COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

BENDING STRESSES AND BEAM DEFLECTION

MEMBERS:
JUSTINE RODOLFH PAR
JOHN PAUL PAMING
CALVIN JACK PIMENTEL
CARL NHEL RODOLFO

Submitted to
Engr. Loreimay C. Andaya

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I.​ SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS

-​ BEAMS
●​ Members that are slender and support loadings that are applied perpendicular to their
longitudinal axis.
●​ In general, beams are long, straight bars having a constant cross-sectional area.
●​ Beams are considered among the most important of all structural elements.

-​ CLASSIFICATION OF BEAMS ON HOW THEY SUPPORTING

●​ Simply supported beam is pinned at one end and roller supported at the other,
●​ Cantilevered beam is fixed at one end and free at the other, and
●​ Overhanging beam has one or both of its ends freely extended over the supports.

-​ In order to properly design a beam it therefore becomes necessary to determine the

maximum shear and moment in the beam. One way to do this is to express V and M as
functions of their arbitrary position x along the beam’s axis. These shear and moment
functions can then be plotted and represented by graphs called shear and moment
diagrams.

-​ In order to formulate V and M in terms of x we must choose the origin and the positive
direction for x. Although the choice is arbitrary, most often the origin is located at the
left end of the beam and the positive direction is to the right.

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-​ For example, coordinates x1, x2, and x3 will have to be used to describe the variation
of V and M throughout the length of the beam in Fig. 6–2 . These coordinates will be
valid only within the regions from A to B for x1, from B to C for x2, and from C to D for
x3 .

-​ BEAM SIGN CONVENTION.

●​ Before presenting a method for determining the shear and moment as functions of x
and later plotting these functions (shear and moment diagrams), it is first necessary to
establish a sign convention so as to define “positive” and “negative” values for V and M
. Although the choice of a sign convention is arbitrary, here we will use the one often
used in engineering practice and shown in Fig. 6–3 .

●​ The positive directions are as follows: the distributed load acts upward on the beam;
the internal shear force causes a clockwise rotation of the beam segment on which it
acts; and the internal moment causes compression in the top fibers of the segment
such that it bends the segment so that it “holds water”. Loadings that are opposite to
these are considered negative.

II.​ GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR CONSTRUCTING SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS

-​ In this section a simpler Graphical method for constructing the shear and moment
diagrams is discussed—a method based on two differential relations, one that exists
between distributed load and shear, and the other between shear and moment

-​ In cases where a beam is subjected to several different loadings, determining V and M

as functions of x and then plotting these equations can become quite tedious.

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Applying the equations of equilibrium to thesegment, we have:

-​ Equations 6–1 and 6–2 may also be rewritten in the form dV = w(x)dx and dM = V dx.
Noting that w(x) dx and V dx represent differential areas under the distributed loading
and shear diagram, respectively, we can integrate these areas between any two points
C and D on the beam, Fig. 6–9 d , and write

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-​ Similarly, from Eq. 6–4 , the change in moment between C and D, Fig. 6–9 f , is equal
to the area under the shear diagram within the region from C to D. Here the change is
positive.

-​ REGIONS OF CONCENTRATED FORCE AND MOMENT.

1.​ Concentrated Force (Fig. 6–10a)
●​ A concentrated force F acts vertically on a beam segment.

●​ You examine a small portion of the beam with length Δx,

right at the point of force application.

Force Equilibrium Equation:

Interpretation:
●​ The shear force (V) suddenly "jumps" by an amount equal
to the applied force F.

●​ If F is upward, ΔV is positive → Shear jumps upward.

●​ If F is downward, ΔV is negative → Shear jumps

downward.

2.​ Concentrated Moment (Couple Moment Mo) (Fig. 6–10b)

●​ A couple moment Mo is applied to the beam segment.

●​ The couple does not affect shear, but it does affect moment
equilibrium.

Moment Equilibrium Equation:

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Interpretation:
●​ The bending moment (M) experiences a sudden jump equal to the applied
moment.

●​ If Mo is clockwise, ΔM is positive → Moment jumps upward.

●​ If Mo is counterclockwise, ΔM is negative → Moment jumps downward.

III.​ BENDING DEFORMATION OF A STRAIGHT MEMBER

-​ Bending deformation refers to the way a beam changes shape when a moment (or
torque) is applied. This deformation doesn’t occur uniformly but follows a clear,
predictable pattern that engineers use to analyze and design safe structures.

Observation:

●​ A beam under bending shows compression on one side and tension on the other.​

●​ The layer of the beam that experiences no longitudinal strain is called the neutral axis
(or neutral surface in 3D).​

●​ Above the neutral axis: material is in compression.​

●​ Below the neutral axis: material is in tension.

Imagine a straight rubber bar with evenly spaced longitudinal and transverse lines drawn on its
surface. When a moment is applied:

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●​ The longitudinal lines curve, indicating that the material has either stretched or
compressed.​

●​ The transverse lines, although still straight, are rotated, meaning the cross sections
of the beam remain flat but rotate due to bending.

Stress Distribution During Bending

As the beam bends:

●​ Top fibers compress – they are pushed together.​

●​ Bottom fibers stretch – they are pulled apart.​

●​ Between these two regions lies the neutral surface — a 3D plane within the beam
where there is no change in length of the fibers. It neither stretches nor compresses.​

●​ The neutral axis is the intersection of the neutral surface with the cross-sectional plane.
This is the axis where normal stress is zero.

Assumptions in Pure Bending Theory

To analyze bending mathematically and practically, engineers make several simplifying
assumptions:

●​ The beam is made of a homogeneous (uniform throughout) and isotropic (same

properties in all directions) material.​

●​ The beam is initially perfectly straight and has a constant cross-section (prismatic).​

●​ It is loaded in such a way that there is no shear force, only a bending moment (this is
called pure bending).​

●​ Plane sections remain plane even after bending — they do not warp or distort.​

●​ The material behaves elastically, returning to its original shape after unloading.​

These assumptions ensure that the deformation is predictable and that stress varies linearly
along the height of the beam.

IV.​ THE FLEXURE FORMULA

Purpose and Application

The flexure formula provides a mathematical model to determine the normal stress at any
point in a beam’s cross section due to a bending moment. It is one of the core formulas in
beam theory, essential for designing safe and efficient structural elements.

Flexure Formula:

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Where:

●​ σ/sigmaσ = normal stress at a point on the cross section​

●​ M = bending moment at the cross section​

●​ y = vertical distance from the neutral axis to the point of interest​

●​ I = moment of inertia of the cross section about the neutral axis

●​ Where c is the maximum distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fiber of the
cross section.

●​ The stress σ/sigmaσ is directly proportional to the moment and to the distance from
the neutral axis.

●​ Farther from the neutral axis, the greater the stress — this is why flanges in I-beams
are so wide and placed far from the center.​

●​ The stress is tensile (positive) on one side of the beam and compressive (negative)
on the other.

V.​ UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING

-​ In many structural or mechanical systems, we deal with beams that are not symmetric
about a central axis. These may include L-shaped, T-shaped, angle, or channel
sections. If the bending moment is not applied about one of the principal axes of such
a section, the beam experiences unsymmetrical bending.

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This condition leads to complex behavior:

●​ The neutral axis is not horizontal or vertical but inclined.​

●​ The stress distribution is no longer symmetric.​

●​ The beam may twist slightly, depending on its shape and the direction of the applied
moment.

Causes of Unsymmetrical Bending

1.​ Unsymmetric Cross Sections​
Cross sections like L, T, or channel beams lack symmetry, causing the neutral axis
and principal axes to be misaligned.​

2.​ Moment Not Acting Along a Principal Axis​

Even a symmetric section can experience unsymmetric bending if the moment is
applied at an angle to the main axes.

Where:

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●​ My​,Mz​= components of the bending moment along the y and z axes​

●​ Iy​,Iz​= moments of inertia about the y and z axes​

●​ y,z = distances from the neutral axis in respective directions

Orientation of the Neutral Axis (Unsymmetric Bending)

-​ In the case of unsymmetric bending, where the bending moment does not act about a
principal axis, the stress distribution becomes more complex. The neutral axis—where
normal stress is zero—no longer remains aligned with any of the principal coordinate
axes.

Where:

●​ Iy and Iz​are the second moments of area (moments of inertia) about the yyy and zzz
axes respectively.​

●​ θ is the angle that the moment vector M makes with the z-axis.​

●​ y and z represent the coordinates of a point on the cross section.

This equation gives the true angle α of the neutral axis. It’s important to note:

The neutral axis does not necessarily align with the direction of the bending
moment M, unless Iy = Iz​.

Principal Axes
●​ For irregular shapes, we find principal axes, which are rotated axes where the
product of inertia Iyz​becomes zero.​

●​ Bending analysis becomes simpler along these axes.

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VI.​ COMPOSITE BEAMS
-​ Composite beams are structural elements made by combining two or more different
materials (like steel and concrete) to act together as one unit. This allows each
material to contribute its best properties for example, concrete for compression and
steel for tension.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
-​ This includes the modulus of elasticity, yield strength, and stress-strain behavior of the
materials used. Since different materials behave differently under load, understanding
these properties is crucial in design and analysis.

MODULAR RATIO
-​ The modular ratio is the ratio of the elastic moduli of the two materials. It is used to
transform one material section into an equivalent section of the other, allowing us to
analyze the composite beam as if it were made of a single material.

TRANSFORMED SECTION METHOD

-​ This method simplifies analysis by converting the entire composite section into an
equivalent section made of only one material (using the modular ratio). Then standard
bending stress and strain formulas can be applied.

STRESS IN COMPOSITE BEAMS

-​ Due to different stiffnesses of materials, stress is distributed unequally. The stronger
(stiffer) material takes more load. Using transformed sections, we can determine how
much stress each material experiences.

NEUTRAL AXIS IN COMPOSITE BEAMS

-​ The neutral axis is the line in the cross-section where stress is zero during bending. In
composite beams, it is not always at the center because of the different material
properties, so it must be calculated based on the transformed section.

BENDING AND DEFLECTION OF COMPOSITE BEAMS

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-​ Composite beams resist bending better due to combined material strength. Calculating
deflection (how much the beam bends) involves taking into account the stiffness of the
entire composite section.

ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

-​ Composite beams are efficient and cost-effective. They're widely used in buildings,
bridges, and floors. By combining materials, engineers can design lighter, stronger, and
more durable structures.

LIMITATIONS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

-​ Designers must consider issues like differential thermal expansion, long-term
deformation (creep), and proper bonding. Incorrect assumptions can lead to structural
failure or serviceability issues.

VII.​ REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

-​ Engineers use steel reinforcing rods to resist bending moments in concrete beams.
Concrete is susceptible to cracking when in tension, making it unsuitable. To maximize
effectiveness, these rods are placed farthest from the beam's neutral axis.

TYPES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

●​ Simply supported beams
-​ supported at both ends

●​ Cantilever beams
-​ fixed at one end, free at the other

●​ Continuous beams
-​ span across more than two supports

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●​ T-beams and L-beams

-​ shaped sections used in floor systems

TYPES OF LOAD

●​ Dead load (weight of the structure itself),

●​ Live load (furniture, people, etc.),

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●​ Impact or dynamic load (temporary or moving forces).

BENDING AND FLEXURE

-​ Bending occurs when beams are loaded. Flexural design checks if the beam can resist
moments using both concrete and steel reinforcement. Positive and negative moments
must be considered.

SHEAR AND DIAGONAL TENSION

-​ Shear forces act perpendicular to the length of the beam and can cause diagonal
cracks. Shear reinforcement (stirrups) is used to prevent shear failure.

REINFORCEMENT AND DETAILING

●​ Main bars – resist bending.

●​ Stirrups – resist shear.

NEUTRAL AXIS AND MOMENT OF RESISTANCE

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-​ The neutral axis is where no stress occurs in the beam cross-section. The moment of
resistance is the beam's capacity to resist bending moments.

Balanced, Under-Reinforced, and Over-Reinforced Sections

●​ Balanced: steel and concrete reach maximum stress together.

●​ Under-reinforced: steel yields before concrete crushes – safer design.
●​ Over-reinforced: concrete fails first – not desirable.

Deflection and Cracking

-​ Beams can bend or crack under load. Codes limit how much deflection is allowed.
Good reinforcement and proper concrete mix help control cracking.

VIII.​ CURVED BEAMS

-​ Curved beams are structural members with a curved (non-straight) centerline, unlike
regular beams which are straight. They are commonly found in hooks, rings, frames,
and crane arms. The stress distribution in curved beams is different from straight
beams due to the curved geometry.

Difference Between Straight and Curved Beams

-​ In straight beams, the neutral axis (where stress is zero) passes through the centroid.
In curved beams, the neutral axis does not pass through the centroid, and stress
distribution is nonlinear. This makes stress analysis more complex in curved beams.

Location of the Neutral Axis

-​ The neutral axis in a curved beam lies closer to the inner radius of the curve. Its
position depends on the beam's shape and cross-section. Finding the neutral axis is
essential to calculate the correct stress distribution.

Stress Distribution in Curved Beams

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-​ Unlike straight beams, where bending stress varies linearly, in curved beams the stress
varies nonlinearly across the section. The inner side (closer to the curve) often
experiences higher compressive stress, and the outer side has lower tensile stress.

Winkler-Bach Theory
-​ This theory is used to analyze bending stresses in curved beams. It assumes that
plane sections remain plane and that radial stresses are small. It provides formulas to
find the bending stress and the location of the neutral axis in curved members.

Bending Stress Formula for Curved Beams

XI. Stress Concentrations

. The flexure formula is not applicable in regions where a member’s cross-sectional area
changes suddenly, as stress and strain distributions become nonlinear. Such discontinuities
include notches, holes, or abrupt changes in cross-section. In these areas, the maximum
normal stress occurs at the section with the smallest cross-sectional area. While the full stress
distribution is complex and often requires experimental methods or elasticity theory, design
typically focuses on the maximum normal stress, which can be estimated using a
stress-concentration factor K, similar to cases of axial or torsional loading.
.

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-For example, Fig. 6–43

gives values of K for a flat bar that has a change in cross section using
shoulder fillets. To use this graph simply find the geometric ratios w>hand r>h and then find
the corresponding value of K for a particular
geometry. Once K is obtained, the maximum bending stress shown in
Fig. 6–45 is determined using.

-For discontinuities such as circular grooves or notches, Fig. 6–44 gives stress-concentration
factors for bending. For axial and torsional loading, as with the previous two types of loading,
stress concentration should be taken into account when designing for brittle material or parts
subject to fatigue or cyclic loading. Stress-concentration factors apply, however, only within the
elastic range. If bending produces yielding, such as in ductile materials, stress redistributes
and the effective maximum stress is less than given by these factors.

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X. INELASTIC BENDING
- The equations for normal stress due to bending are valid only if the material behaves in a
linear-elastic manner. If the material yields, a plastic analysis is needed. For bending of
straight members, three conditions must be met:
●​ Linear Normal-Strain Distribution: Strains vary linearly from zero at the neutral axis
to a maximum at the outer fibers.
●​ Resultant Force Equals Zero: Since only an internal moment acts, the total normal
force across the section must be zero. This is expressed mathematically as

●​ The third condition for bending is the Resultant Moment. The internal moment in the
beam must equal the moment generated by the stress distribution about the neutral
axis. This is calculated using the integral:

●​ Plastic Moment refers to the maximum moment a beam can resist when its material
exhibits elastic-perfectly plastic behavior, such as steel. When the applied moment M =
M_Y​, yielding begins at the outermost fibers. This yield moment is calculated as: If the
internal moment M 7 MY , the material at the top and bottom of the beam will begin to
yield, causing a redistribution of stress over the
cross section until the required internal moment M is developed. If this causes
normal-strain distribution as shown in Fig. 6–48 b , then the corresponding
normal-stress distribution is determined from the stress– strain diagram shown in Fig.
6–48 c . Here the strains P1, PY , P2, correspond to stress s1, sY , sY , respectively.
When these and other stresses like they are plotted on the cross section, we obtain the
stress distribution shown in Fig. 6–48 d or 6–48e. Here the tension and compression
stress “blocks” each consist of component rectangular and triangular blocks. The
resultant forces they produce are equivalent to their volumes.

●​

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●​ Using Eq. 6–29

●​ As noted in Fig. 6–48 e , M produces two zones of plastic yielding and an elastic core
in the member. The boundary between them is located a distance {yY from the neutral
axis. As M increases in magnitude, yY approaches zero. This would render the
material entirely plastic and the stress distribution will then look like that shown in Fig.
6–48 f . From Eq. 6–30 with yY = 0, or by finding the moments of the stress “blocks”
around the neutral axis, we can write this limiting value as

-This value is the plastic moment. It applies only to rectangular sections.

In steel design, beams may be rated for plastic moment.
Design codes define a shape factor:

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●​ Residual Stress
When the plastic moment Mp​is removed, residual stress remains in the beam. This occurs
because the material at the top and bottom was strained plastically. When the load is
removed, the material tries to recover elastically, creating internal stress. This elastic recovery
adds a linear stress distribution opposite to the original plastic moment. The resulting
maximum stress, called the modulus of rupture.

●​

●​ Residual Stress (cont.)

When plastic moment is removed, max elastic recovery strain at the beam’s outer
fibers is 2ϵY. This results in a max residual stress of 2σY. This stress exceeds the
required 1.5σY​for plastic bending. Superimposing the plastic stress and its recovery
creates the residual stress distribution (Fig. 6–49c). This distribution has zero net force
and moment, as required.
●​ Ultimate Moment

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Applies to beams with vertical symmetry but not horizontal. When a moment is applied about
the horizontal axis: Material strain hardening is assumed. Stress–strain behavior differs in
tension and compression. Finding the neutral axis and max strain is hard due to asymmetry. A
trial-and-error method is used:
Steps: -Assume the neutral axis location and strain slope (Fig. 6–50c).
-Graphically plot the stress distribution using the material’s stress–strain curve (Fig. 6–50b) to
match the strain. This process helps determine the ultimate moment the beam can resist.

●​

-c. Estimate the location of the neutral axis and slope of strain distribution. Divide the cross
section into stress blocks (tension and compression regions). Adjust the neutral axis so the
resultant tensile force T equals the compressive force C. Repeat this process until T = C (force
equilibrium)
d.
With T = C, calculate the moments of T and C about the neutral axis. Use the centroids of the
stress distributions for moment arms. Ensure the equation M = Ty′ + Cy″ is satisfied (moment
equilibrium). If not, adjust the slope of the strain distribution and repeat the process.
Key Point:
Although tedious, this method is rarely needed in practice because most structural members
are symmetric and made from materials with balanced tension-compression behavior,
simplifying the analysis.

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