Module 1

D.C. Circuits
Electricity: Electricity plays an important role in our day to day life.
Electricity is used for
1. Lighting ( lamps)
2. Heating( heaters)
3. Cooling
4. Entertainment ( T.V. and radio)
5. Transportation
6. Calculations( Calculators)
Now- a- days all the activities are dependent upon electricity.
Electricity: The invisible energy which constitutes flow of electrons in a closed circuit to do
work is called electricity.

Nature of Electricity: Every matter is electrical in nature since it contains charged particles like
electrons and protons. Therefore
1. Ordinarily, a body is neutral as it contains same number of protons and electrons.
2. If some of electrons are removed from the body, there is a deficit of electrons and the
body attains a positive charge.
3. If some of electrons are supplied to the body, there occurs excess of electrons and the
body attains a negative charge.

A body is said to be charged +vely or –vely if it has deficit or excess of electrons from its normal
due share respectively.

Unit of Charge:
The practical unit of charge is coulomb.
One Coulomb= charge on 6.28 x 1018 electrons.
Free Electrons: The valence electrons which are loosely attached to the nucleus of an atom and
free to move when external energy is applied are called free electrons.

Electrical Potential: The capacity of charged body to do work is called electrical potential.
𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐝𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐖
Electrical Potential = =
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝑸

𝐖
V=
𝑸
Unit of electrical potential is Vollts or Joules/Coulomb.
Def: A body is said to have an electric potential of 1 Volt if 1 Joule of work is done to charge
the body to 1 coulomb.

Potential Difference:
The difference in electrical potential of the two charged bodies is called potential difference.
Unit of potential difference is Volts.

Electric Current: In metallic wire, a large number of electrons are available which move from
one atom to other at random.

When an electrical potential is applied across a metallic wire, the loosely attached free electron
start moving towards positive terminal of the cell.

Thus, continuous flow of electrons in an electric circuit is called electric current

Definition-
Current is rate of flow of electrons i.e. charge flowing per second.
𝑸
I=
𝒕
The unit of current is Ampere (A)
E.M.F. (Electromotive force) and potential difference:
E.m.f is the force that causes an electric current to flow in an electric circuit.
Infact it is not a force but it is an energy.
E.m.f: The electromotive force is the amount of energy supplied by the source to each
coulomb of charge.
Potential Difference: The potential difference is the amount of energy used by the one
coulomb of charge in moving from one point to the other.
In the following figure battery has emf of 12V and the potential difference between A and B is
7V.

E=12
V
Ohm’s Law
Ohm‟s laws state that the current through any two points of the conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference applied across the conductor, provided physical conditions i.e.
temperature, etc. do not change. It is measured in (Ω) ohm.

Mathematically it is expressed as

This constant is also called the resistance (R) of the conductor (or circuit)
𝑉
R= 𝐼

In a circuit, when current flows through a resistor, the potential difference across the resistor is
known as voltage drops across it, i.e., V = IR.
Limitations of Ohm’s Law

 Ohm‟s law is not applicable in unilateral networks. Unilateral networks allow the current
to flow in one direction. Such types of network consist of elements like a diode,
transistor, etc.

 It is not applicable for the non-linear network (network containing non-linear elements
such as electric arc etc). In the nonlinear network, the parameter of the network is varied
with the voltage and current. Their parameter likes resistance, inductance, capacitance
and frequency, etc., not remain constant with the times. So ohms law is not applicable to
the nonlinear network. Ohm‟s law is used for finding the resistance of the circuit and also
for knowing the voltage and current of the circuit.

Resistance: The opposition offered to flow of current is called resistance. It is represented by R.

The unit of resistance is ohms (Ω)

Law of Resistance: The resistance of a wire depends upon

1. It is directly proportional to its length.
R α L ………………. 1
2. It is inversely proportional to its area of cross-section.
1
R α 𝐴 ………………..2
3. It depends upon the nature of material of which the wire is made.
4. It also depends upon the temperature of the wire.
Combining 1 and 2
𝐿
Rα𝐴
ρL
R=
𝐴
Numerical on OHM’s law

1. A wire of length 1 m has a resistance of 2 ohms. Obtain the resistance if specific

resistance is double, the diameter is double and the length is made three times the first.

2. There are two wires A& B of same material. A is 20 times longer than B and has one fifth
of the cross-section as that of B. If the resistance of A is 1 ohm. What is the resistance of
B?
Electric Circuit:
The close path for flow of electric current is called electric circuit. The electric circuit is an
arrangement of electrical energy sources and various circuit elements such as R, L and C are
connected in series, parallel or series parallel combinations.

Circuit Elements:
The circuit elements can be categorized as:
1. Active and passive elements
2. Unilateral and bilateral elements
3. Linear and non-linear elements
4. Lumped and distributed elements

1. Active and passive elements:

Active elements are those who supply energy or power in the form of a voltage or current to the
circuit or network.
Examples of the active components are batteries or generators etc.
Passive elements are those who receive energy in the form of voltage or current.
Examples of the passive components are resistor, capacitor and inductor.
2. Unilateral and bilateral elements:
Unilateral elements: The elements which conduct the current in one direction only are called
unilateral elements such as diodes, transistors, vacuum tubes, rectifiers etc
Bilateral elements: The elements which conduct the current in both the directions are called
bilateral elements such as resistors.
3. Linear and non-linear elements
Linear Elements: The elements which follow the linear relation between current and voltage.
e.g. resistors
Non Linear Elements: The elements which don‟t follow the linear relation between current and
voltage. e.g. Diode and transistors
4. Lumped and distributed elements:
Lumped elements: The elements in which action takes place simultaneously are lumped elements
such as resistor, capacitor and inductor. These elements are smaller in size.
Distributed elements: The elements in which for a given cause is not occurring simultaneously at
the same instant but it is distributed are called distributed elements such as transmission lines.
Voltage and Current Source:
To deliver electrical energy to the electrical circuits, a source is required and a load is connected
to source as shown in fig.

The source may be d.c. source or a.c source.

D.C. source:
Any source that produces direct voltage continuously and has ability to deliver direct current is
called d.c. source such as batteries and generators etc.
A.C. source:
Any source that produces alternating voltage continuously and has ability to deliver the
alternating current is called a.c. source such as alternators, oscillators or signal generators.
Independent and dependent sources:
There are two types of sources- Voltage source and current source. Sources can be either
independent or dependent upon some other quantities.
Independent voltage/ current source:
The voltage ( a.c or d.c.) does not dependent on other voltages or current in the circuit.
Symbol for independent voltage and current source
Examples of independent voltage source batteries and generators.
Examples of independent current source semiconductor devices such as Diode and transistors

Dependent voltage/ current source:

The voltage does dependent on another voltage or current in the circuit.
Symbol for dependent voltage and current source

Ideal and practical voltage sources:

Ideal voltage sources: An imaginary voltage source, which can provide a constant voltage to load
ranging from zero to infinity. Such voltage source is having zero internal resistance, Rs and is
called Ideal Voltage Source. Practically it is not possible to build a voltage source with no
internal resistance and constant voltage for that long range of the load.

Practical voltage sources: Practical voltage sources always have some resistance value in series
with an ideal voltage source and because of that series resistance, voltage drops when current
passes through it. So, Practical Voltage Source has internal resistance and slightly variable
voltage.
Source Transformation:
D. C. circuit: The closed path for flow of direct current is called D.C. circuit.

D.C Circuit is of two types:

1. Series Circuit
2. Parallel Circuit

Current in Parallel Circuit:

Then
Voltage in Series Circuit:

Total resistance of the circuit is R=R1+R2

Put the values of R in eqn 3 and 4
 Network Terminology:

1. Electric Network:
Electric network is interconnection of electric components. E.g. Batteries, resistors, inductors
and capacitors.
2. Electric Circuit:
The path for flow of electric current is called
electric circuit.
3. Active Elements:
The elements which supplies energy to the
circuit. In fig V1 and V2 are active elements.
4. Passive Elements:
The elements which receives energy. In fig
R1, R2 and R3 are passive elements.
5. Node:
Node is a point where two or more circuit elements are connected together. In Fig. A, B, C and E
are nodes.
6. Junction:
Junction is a point in the network where three or more circuit elements are connected together.
It is a point where current is divided. In Fig. B and E are junctions.
7. Loop:
The closed path of a network. E.g. ABEFA, BCDEB and ABCDEFA are loops.
8. Mesh:
The elementary form of loop which cannot be further divided is called mesh.
E.g. ABEFA, BCDEB are mesh.
9. Branch:
Part of a network which lies between two junction points. In fig. ABEFA, BCDEB AND BE are
the three branches.
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law or KCL

Kirchhoff‟s Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge entering a junction or
node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node”. In other words the algebraic sum of all the
currents entering and leaving a node must be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0.

Kirchhoff‟s Current Law or KCL

Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the two currents
leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we can also rewrite the
equation as;

I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or junction of two or more
current carrying paths or elements such as cables and components. Also for current to flow either
in or out of a node a closed circuit path must exist. We can use Kirchhoff‟s current law when
analyzing parallel circuits.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Kirchhoff‟s Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop network, the total voltage
around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop” which is also
equal to zero. In other words the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be equal to
zero.
Kirchhoff‟s Voltage Law or KVL

Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the direction of all the
voltage drops, either positive or negative, and returning back to the same starting point. It is
 important to maintain the same direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage
sum will not be equal to zero. We can use Kirchhoff‟s voltage law when analyzing series
circuits.

Analysis of simple circuits with Kirchhoff’s law

Q: Calculate current in given circuit using Kirchhoff's law.

Ans: Firstly we have to mark the direction of current in given circuit.

Junction b: I1 + I2 + I3 = 0

So, I3 = - (I1 + I2)

I3 = - (171-64) = -107mA

I3 = -107mA
 Short Questions with answers
Module 1
Q1. State Ohm‟s law and its limitations.
Ans. Ohm‟s laws state that the current through any two points of the conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference applied across the conductor, provided physical
conditions i.e. temperature, etc. do not change. It is measured in (Ω) ohm.
Mathematically it is expressed as

This constant is also called the resistance (R) of the conductor (or circuit)

𝑉
R= 𝐼

In a circuit, when current flows through a resistor, the potential difference across the resistor is
known as voltage drops across it, i.e., V = IR.
Limitations of Ohm‟s Law
 Ohm‟s law is not applicable in unilateral networks. Unilateral networks allow the current
to flow in one direction. Such types of network consist elements like a diode, transistor,
etc.
 It is not applicable for the non-linear network. In the nonlinear network, the parameter of
the network is varied with the voltage and current. Their parameter likes resistance,
inductance, capacitance and frequency, etc., not remain constant with the times. So ohms
law is not applicable to the nonlinear network. Ohm‟s law is used for finding the
resistance of the circuit and also for knowing the voltage and current of the circuit.
Q2. Differentiate between Ideal and practical voltage sources.
Ans. Ideal voltage sources: An imaginary voltage source, which can provide a constant voltage
to load ranging from zero to infinity. Such voltage source is having zero internal resistance, Rs
and is called Ideal Voltage Source. Practically it is not possible to build a voltage source with no
internal resistance and constant voltage for that long range of the load.

Practical voltage sources: Practical voltage sources always have some resistance value in series
with an ideal voltage source and because of that series resistance, voltage drops when current
passes through it. So, Practical Voltage Source has internal resistance and slightly variable
voltage
Q3. How will you differentiate between Linear and Non Linear elements?
Ans. In Electrical Circuits Linear Elements are the devices that follow the linear relation between
current and voltage. e.g. an ideal Resistance.
Non Linear Elements are devices which don't follow the linear relation between current and
voltage. e.g. Diode.
Q4. Differentiate between active and passive elements.
Ans. Active components are those who deliver or supply energy or power in the form of a
voltage or current. Passive components are those who utilizes or store energy in the form of
voltage or current.
Examples of the active components are Diodes, transistors, SCR, integrated circuits, etc.
Examples of the passive components are resistor, capacitor and inductor.
Q5. State superposition theorem.
Ans. Superposition theorem states that in any linear, active, bilateral network having more than
one source, the response across any element is the sum of the responses obtained from each
source considered separately and all other sources are replaced by their internal resistance. The
superposition theorem is used to solve the network where two or more sources are present and
connected
Q6. What do you mean by time domain analysis? Discuss
Ans. The solution of the linear differential equation gives the response of the system. The
representation of a electrical system by a linear differential equation of functions of time and its
solution is collectively called time domain analysis of electrical system
Q7.State Thevenin‟s Theorem
Ans. Thevenin‟s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several voltages and
resistances can be replaced by just one single voltage in series with a single resistance connected
across the load“. In other words, it is possible to simplify any electrical circuit, no matter how
complex, to an equivalent two-terminal circuit with just a single constant voltage source in series
with a resistance (or impedance) connected to a load .
Q8.If a 30 V source can force 1.5 A through a certain linear circuit, how much current can10 V
force through the same circuit?
𝑉
Ans. R= 𝐼
30
R=1.5

R= 20 Ω
V=IR
𝑉 10
I=𝑅 , I = 20

I= 0.5 A
Q9. State Norton‟s Theorem.
Ans. Norton‟s Theorem states that a linear active network consisting of independent or
dependent voltage source and current sources and the various circuit elements can be substituted
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a resistance. The current
source being the short-circuited current across the load terminal and the resistance being the
internal resistance of the source network.
Q10. State Kirchhoff‟s law.
Ans. Kirchhoffs Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge entering a junction
or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node”. In other words the algebraic sum of all
the currents entering and leaving a node must be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0.
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop network, the total voltage
around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop” which is also
equal to zero. In other words the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be equal to
zero.