CHAPTER 4: LOGARITHMAIC EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

The exponential function is one-to-one and hence has an inverse function that is defined implicitly by the
equation

x = ay a0 a 1
This inverse function is so important that it is given a name, the logarithmic function.

1. Logarithmic function

DEFINITION
The logarithmic function with base a , where a  0 and a  1, is denoted by y = log a x (read as “ y is
the logarithm with base a of x ”) and is defined by
y = loga x  x = a y
The domain of the logarithmic function y = log a x is x  0 , that is the set of positive real numbers,
+
.
As this definition illustrates, a logarithm is a name for a certain exponent. So log a x represents the exponent
to which a must be raised to obtain x.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Finding the exact value of a logarithmic expression

Find the exact value of:

 1 
a) log 2 16 b) log 3  
 27 
SOLUTION:
a) To evaluate log 2 16, think “2 raised to what  1 
b) To evaluate log 3   , “3 raised to what power
power yields 16?” Then,  27 
1
yields ?” Then,
27

Therefore, log 2 16 = 4

 1 
Therefore, log 3   = −3
 27 

1.1. Basic properties of logarithms

From the definition of logarithms we can establish the following basic properties.

Property Reason
i. log a 1 = 0 We raise a to the exponent 0 to get 1.
ii. log a a = 1 We raise a to the exponent 1 to get a .
iii. log a a x = x We raise a to the exponent x to get a .
x

iv. a
log a x
=x log a x is the exponent to which a must be raised to get x .

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WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Applying the basic properties of logarithms
Evaluate the expression.
a) log 8 1 b) log3 3 c) log 2 215 d) 5
log 5 12

SOLUTION:
We use the basic properties of logarithms to evaluate the expressions.

1.2. Graph of logarithmic functions

Because exponential functions and logarithmic functions are inverses of each other, the graph of the
logarithmic function y = log a x, is the reflection about the line y = x of the graph of the exponential
function y = a x , as shown in the figure below.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Graphing logarithmic functions

Graph the functions
a) y = log 2 x b) y = log 1 x
3

SOLUTION:
x
1
b) To graph y = log 1 x graph y =   , and reflect it
a) To graph y = log 2 x, graph y = 2 , and
x
3 3
reflect it about the line y = x . about the line y = x .

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1.3. Logarithms with especial bases
1.3.1. Common logarithm

A logarithm whose base is 10 is called a common logarithm and it is denoted by log x . For example,
log100 = 2 ; and log ( 0.001) = −3 .

1.3.2. Natural logarithm

A logarithm whose base is e is called a natural logarithm and it is denoted by ln x . For example,
ln e = 1 ; and ln1 = 0 .

1.4. Properties of the Logarithmic Function

Let f ( x ) = log a x where a  0 and a  1 be a logarithmic function.

The following properties are verified:
1. The domain is the set of positive real numbers, or 0; + using interval notation; the range is the
set of all real numbers, or −; + using interval notation.
2. The x − intercept of the graph is 1. There is no y − intercept.
3. The y − axis ( x = 0 ) is a vertical asymptote of the graph.
4. A logarithmic function is decreasing if 0  a  1 and is increasing a  1 .
1 
5. The graph of f contains the points (1;0 ) , ( a;1) , and  ;1  .
a 
6. Logarithmic functions are one-to-one functions
7. Logarithmic functions are continuous.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Finding domain and graphing logarithmic function

Find the domain and graph the following functions.
x
1
a) f ( x ) =   (
b) g ( x ) = ln x 2 − 3 )
e

SOLUTION:
x
1
a) f ( x ) =   = e− x is an (
b) g ( x ) = ln x 2 − 3 )
e
exponential function, therefore the Domain: D = x   : x 2 − 3  0 .
domain of f is D = .
This means that the domain of g is the
Its graph is shown below.
solution of the inequality x − 3  0
2

which is x   −; − 3    3; + 

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1.5. Laws of logarithms
The Laws of Logarithms are the key properties of logarithms. They allow us to use logarithms to compare
large numbers and to solve exponential equations. We need to solve exponential equations to answer
questions such as “When will my bank account reach a million dollars?” or “When will the population of
the world reach 10 billion?”
Since logarithms are exponents, the Rules of Exponents give us useful rules for working with logarithms.
For example, we know that
“To find the product of two powers with the same base, we add exponents.”
x+ y
For example, 10 10 = 10 . To see what this rule tells us about logarithms, let’s express the exponents
x y

as logarithms. So let

A = 10 x B = 10 x AB = 10 x + y
Writing these equations in logarithmic form, we get

log A = x log B = y log AB = x + y

It follows that log AB = log A + log B . We can express this rule in words:

“To find the logarithm of a product, we add the logarithms of the factors.”
This explains the first of the following “laws.” Laws 2 and 3 follow from the corresponding rules for
exponents. In these laws A and B are positive real numbers, and C is any real number.

Law In Words
The logarithm of a product is the sum of the
1. log a AB = log a A + log a B
logarithms.
 A The logarithm of a quotient is the difference of the
2. log a   = log a A − log a B
B logarithms.

3. loga Ac = C loga A The logarithm of a power is the exponent times the

logarithm of the base.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Evaluating logarithmic expressions

Evaluate each expression.

1
a) log 4 2 + log 4 32 b) log 2 80 − log 2 5 c) − log 8
3

SOLUTION:
To find the logarithm of a number, it’s helpful to express the number as a power of the base.
1
a) log 4 2 + log 4 32 b) log 2 80 − log 2 5 c) − log 8
3
= log 4 ( 2  32 ) = log 2 (80  5) −
1
= log 8 3
= log 4 64 = log 2 16
1
= log 4 4 3
= log 2 2 4 = log  
2
=3 =4
 −0.301

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1.5.1. Change of base formula
So far, we have been calculating logarithms by inspection or by using the calculator. That’s fine when the
numbers involved are exact powers of the base - log 2 16 = 4 because we know that 2 = 16 . But what if
4

we need to find, say, log3 5 ? Scientific calculators in general have only two keys that calculate logarithms:
LOG for finding logarithms base 10 and LN for finding logarithms base e . We can use a calculator to
find logarithms for other bases by using the change of base formula.
Change of base formula
log a x
log b x =
log a b

To prove this formula, we’ll start with the logarithm that we want to find. Let
y = logb x
We write this equation in exponential form and take the logarithm, with base a , of each side.
by = x Exponential form
log a ( b y ) = log a x Take log a of each side

y log a b = log a x Law 3

log a x
y= Divide by log a b
log a b
Since y = logb x , this completes the proof.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Evaluating logarithms with the change of base formula

Use the Change of Base Formula to evaluate the logarithm log3 5 , correct to 2 decimal places.

SOLUTION:
ln 5
log 3 5 =  1.46
ln 3

EXERCISE 1
1. Calculate without using a calculator. 1
a) log 2 64
i) log 1  
2  16 
b) log16 16  1 
j) log 2   + log 1 2
c) log5 5  32  32

 1 
d) log 3   k) log (1000 )
 81 
l) log ( 0,01)
 1 
e) log 2  
 64  m) ln e ( ) 3

f) log 4 1  1

n) ln  e 3 
g) log 1 2  
( e)
4
5
o) ln
 1 
h) log 1  
5  125  p) log ( 0,1)

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 q) ln ( e ) 4. Show that:
1
r) log (10 ) a) log a ( b ) =
logb ( a )
s) ln e( ) + ln ( e ) + log (1)
2 −10
 a  1 3
2. Find the domain and graph each of the b) log 
  = log ( a ) − log ( b )
5 3 
following functions.  b  2 10
x
1
a) y =   5. Write the following as a single natural
2 logarithm.
b) f ( x ) = ln ( x ) ( )
a) ln x 2 + ln ( x ) − ln ( x)
c) g ( x ) = log 2 − x ( 2
) b) 2ln ( a ) − 3ln ( b )
2

d) h ( x ) = ln x ( ) 3

3. Calculate without using a calculator.

a) log 2 ( 64 16 )
b) log3 ( 81 27 )
c) log 2 ( 64 :16 )
d) log 3 ( 81: 27 )

e) log 2 ( 32 )
8

 4 27 
f) log3  8 
 81 

2. Logarithmic equations
We can solved logarithmic equations by changing a logarithmic expression to an exponential
expression. That is, we use the definition of a logarithm:
y = log a x if and only if x = a y where a  0 and a  1 .
For example, to solve the equation log 2 (1 − 2 x ) = 3, write the logarithmic equation as an equivalent
exponential equation 1 − 2 x = 2 and solve for x .
3

log 2 (1 − 2 x ) = 3
1 − 2 x = 23 Change to exponential form.
−2x = 7 Simplify.
x = −7 2 Solve.
Check this solution for yourself.
For most logarithmic equations, some manipulation of the equation (usually using properties of
logarithms) is required to obtain a solution. Also, to avoid extraneous solutions with logarithmic
equations, determine the domain of the variable first.
Let’s begin with an example of a logarithmic equation that requires using the fact that a logarithmic
function is a one-to-one function:
If log a M = log a N , then M = N M , N , and a are positive and a  1

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