consistently and without failure over time. In the context
of the Internet of Things (IoT), reliability is a critical concern, as the failure
of even a single IoT device can have significant consequences. Some of the
reliability challenges in IoT include:
1. Device failure: Ensuring that IoT devices are designed and built to be
reliable and function correctly even in harsh environments.

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 2. Network connectivity: Maintaining stable and reliable connections between
IoT devices and the network, even in the face of hardware or software
failures.
3. Data accuracy: Ensuring that the data collected and transmitted by IoT
devices is accurate and reliable.
To address these reliability challenges, organizations should implement
robust and reliable hardware and software designs for IoT devices, and conduct
regular testing and maintenance to identify and resolve any issues. They
should also implement redundant systems and failover mechanisms to ensure that
the system continues to function in the event of a failure. By prioritizing
reliability, organizations can help ensure that their IoT systems perform
consistently and without failure, delivering the intended benefits and
results. Ensuring that IoT systems remain functional and accessible even in the
face of hardware or software failures.
● Power consumption: Power consumption refers to the amount of energy that
a system or device uses. In the context of the Internet of Things (IoT), power
consumption is a critical challenge, as many IoT devices are designed to be
small, low-power, and operate using batteries. Some of the power
consumption challenges in IoT include:
1. Battery life: Ensuring that IoT devices have sufficient battery life to operate
without frequent recharging or replacement.
2. Energy efficiency: Making sure that IoT devices are designed to use energy
efficiently and reduce the overall power consumption of the system.
3. Power management: Implementing effective power management techniques,
such as sleep modes, to reduce the power consumption of IoT devices when
they are not in use.
To address these power consumption challenges, organizations should adopt
low-power technologies and energy-efficient designs for IoT devices. They should
also implement effective power management techniques, such as sleep modes, to
reduce the power consumption of IoT devices when they are not in use. By
prioritizing power consumption, organizations can help ensure that their IoT
systems are energy efficient, reducing costs and environmental impact. Minimizing
the power consumption of IoT devices to extend battery life and reduce costs.

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 ● Privacy: Privacy is a critical concern in the Internet of Things (IoT), as IoT
devices collect, store, and transmit large amounts of personal and sensitive
information. Some of the privacy challenges in IoT include:
1. Data collection: Ensuring that only the necessary data is collected and that it
is collected in a way that respects individuals’ privacy rights.
2. Data storage: Ensuring that the data collected by IoT devices is stored
securely and that access to it is strictly controlled.
3. Data sharing: Controlling who has access to the data collected by IoT
devices and ensuring that it is not shared without proper authorization.
To address these privacy challenges, organizations should implement robust
privacy policies and procedures, such as data protection, data minimization, and
data retention. They should also educate users on the privacy implications of using
IoT devices and encourage them to take steps to protect their privacy.
Additionally, organizations should adopt privacy-enhancing technologies, such as
encryption and anonymization, to protect the privacy of individuals whose
information is collected by IoT devices. By prioritizing privacy, organizations can
help to ensure that individuals’ rights and freedoms are respected, and that
sensitive information is protected from unauthorized access or misuse. Protecting
the privacy of individuals whose personal information is collected and
transmitted by IoT devices.
● Battery life is a limitation –
Issues in packaging and integration of small-sized chip with low weight and
less power consumption. If you’ve been following the mobile space, you’ve
likely see how every yr it looks like there’s no restriction in terms of display
screen size. Take the upward thrust of ‘phablets’, for instance, which can be
telephones nearly as huge as tablets. Although helpful, the bigger monitors
aren’t always only for convenience, rather, instead, display screen sizes are
growing to accommodate larger batteries. Computers have getting slimmer,
but battery energy stays the same.
● Increased cost and time to market –
Embedded systems are lightly constrained by cost.
The need originates to drive better approaches when designing the IoT
devices in order to handle the cost modelling or cost optimally with digital
electronic components.

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 Designers also need to solve the design time problem and bring the
embedded device at the right time to the market.
● Security of the system –
Systems have to be designed and implemented to be robust and reliable and
have to be secure with cryptographic algorithms and security procedures.
It involves different approaches to secure all the components of embedded
systems from prototype to deployment.

Storage and Computational performance

● Plans that include the use of cloud-based IoT devices require a high degree
of performance goal requirements. Such specifications can be difficult to
meet in all settings because cloud-based IoT devices are in motion for many
Applications.
● data extraction from complex environment
● Smart objects like sensors, actuators and embedded devices, in this complex
environment of IoT applications, produce and consume huge amounts of
data. Hence, the knowledge extraction (Data Mining) mechanism can be
considered as the heart of the complete system.

Security challenges in IoT :

1. Lack of encryption –
● Although encryption is a great way to prevent hackers from accessing data,
it is also one of the leading IoT security challenges. These drives like the
storage and processing capabilities that would be found on a traditional
computer. The result is an increase in attacks where hackers can easily
manipulate the algorithms that were designed for protection.
2. Insufficient testing and updating –
● With the increase in the number of IoT(internet of things) devices, IoT
manufacturers are more eager to produce and deliver their device as fast as
they can without giving security too much of although. Most of these
devices and IoT products do not get enough testing and updates and are
prone to hackers and other security issues.

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3. Brute forcing and the risk of default passwords –
● Weak credentials and login details leave nearly all IoT devices vulnerable to
password hacking and brute force. Any company that uses factory default
credentials on their devices is placing both their business and its assets and
the customer and their valuable information at risk of being susceptible to a
brute force attack.
4. IoT Malware and ransomware –
Increases with increase in devices. Ransomware uses encryption to effectively lock
out users from various devices and platforms and still use a user’s valuable data
and info.
Example – A hacker can hijack a computer camera and take pictures. By using
malware access points, the hackers can demand ransom to unlock the device and
return the data.
5. IoT botnet aiming at cryptocurrency –
IoT botnet workers can manipulate data privacy, which could be massive risks for
an open Crypto market. The exact value and creation of cryptocurrencies code face
danger from mal-intentioned hackers. The blockchain companies are trying to
boost security. Blockchain technology itself is not particularly vulnerable, but the
app development process is.
6. Inadequate device security :
Inadequate device security refers to the lack of proper measures to protect
electronic devices such as computers, smartphones, and IoT devices from cyber
attacks, hacking, data theft, and unauthorized access. This can happen due to
outdated software, weak passwords, unpatched vulnerabilities, lack of encryption,
and other security risks. It is important to regularly update the software and
implement strong security measures to ensure the security and privacy of sensitive
information stored on these devices. Many IoT devices have weak security features
and can be easily hacked.
7. Lack of standardization:
Lack of standardization refers to the absence of agreed-upon specifications or
protocols in a particular field or industry. This can result in different systems,
products, or processes being incompatible with each other, leading to confusion,
inefficiency, and decreased interoperability. For example, in the context of
technology, a lack of standardization can cause difficulties in communication and
data exchange between different devices and systems. Establishing standards and

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protocols can help overcome this and ensure uniformity and compatibility. There is
a lack of standardization in IoT devices, making it difficult to secure them
consistently.
8. Vulnerability to network attacks:
Vulnerability to network attacks refers to the susceptibility of a network, system
or device to being compromised or exploited by cyber criminals. This can happen
due to weaknesses in the network infrastructure, unpatched software, poor
password management, or a lack of appropriate security measures. Network attacks
can result in data theft, loss of privacy, disruption of services, and financial loss.
To reduce vulnerability to network attacks, it’s important to implement strong
security measures such as firewalls, encryption, and regular software updates, as
well as educate users on safe internet practices. IoT devices rely on networks,
making them vulnerable to attacks like denial-of-service (DoS) attacks.
9. Unsecured data transmission:
Unsecured data transmission refers to the transfer of data over a network or the
internet without adequate protection. This can leave the data vulnerable to
interception, tampering, or theft by malicious actors. Unsecured data transmission
can occur when data is transmitted over an unencrypted network connection or
when insecure protocols are used. To protect sensitive data during transmission, it
is important to use secure protocols such as SSL/TLS or VPN, and to encrypt the
data before sending it. This can help to ensure the confidentiality and integrity of
the data, even if it is intercepted during transmission. IoT devices often transmit
sensitive data, which may be vulnerable to eavesdropping or tampering if not
properly secured.
10. Privacy concerns:
Privacy concerns refer to issues related to the collection, storage, use, and sharing
of personal information. This can include concerns about who has access to
personal information, how it is being used, and whether it is being protected from
unauthorized access or misuse. In the digital age, privacy concerns have become
increasingly important as personal information is being collected and stored on an
unprecedented scale. To address privacy concerns, individuals and organizations
need to implement appropriate security measures to protect personal information,
be transparent about how it is being used, and respect individuals’ rights to control
their own information. Additionally, privacy laws and regulations have been
established to provide guidelines and protections for individuals’ personal

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information. The vast amount of data generated by IoT devices raises privacy
concerns, as personal information could be collected and used without consent.
11. Software vulnerabilities:
Software vulnerabilities are weaknesses or flaws in software code that can be
exploited by attackers to gain unauthorized access, steal sensitive information, or
carry out malicious activities. Software vulnerabilities can arise from errors or
mistakes made during the development process, or from the use of outdated or
unsupported software. Attackers can exploit these vulnerabilities to gain control
over a system, install malware, or steal sensitive information. To reduce the risk of
software vulnerabilities, it is important for software developers to follow secure
coding practices and for users to keep their software up-to-date and properly
configured. Additionally, organizations and individuals should implement robust
security measures, such as firewalls, antivirus software, and intrusion detection
systems, to protect against potential threats. IoT devices often have software
vulnerabilities, which can be exploited by attackers to gain access to devices and
networks.
12. Insider threats:
Insider threats refer to security risks that come from within an organization, rather
than from external sources such as hackers or cyber criminals. These threats can
take many forms, such as employees who intentionally or unintentionally cause
harm to the organization, contractors who misuse their access privileges, or
insiders who are coerced into compromising the security of the organization.
Insider threats can result in data breaches, theft of intellectual property, and
damage to the reputation of the organization. To mitigate the risk of insider threats,
organizations should implement strict access controls, monitor employee activity,
and provide regular training on security and privacy policies. Additionally,
organizations should have a plan in place to detect, respond to, and recover from
security incidents involving insiders. Employees or contractors with access to IoT
systems can pose a security risk if they intentionally or unintentionally cause harm.
To address these challenges, it is important to implement security measures such as
encryption, secure authentication, and software updates to ensure the safe and
secure operation of IoT devices and systems.

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Design challenge in IoT :
Design challenges in IoT (Internet of Things) refer to the technical difficulties and
trade-offs involved in creating connected devices that are both functional and
secure.Some of the key design challenges in IoT include:
 Interoperability:
Interoperability refers to the ability of different systems, devices, or components
to work together seamlessly and exchange data effectively. In the context of the
Internet of Things (IoT), interoperability is a critical challenge, as a large number
of diverse devices are being connected to the internet. The lack of standardization
in the IoT can lead to difficulties in communication and data exchange between
devices, resulting in an fragmented and inefficient system. To overcome this
challenge, organizations and industry groups are working to establish standards
and protocols to ensure interoperability between IoT devices. This includes the
development of common communication protocols, data formats, and security
standards. Interoperability is important for enabling the full potential of the IoT
and allowing connected devices to work together effectively and efficiently.
Ensuring that different IoT devices can work together seamlessly and exchange
data effectively.
 Security: Security is a critical concern in the Internet of Things (IoT) as it
involves the protection of sensitive data and systems from unauthorized access,
theft, or damage. IoT devices are often vulnerable to cyber attacks due to their
increased exposure to the internet and their limited computing resources. Some of
the security challenges in IoT include:
1. Device security: Ensuring that IoT devices are protected from malware and
unauthorized access.
2. Network security: Protecting the communication between IoT devices and the
network from cyber attacks.
3. Data security: Securing the data collected and transmitted by IoT devices from
unauthorized access or tampering.
4. Privacy: Protecting the privacy of individuals whose personal information is
collected and transmitted by IoT devices. To
address these security challenges, organizations should implement robust security
measures such as encryption, firewalls, and regular software updates. Additionally,
they should conduct regular security audits and assessments to identify and
address potential security risks. By prioritizing security, organizations can help to

17
protect the sensitive data and systems involved in IoT and reduce the risk of cyber
attacks.Protecting IoT devices and the sensitive data they collect and transmit from
cyber threats and unauthorized access.
 Scalability:
Scalability refers to the ability of a system to handle increasing workloads or
numbers of users without a significant decline in performance. In the context of the
Internet of Things (IoT), scalability is a major challenge as the number of
connected devices is rapidly growing, leading to an increased volume of data and
communication.

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 Unit-II: Sensors & Actuators

Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)

Generally, sensors are used in the architecture of IOT devices.
Sensors are used for sensing things and devices etc.
A device that provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement.
The sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for
processing (e.g. electrical, mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device or
material to detect the presence of a particular physical quantity.
The output of the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable form
like changes in characteristics, changes in resistance, capacitance, impedance, etc.

● A transducer converts a signal from one physical structure to another.

● It converts one type of energy into another type.
● It might be used as actuator in various systems.

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Types of Sensor

1. Temperature Sensors

Temperature sensors measure the amount of heat generated from an area or an

object. They detect a temperature change and convert the findings to data.
Temperature sensors are used in various industries, including manufacturing,
healthcare, and agriculture. Some examples are thermistors, thermocouples, and
resistor temperature detectors (RTD).

2. Proximity Sensors

Proximity sensors detect the presence or absence of objects near the sensor without
physical contact. They often emit a beam of radiation like infrared or an
electromagnetic field. They can be used for process monitoring and control, object
counting, assembly lines, and determining available space. Proximity sensors are
common in retail settings, industrial complexes, and parking lots. Some examples
are photoelectric, magnetic, capacitive, inductive, and ultrasonic.

3. Pressure Sensors

These sensors detect changes in a gas or liquid. When the pressure range is beyond
a set threshold, pressure sensors alert to the problem. They are used for leak
testing, water systems, vehicles, and aircraft. For example, the BMP180 is a digital
pressure sensor found in cell phones and GPS navigation devices. And some
vehicles use a tire pressure monitoring system (TPMS) to alert when tire pressure
is low and potentially unsafe.

4. Water Quality Sensors

As you’d expect, water quality sensors monitor the quality of water. They are often
used in water distribution systems, but they function in a variety of industries.

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There are different kinds of water sensors, including residual chlorine sensors,
turbidity sensors, pH sensors, and total organic carbon sensors.

5. Chemical and Gas Sensors

These sensors monitor air quality for the presence of toxic or hazardous gas. They
often use semiconductor, electrochemical, or photo-ionization technologies for
detection. They are typically used in industrial and manufacturing settings, though
they are also found in carbon dioxide detectors.

6. Infrared Sensors

Some sensors either detect or emit infrared radiation to sense characteristics and
changes in the surrounding area. They’re useful for measuring heat emissions from
an object. Infrared sensors are used in remote controls, healthcare settings, and
even by art historians authenticating artwork.

7. Smoke Sensors

Most people are familiar with smoke detectors, as they have protected our homes
and businesses for a long time. However, with improvements based on IoT, smoke
detectors are now more user-friendly, convenient, and wire-free.

8. Motion Sensors

Motion sensors detect physical movement in an area. Of course, these sensors play
a significant role in the security industry, but they are used in nearly every
industry. Applications include automated sinks and toilet flushers, automatic door
controls, energy management systems, and automated parking systems. Standard
motion sensors include ultrasonic, microwave, and passive infrared (PIR).

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9. Level Sensors

Level sensors detect the level of various substances, including powder, granular
material, and liquids. Industries that use them include water treatment, food and
beverage manufacturing, oil manufacturing, and waste management. They can
detect the level of liquid in a container and can even determine the amount of
waste in a dumpster.

10. Image Sensors

These sensors convert optical images into signals and are generally used to display
or store files electronically. They are found in radar and sonar, biometric devices,
night vision equipment, medical imaging, digital cameras, and even some cars.
Charge-coupled devices (CCD) and complementary metal-oxide semiconductors
(CMOS) are most commonly used.

11. Humidity Sensors

These sensors measure the amount of water vapor in the air. Typical uses include
heating and air conditioning systems (HVAC) and weather monitoring and
prediction. When humidity must be tightly controlled, such as in museums,
hospitals, and greenhouses, humidity sensors assist the process.

12. Accelerometer Sensors

Accelerometer sensors detect the orientation of an object and the rate of change,
including tap, shake, tilt, and positioning. They are used in many industries for
smart pedometers, anti-theft protection, and monitoring auto fleets. Some types are
capacitive accelerometers and hall-effect accelerometers.

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13. Gyroscope Sensors

A gyroscope sensor measures the angular rate or velocity, or the speed of rotation
around an axis. They are generally used for navigation in the auto industry for
navigation and anti-skid systems as well as in video games and drones. Some
examples include optical gyroscopes, rotary gyroscopes, and vibrating structure
gyroscopes.

14. Optical Sensors

Optical sensors measure light and convert it into electrical signals. Many industries
make use of optical sensors, including auto, energy, healthcare, and aerospace.
Sensors include fiber optics, photodetector, and pyrometer.

What is a PIR Sensor?

A passive infrared sensor is an electronic sensor that measures infrared light

radiating from objects. PIR sensors mostly used in PIR-based motion detectors.
Also, it used in security alarms and automatic lighting applications. The below
image shows a typical pin configuration of the PIR sensor, which is quite simple to
understand the pinouts. The PIR sensor consist of 3 pins,

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 ● Pin1 corresponds to the drain terminal of the device, which connected to the
positive supply 5V DC.
● Pin2 corresponds to the source terminal of the device, which connects to the
ground terminal via a 100K or 47K resistor. The Pin2 is the output pin of the
sensor. The pin 2 of the sensor carries the detected IR signal to an amplifier
from the
● Pin3 of the sensor connected to the ground.

What does a PIR Sensor detect?

Generally, PIR sensor can detect animal/human movement in a requirement range.
PIR is made of a pyroelectric sensor, which is able to detect different levels of
infrared radiation. The detector itself does not emit any energy but passively
receives it.

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It detects infrared radiation from the environment. Once there is infrared radiation
from the human body particle with temperature, focusing on the optical system
causes the pyroelectric device to generate a sudden electrical signal.

Simply, when a human body or any animal passes by, then it intercepts the first
slot of the PIR sensor. This causes a positive differential change between the two
bisects. When a human body leaves the sensing area,the sensor generates a
negative differential change between the two bisects.

PIR Sensor Working Principle

The passive infrared sensor does not radiate energy to space. It receives the
infrared radiation from the human body to make an alarm. Any object with
temperature is constantly radiating infrared rays to the outside world. The surface
temperature of the human body is between 36° C - 27 ° C and most of its radiant
energy concentrated in the wavelength range of 8 um-12 um.

Passive infrared alarms classified into infrared detectors (infrared probes) and
alarm control sections. The most widely used infrared detector is a pyroelectric
detector. It uses as a sensor for converting human infrared radiation into electricity.
If the human infrared radiation is directly irradiated on the detector, it will, of
course, cause a temperature change to output a signal. But in doing all this, the
detection distance will not be more. In order to lengthen the detection distance of

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the detector, an optical system must be added to collect the infrared radiation.
Usually, plastic optical reflection system or plastic Fresnel lens used as a focusing
system for infrared radiation.

In the detection area, the lens of the detector receives the infrared radiation energy
of the human body through the clothing and focused on the pyroelectric sensor.
When the human body moves in this surveillance mode, it enters a certain field of
view in sequence and then walks out of the field of view. The pyroelectric sensor
sees the moving human body for a while and then does not see it, so the infrared
radiation of human body constantly changes the temperature of the pyroelectric
material. So that it outputs a corresponding signal, which is the alarm signal.

What is the Range of PIR Sensor?

● Indoor passive infrared: Detection distances range from 25 cm to 20 m.
● Indoor curtain type: The detection distance ranges from 25 cm to 20 m.
● Outdoor passive infrared: The detection distance ranges from 10 meters to
150 meters.
● Outdoor passive infrared curtain detector: distance from 10 meters to 150
meters

What is an IR Sensor?
IR sensor is an electronic device, that emits the light in order to sense some object
of the surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as

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detects the motion. Usually, in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate some
form of thermal radiation. These types of radiations are invisible to our eyes, but
infrared sensor can detect these radiations.

The emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting Diode) and the detector is
simply an IR photodiode . Photodiode is sensitive to IR light of the same
wavelength which is emitted by the IR LED. When IR light falls on the
photodiode, the resistances and the output voltages will change in proportion to the
magnitude of the IR light received.

There are five basic elements used in a typical infrared detection system: an
infrared source, a transmission medium, optical component, infrared detectors or
receivers and signal processing. Infrared lasers and Infrared LED’s of specific
wavelength used as infrared sources.

The three main types of media used for infrared transmission are vacuum,
atmosphere and optical fibers. Optical components are used to focus the infrared
radiation or to limit the spectral response.

Types of IR Sensor
There are two types of IR sensors are available and they are,

● Active Infrared Sensor

● Passive Infrared Sensor

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Active Infrared Sensor
Active infrared sensors consist of two elements: infrared source and infrared
detector. Infrared sources include the LED or infrared laser diode. Infrared
detectors include photodiodes or phototransistors. The energy emitted by the
infrared source is reflected by an object and falls on the infrared detector.

Passive Infrared Sensor

Passive infrared sensors are basically Infrared detectors. Passive infrared sensors
do not use any infrared source and detector. They are of two types: quantum and
thermal. Thermal infrared sensors use infrared energy as the source of heat.
Thermocouples, pyroelectric detectors and bolometers are the common types of
thermal infrared detectors. Quantum type infrared sensors offer higher detection
performance. It is faster than thermal type infrared detectors. The photo sensitivity
of quantum type detectors is wavelength dependent.

IR Sensor Working Principle

There are different types of infrared transmitters depending on their wavelengths,
output power and response time. An IR sensor consists of an IR LED and an IR
Photodiode, together they are called as PhotoCoupler or OptoCoupler.

IR Transmitter or IR LED

Infrared Transmitter is a light emitting diode (LED) which emits infrared

radiations called as IR LED’s. Even though an IR LED looks like a normal LED,
the radiation emitted by it is invisible to the human eye.

The picture of an Infrared LED is shown below.

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IR Receiver or Photodiode

Infrared receivers or infrared sensors detect the radiation from an IR transmitter. IR

receivers come in the form of photodiodes and phototransistors. Infrared
Photodiodes are different from normal photo diodes as they detect only infrared
radiation. Below image shows the picture of an IR receiver or a photodiode,

Different types of IR receivers exist based on the wavelength, voltage, package,

etc. When used in an infrared transmitter – receiver combination, the wavelength
of the receiver should match with that of the transmitter.

The emitter is an IR LED and the detector is an IR photodiode. The IR photodiode

is sensitive to the IR light emitted by an IR LED. The photo-diode’s resistance and
output voltage change in proportion to the IR light received. This is the underlying
working principle of the IR sensor.

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When the IR transmitter emits radiation, it reaches the object and some of the
radiation reflects back to the IR receiver. Based on the intensity of the reception by
the IR receiver, the output of the sensor defines.

Applications of IR Sensor
IR sensors use in various projects and also in various electronic devices. They all
are as follow,

Night Vision Devices

An Infrared technology implemented in night vision equipment if there is not

enough visible light available to see unaided. Night vision devices convert ambient
photons of light into electrons and then amplify them using a chemical and
electrical process before finally converting them back into visible light.

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Radiation Thermometers

IR sensos uses in radiation thermometers to measure the temperature depend upon

the temperature and the material of the object and these thermometers have some
of the following features

● Measurement without direct contact with the object

● Faster response
● Easy pattern measurements

Infrared Tracking
An Infrared tracking or Infrared homing, is a missile guidance system which
operates using the infrared electromagnetic radiation emitted from a target to
track it.

IR Imaging Devices

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IR image device is one of the major applications of IR waves, primarily by virtue
of its property that is not visible. It uses for thermal imagers, night vision devices
etc.

Other key application areas that use infrared sensors include:

● Climatology
● Meteorology
● Photobiomodulation
● Flame Monitors
● Gas detectors
● Water analysis
● Moisture Analyzers
● Anesthesiology testing
● Petroleum exploration
● Rail safety

Actuator
An actuator is a component of a machine that produces force, torque, or
displacement, usually in a controlled way, when an electrical, pneumatic or
hydraulic input is supplied to it in a system (called an actuating system). An
actuator converts such an input signal into the required form of mechanical energy.
It is a type of transducer.In simple terms, it is a "mover".

An actuator requires a control device (controlled by control signal) and a source of

energy. The control signal is relatively low energy and may be electric voltage or
current, pneumatic, or hydraulic fluid pressure, or even human power. In the
electric, hydraulic, and pneumatic sense, it is a form of automation or automatic
control.

The displacement achieved is commonly linear or rotational, as exemplified by

linear motors and rotary motors, respectively. Rotary motion is more natural for
small machines making large displacements. By means of a leadscrew, rotary
motion can be adapted to function as a linear actuator (a linear motion, but not a
linear motor).

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Another broad classification of actuators separates them into two types:
incremental-drive actuators and continuous-drive actuators. Stepper motors are one
type of incremental-drive actuators. Examples of continuous-drive actuators
include DC torque motors, induction motors, hydraulic and pneumatic motors, and
piston-cylinder drives (rams)

Servomotor
A Servo Motor is a small device that has an output shaft. This shaft can be
positioned to specific angular positions by sending the servo a coded signal. As
long as the coded signal exists on the input line, the servo will maintain the angular
position of the shaft. If the coded signal changes, the angular position of the shaft
changes. In practice, servos are used in radio-controlled airplanes to position
control surfaces like the elevators and rudders. They are also used in radio-
controlled cars, puppets, and of course, robots.

Servos are extremely useful in robotics. The motors are small, have built-in control
circuitry, and are extremely powerful for their size. A standard servo such as the
Futaba S-148 has 42 oz/inches of torque, which is strong for its size. It also draws
power proportional to the mechanical load. A lightly loaded servo, therefore, does
not consume much energy.

The guts of a servo motor is shown in the following picture. You can see the
control circuitry, the motor, a set of gears, and the case. You can also see the 3
wires that connect to the outside world. One is for power (+5volts), ground, and the
white wire is the control wire.

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Working of a Servo Motor

The servo motor has some control circuits and a potentiometer (a variable resistor,
aka pot) connected to the output shaft. In the picture above, the pot can be seen on
the right side of the circuit board. This pot allows the control circuitry to monitor
the current angle of the servo motor.

If the shaft is at the correct angle, then the motor shuts off. If the circuit finds that
the angle is not correct, it will turn the motor until it is at a desired angle. The
output shaft of the servo is capable of traveling somewhere around 180 degrees.
Usually, it is somewhere in the 210-degree range, however, it varies depending on
the manufacturer. A normal servo is used to control an angular motion of 0 to 180
degrees. It is mechanically not capable of turning any farther due to a mechanical
stop built on to the main output gear.

The power applied to the motor is proportional to the distance it needs to travel.
So, if the shaft needs to turn a large distance, the motor will run at full speed. If it
needs to turn only a small amount, the motor will run at a slower speed. This is
called proportional contro

A servomotor is a specific type of motor that is combined with a rotary encoder or

a potentiometer to form a servomechanism. This assembly may in turn form part of
another servomechanism. A potentiometer provides a simple analog signal to
indicate position, while an encoder provides position and usually speed feedback,
which by the use of a PID controller allow more precise control of position and
thus faster achievement of a stable position (for a given motor power).
Potentiometers are subject to drift when the temperature changes whereas encoders
are more stable and accurate.

Servomotors are used for both high-end and low-end applications. On the high end
are precision industrial components that use a rotary encoder. On the low end are
inexpensive radio controls servos (RC servos) used in radio-controlled models
which use a free-running motor and a simple potentiometer position sensor with an
embedded controller.

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Solenoid

A solenoid actuator is a control device that uses electromagnetism to convert

electrical energy into mechanical motion. The movement of the solenoid may be
used to close a set of electrical contacts, cause the movement of a mechanical
device, or both at the same time.

The figure below is a cutaway view of a solenoid showing the solenoid action. A
solenoid is an electromagnet formed by a conductor wound in a series of loops in
the shape of a spiral. Inserted within this coil is a soft-iron core and a movable
plunger. The soft-iron core is pinned or held in an immovable position. The
movable plunger (also soft iron) is held away from the core by a spring when the
solenoid is deenergized.

When current flows through the conductor, it produces a magnetic field. The
magnetic flux produced by the coil results in establishing north and south poles in
both the core and the plunger. The plunger is attracted along the lines of force to a
position at the center of the coil. The deenergized position of the plunger is
partially out of the coil due to the action of the spring. When voltage is applied, the
current through the coil produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field draws the

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plunger within the coil, resulting in mechanical motion. When the coil is
deenergized, the plunger returns to its normal position because of spring action.
The effective strength of the magnetic field on the plunger varies according to the
distance between the plunger and the core. For short distances, the strength of the
field is strong; and as distances increase, the strength of the field drops off quite
rapidly.

While a solenoid is a control device, the solenoid itself is energized by some other
control device such as a switch or a relay. One of the distinct advantages in the use
of solenoids is that a mechanical movement can be accomplished at a considerable
distance from the control device. The only link necessary between the control
device and the solenoid is the electrical wiring for the coil current. The solenoid
can have large contacts for the control of high current. Therefore, the solenoid also
provides a means of controlling high current with a low current switch.

In engineering, a solenoid is a device that converts electrical energy to mechanical

energy, using an electromagnet formed from a coil of wire. The device creates a
magnetic field from electric current, and uses the magnetic field to create linear
motion.[1][2] In electromagnetic technology, a solenoid is an actuator assembly with
a sliding ferromagnetic plunger inside the coil. Without power, the plunger extends
for part of its length outside the coil; applying power pulls the plunger into the coil.
Electromagnets with fixed cores are not considered solenoids. In simple terms, a
solenoid converts electrical energy into mechanical work. Typically, it has a
multiturn coil of magnet wire surrounded by a frame, which is also a magnetic flux
carrier to enhance its efficiency. In engineering, the term may also refer to a variety
of transducer devices that convert energy into linear motion, more sophisticated
than simple two–position actuators.[3] The term "solenoid" also often refers to a
solenoid valve, an integrated device containing an electromechanical solenoid
which actuates either a pneumatic or hydraulic valve, or a solenoid switch, which
is a specific type of relay that internally uses an electromechanical solenoid to
operate an electrical switch; for example, an automobile starter solenoid or linear
solenoid. Solenoid bolts, a type of electromechanical locking mechanism, also
exist.

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Stepper motor

A stepper motor, also known as step motor or stepping motor, [1] is an electrical
motor that rotates in a series of small angular steps, instead of continuously.[2]
Stepper motors are a type of digital actuators. Stepper motors are an eletromagnetic
actuator; it converts electromagnetic energy into mechanical energy to perform
mechanical work.[1]

A stepper motor is a brushless DC electric motor that divides a full rotation into a
number of equal steps. The motor's position can be commanded to move and hold
at one of these steps without any position sensor for feedback (an open-loop
controller), as long as the motor is correctly sized to the application in respect to
torque and speed.

Switched reluctance motors are very large stepping motors with a reduced pole
count, and generally are closed-loop commutated.

Mechanism
Brushed DC motors rotate continuously when DC voltage is applied to their
terminals. The stepper motor is known for its property of converting a train of
input pulses (typically square waves) into a precisely defined increment in the
shaft’s rotational position. Each pulse rotates the shaft through a fixed angle.

Stepper motors effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets arranged as a

stator around a central rotor, a gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are
energized by an external driver circuit or a micro controller. To make the motor
shaft turn, first, one electromagnet is given power, which magnetically attracts the
gear's teeth. When the gear's teeth are aligned to the first electromagnet, they are
slightly offset from the next electromagnet. This means that when the next
electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates slightly to
align with the next one. From there the process is repeated. Each of the partial
rotations is called a "step", with an integer number of steps making a full rotation.
In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise angle.

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The circular arrangement of electromagnets is divided into groups, each group
called a phase, and there is an equal number of electromagnets per group. The
number of groups is chosen by the designer of the stepper motor. The
electromagnets of each group are interleaved with the electromagnets of other
groups to form a uniform pattern of arrangement. For example, if the stepper motor
has two groups identified as A or B, and ten electromagnets in total, then the
grouping pattern would be ABABABABAB.

Electromagnets within the same group are all energized together. Because of this,
stepper motors with more phases typically have more wires (or leads) to control the
motor.

There are three main types of stepper motors:[1][3]

1. Permanent magnet stepper motor

2. Variable reluctance stepper motor
3. Hybrid synchronous stepper motor
Permanent magnet motors use a permanent magnet (PM) in the rotor and operate
on the attraction or repulsion between the rotor magnet and the stator
electromagnets.

NEED OF RELAY WHILE USING ACTUATOR

Relays are used wherever it is necessary to control a high power or high voltage
circuit with a low power circuit, especially when galvanic isolation is desirable.

The working principle of the relay is that when a certain input quantity (such as
voltage, current, temperature, speed, pressure, etc.) reaches a predetermined value,
it will work, change the working state of the control circuit, and achieve a given
control or protection purpose.

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