BS AI VIII

Ms Dimple Kumari
❑Where did you had your last outing?
❑What is the name of your best friend?
❑Do you know how to drive a car or a cycle?
❑How did you feel when you got the highest marks in
your high school?
The mental process you used to answer all of these
questions is known as memory.
DEFINITION
❑ It refers to the ability to retain information and reproducing it over
a period of time when required to perform a cognitive task.
❑ An internal record or representation of some prior event or
experience
❑ A set of mental processes that receives, encodes, stores, organizes,
alters and retrieves information over time.
STAGES OF MEMORY
❑ It has been conceptualized as a process comprised of three stages;
a. Encoding
b. Storage
c. Retrieval
❑ All information received by our senses goes through these stages.
❑ Encoding: It is the process of converting sensory information into a form
that can be processed further by the memory systems.
❑ Storage: In this second stage, received information from memory
systems are stored so that it can be used at a later time.
❑ Retrieval: It refers to locating and bringing the stored material
information to one’s awareness when required to complete a task.
However, any issue or hindrance in the completion of any of these stages
can lead to memory failure.
TYPES OF MEMORY
❑ Memory has been divided into three types, also known as stages of
memory.
❑ Psychologist believe that when memory goes through these stages, it gets
strengthen and lasts for a long time.
❖ Sensory memory
❖ Short term memory
❖ Long term memory
Sensory memory
❑ Storage of memory lasting for a while; this is the initial momentary stage.
❑ Sensory memory refers to the initial, momentary recording of information in
our sensory systems.
❑ When sensations strike our eyes, they linger briefly in the visual system. This
kind of sensory memory is called iconic memory and refers to the usually brief
visual persistence of information as it is being interpreted by the visual system.
❑ Echoic memory is the name applied to the same phenomenon in the auditory
domain, the brief mental echo that persists after information has been heard.
❑ Similar systems are assumed to exist for other sensory systems (touch, taste,
and smell).
❑ The person’s sensory system records information as a raw and non-meaningful
stimulus e.g., a fly that sat on your nose in the park this morning, the sound of
the car that passed by you, or the feel of the dry leaf that landed on your head
when you were waiting for the bus.
Short term memory/Working memory
❑ If the impression transmitted by sensory register or store stay in the mind up
to 25 seconds, they are called short term memory
❑ This system is higher in functioning than sensory memory, as it stores
information in terms of meaning and not just simple sensory stimulation.
❑ Sensory information is meaningless and therefore discarded.
❑ If it is sent to the short- term memory then a meaning is added to it.
❑ Since now it is meaningful it will be retained, though for not very long.
❑ Short-term memory retains information for 15 to 25 seconds, unless it is
moved into the long- term memory.
❑ Short term memory stores information for immediate use. It has to be
recalled so as to stay long in the mind.
Long term memory
❑ When events and experiences stay in mind for a long time, it is called long
term memory.
❑ This memory may span minutes, hours, days, weeks, months years or
even whole life.
❑ It is also referred to as secondary memory.
❑ This memory has unlimited storage. It retains the basic import rather the
details of experiences and issues.
❑ In this memory, we have some information on the tip of our tongue while
in some cases, we have to exert our mind.
Types of LTM
There are two main types of long-term memory:
❑ Explicit memory
❑ Implicit memory
❑ Explicit (Declarative) Memory: This type of memory involves conscious
recollection of information and can be further divided into:
❖ Episodic Memory: Memory of specific events or experiences in your
life. For example, remembering your last birthday party or a vacation
you went on.
❖ Semantic Memory: Memory of facts, concepts, and knowledge that
are not tied to specific experiences. For example, knowing that Paris is
the capital of France or that 2+2 equals 4.
❑ Implicit (Non-declarative) Memory: This type of memory involves
unconscious recollection and includes:
❖ Procedural Memory: Memory of how to perform tasks and skills,
such as riding a bike, typing, or playing an instrument.
❖ Classical Conditioning: Memory formed through association, like
feeling nervous when hearing a dentist's drill because of past
experiences.
❖ Priming: Exposure to one stimulus influences the response to
another stimulus, often without conscious awareness. For example,
after seeing the word "yellow," you might more quickly recognize
the word "banana."
FORGETTING
FORGETTING
❑ According to Munn (1967) “forgetting is the loss, temporary or
permanent of the ability to recall or recognize something learnt
earlier”.
❑ According to Drever (1952) “forgetting means failure at any time to
recall an experience when attempting to do or to perform an action
previously learnt.”
❑ Several incidents occur in our lives where we forget something or the
other.
❑ Whether we forget where we have placed our keys or the name of the
person we met last night, forgetfulness is a very common occurrence in
our daily lives.
❑ With time, psychologists have come up with several theories of
forgetting, out of which five have remained popular worldwide.
Forgetting Theories
❑ There are different theories which provide distinct views on forgetting.
❑ They are

⃝ Decay Theories

⃝ Interference Theories

⃝ Motivated forgetting
Decay theory
❑ According to this theory, a memory trace is created every time a new
theory is formed.
❑ Decay theory suggests that over time, these memory traces begin to
fade and disappear.
❑ If the information is not retrieved and rehearsed, it will eventually be
lost.
Interference theory
❑ This theory posits that forgetting is not caused by mere passage of time
but due to one memory competing with or replacing another memory.
❑ This phenomenon is known as “Memories interfering with memories”.
❑ There are two types of interference
❖ Proactive interference
❖ Retroactive interference
Proactive Interference
❑ Proactive interference occurs when an old memory interferes with
remembering new information.
❑ For example, memories of where you parked your car on campus the past
week interfere with the ability of finding a car today.
❑ Similarly, previously learned language interferes with ability to remember
newly learned language.
Retroactive interference
❑ Retroactive interference occurs when a new memory interferes with
remembering old information.
❑ For example, when new phone number interferes with ability to remember
old phone number.
❑ Similarly, learning a new language interferes with ability to remember old
language.
Motivated Forgetting
❑ The motivated forgetting theory states that we humans tend to forget
some unwanted memories to escape the pain and anxiety such
memories might elicit.
❑ There are two main forms
❖ Repression, an unconscious act of pushing painful memories into the
unconscious.
❖ Suppression, a conscious effort to avoid thinking about or remembering
something.
MEMORY ENHANCEMENT TECHNIQUES
❑ Improving memory is a valuable skill that can benefit various aspects of
life, such as learning, work, and daily tasks.
❑ Below are some strategies to enhance memory
❖ Rehearsal
❖ Elaboration
❖ Mnemonic techniques
✓ Mnemonics Using Images
Method of Loci
Keyword method
✓ Mnemonics Using Organization
Chunking
First letter technique
Rehearsal
❑ One strategy is rehearsal, or the conscious repetition of information to be
remembered (Craik & Watkins, 1973).
❑ Think about how you learned your multiplication tables as a child.
❑ You may recall that 6 x 6 = 36, 6 x 7 = 42, and 6 x 8 = 48.
❑ Memorizing these facts is rehearsal.
Elaboration
❑ Elaboration is the process of adding meaning to new information by
connecting it to what you already know.
❑ It makes the information richer and easier to remember.
❑ Such as connecting the new idea of operant conditioning to your personal
experiences with rewards and punishments, making the theory more
meaningful and memorable instead of instead of just memorizing "behavior
is strengthened by rewards or weakened by punishments,"
Mnemonic techniques
❑ Mnemonic techniques are memory aids that help you remember
information by associating it with something more memorable.
❑ There are basically two broad categories of mnemonics; one category
of mnemonics use images, while other uses principles of organization
to memorize information.
❑ Mnemonics Using Images
Method of Loci
Keyword method
❑ Mnemonics Using Organization
Chunking
First letter technique
Mnemonics Using Images
Method of Loci
❑ Placing images at the location Loci (pronounced as low-sye), is the plural
form of “Locus”, which refers to position or place.
❑ This method uses the location of a familiar place as a cue to retrieve
information.
❑ Now suppose, you want to learn a list of objects that you want to buy
from a nearby grocery store.
❑ The lists contain items like egg, tomato, pen, washing powder and salt.
Now to remember these items, first, visualize each of them to be
located in some separate spatial location, such as, in different rooms of
your house.
❑ Then, mentally go through your house visualizing each item in a
separate place. After reaching the market, all you need to do is to take
another mental tour of your house and recall the items you have placed
in the different location in a sequence.
Keyword
❑ The keyword method is a powerful
mnemonic strategy used to enhance
memory and learning, particularly
effective for vocabulary acquisition
and technical terms.
❑ It involves two main steps:
❑ First, identifying a keyword that
sounds similar to the unfamiliar word;
and second, creating a vivid mental
image or story that links the keyword
to the word’s actual meaning.
❑ Such as teaching the concept of
subtraction using the word ‘difference’.
Chunking
❑ Chunking is a strategy of
grouping related items or
information into smaller, more
manageable units to enhance
memory, processing, and
understanding.
❑ It's a technique used to make
complex information easier to
remember, recall, and process,
particularly when dealing with
limited short-term memory
capacity.
First letter technique
❑ The "first letter technique,"
also known as the first-letter
mnemonic, is a memory
strategy that uses the first
letter of each word or item in a
list to create a memorable
word, acronym, or sentence.
❑ This technique helps to encode
and recall information by
making it more structured and
easier to remember.
Conclusion
Not everyone has an easy time learning, so finding and implementing a few
memorization techniques that work for you can be really beneficial.