ELECTRICAL MATERIALS

& SYSTEMS
TOPICS TO BE DISCUSSED
Power Generation and Transmission
Building Electrical Service Equipment
Overcurrent Protection: Fuses & Circuit Breakers
Utilization Equipment and Devices
Conductors
Enclosures & Raceways
Electric Motors
Occupant Protection
Equipment Protection
 POWER GENERATION & TRANSMISSION
Power generation is the process of converting various forms of energy into electrical energy. This
electricity is generated at power plants and facilities. There are various methods of power generation,
each utilizing different energy sources:

a. Fossil Fuels: Power plants can burn fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, and oil to generate
electricity through combustion. This method has been common for many decades but is gradually
being replaced by cleaner alternatives due to environmental concerns.

b. Renewable Energy: Renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, and geothermal,
harness energy from natural processes like sunlight, wind, water flow, and Earth's heat. These sources
are considered environmentally friendly and sustainable.
 POWER GENERATION & TRANSMISSION
c. Nuclear Energy: Nuclear power plants use nuclear reactions to generate heat, which is
then converted into electricity. It is a low-carbon energy source but comes with its own
set of challenges, including nuclear waste disposal and safety concerns.

d. Other Sources: Some other sources like biomass and tidal energy are also used for
power generation but are less common than the ones mentioned above.
POWER GENERATION & TRANSMISSION
POWER GENERATION & TRANSMISSION
2. Power Transmission:
Once electricity is generated, it needs to be transmitted from power plants to consumers. Power
transmission involves several steps and components:

a. Step-up Transformers: The electricity generated at power plants is typically produced at low
voltages. Step-up transformers are used to increase the voltage for efficient long-distance
transmission. Higher voltage reduces energy loss during transmission.

b. High-Voltage Transmission Lines: High-voltage power lines, often called transmission lines,
carry electricity over long distances. These lines are supported by tall towers and are designed to
minimize energy loss and maintain grid stability.
POWER GENERATION & TRANSMISSION
c. Substations: Along the transmission route, substations are used to control voltage levels,
switch between power sources, and distribute electricity to different regions.

d. Step-down Transformers: Before reaching homes and businesses, electricity passes through
step-down transformers to reduce the voltage to a safe and usable level.

e. Distribution Lines: Low-voltage distribution lines carry electricity from substations to homes
and businesses, where it can be used for various purposes.
POWER GENERATION & TRANSMISSION
BUILDING ELECTRICAL SERVICE
EQUIPMENT
Building electrical service equipment refers to the installation and components necessary to
deliver electrical power from the utility's electrical distribution system to a building or facility.
This equipment is essential for ensuring a safe and reliable supply of electricity to the building's
electrical systems and devices.
BUILDING ELECTRICAL SERVICE
EQUIPMENT
Service Entrance: The service entrance is the point where the electrical supply from the utility
company enters the building. It typically consists of the following components:
Service Drop: Overhead service lines that connect the building to the utility's distribution lines.
Service Lateral: Underground service lines that perform the same function as the service drop
but are buried underground.
Service Entrance Conductors: Wires or cables that carry electrical power from the service drop
or lateral into the building.
Main Service Panel (Service Entrance Panel): The main service panel, also known as the main
distribution panel or load center, is a critical component of the building's electrical service
equipment. It contains circuit breakers or fuses that protect the building's electrical circuits from
overloads and faults. The main service panel is usually located near the point of service
entrance.
BUILDING ELECTRICAL SERVICE
EQUIPMENT
Metering Equipment: Electrical meters are installed to measure the amount of electricity
consumed by the building. There are various types of meters, including analog meters and digital
smart meters, depending on the utility's requirements and technology used.

Disconnect Switch: A disconnect switch is a safety device used to disconnect the building from
the utility's power supply. It allows for safe maintenance and repair work on the building's
electrical system. In some cases, a main disconnect switch may be integrated into the main
service panel.
BUILDING ELECTRICAL SERVICE
EQUIPMENT
Grounding and Bonding: Proper grounding and bonding of electrical systems are crucial for safety
and electrical system performance. Grounding ensures that electrical faults are safely directed into
the ground, while bonding connects all metal components to prevent electrical potential differences
that can lead to electrical shock or fires.

Service Conduits and Raceways: Conduits and raceways are used to protect and route electrical
wiring from the service entrance to the main service panel and throughout the building. These may
be made of metal or PVC and are designed to meet local electrical codes.

Overcurrent Protection: Circuit breakers or fuses provide overcurrent protection to prevent electrical
circuits from drawing more current than they are rated for. They are located in the main service panel
and at various distribution points throughout the building.
BUILDING ELECTRICAL SERVICE
EQUIPMENT
Voltage Regulation and Power Quality Equipment: In some cases, voltage regulation and power
quality equipment may be installed to ensure a stable and high-quality power supply to sensitive
equipment and systems within the building.

Emergency Backup Systems: Some buildings may include emergency backup power systems,
such as generators or uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), to ensure continued operation of
critical systems during power outages.

Compliance with Electrical Codes: Building electrical service equipment must comply with local,
regional, and national electrical codes and regulations to ensure safety and reliability.
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION:
FUSES AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Fuses and circuit breakers are electrical safety devices designed to protect
electrical circuits and the equipment connected to them from excessive current
(overcurrent) that could potentially cause damage or start a fire. They serve as a
crucial part of electrical systems, both in homes and industrial settings, by
interrupting the flow of electrical current when certain conditions are met.
FUSES AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Fuses

Function: Fuses are passive devices that consist of a thin wire or metal element with a low
melting point. When the current in a circuit exceeds the rated value of the fuse, the wire heats
up and eventually melts, opening the circuit and breaking the electrical connection.

Types: Fuses come in various types, including blade fuses, cartridge fuses, and plug fuses, each
with specific applications and current ratings.
FUSES AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS
ADVANTAGES:
Simplicity: Fuses are relatively simple and reliable devices.
Inexpensive: Fuses are generally cost-effective compared to circuit breakers.
Fast response: Fuses react quickly to overcurrent conditions.

DISADVANTAGES:
One-time use: Fuses are typically single-use devices and must be replaced once they've blown.
Lack of remote control: Fuses cannot be reset remotely, requiring manual replacement.
Limited protection options: Fuses primarily offer overcurrent protection and lack advanced
features like adjustable trip settings.
FUSES AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Circuit Breakers

Function: Circuit breakers are electromechanical or electronic devices that can interrupt the flow
of current in a circuit when an overcurrent or fault condition occurs. Unlike fuses, circuit
breakers can be reset after they trip.

Types: Circuit breakers come in various types, including thermal-magnetic, magnetic, and
electronic circuit breakers, each designed for different applications and levels of protection.
FUSES AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Advantages:

Resettable: Circuit breakers can be manually reset after tripping, which

eliminates the need for replacement.
Adjustable: Some circuit breakers allow for adjustable trip settings to customize
protection levels.
Remote control: Many circuit breakers can be remotely controlled or monitored
in modern electrical systems.
FUSES AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Disadvantages:
Complexity: Circuit breakers are more complex than fuses, which can make them
more expensive.
Slower response: Circuit breakers may have a slightly slower response time
compared to fuses in certain situations.
Higher cost: While circuit breakers offer more features, they are generally more
expensive upfront compared to fuses.
UTILIZATION EQUIPMENT AND DEVICES
Utilization Equipment and Devices
Utilization equipment is a broad category of electrical or electronic machine or instrument
designed to perform a specific mechanical, chemical, heating, or lighting function through the
use of electrical energy. Electric motors, air conditioning, refrigeration and heating units, signs,
industrial machinery, cranes, hoists, elevators, and escalators fit in the category of utilization
equipment.
An appliance is an end-use piece of utilization equipment designed to perform a specific
function such as cooking, cleaning, cooling, or heating. Electric ranges, refrigerators, clothes
washers and dryers, freezers, blenders, toasters, and hair dryers are appliances. Fixed
appliances are permanently attached installations such as a built-in electric cook top or oven.
UTILIZATION EQUIPMENT AND DEVICES
Stationary appliances are situated and used at a specific location but can be moved to another
outlet such as a refrigerator, clothes washer, or clothes dryer. Portable appliances are appliances
that can be easily carried or moved such as a hair dryer or toaster.
An electrical device is a component in an electrical system that is designed to carry but not use
electricity. This includes components such as switches, receptacles, and relays.
UTILIZATION EQUIPMENT AND DEVICES
Outlets, Receptacles, Plug
In an electrical system, an outlet is the location in a branch circuit where electricity is used. For
example, a lighting outlet is the location in a branch circuit where conductors provide power to a
light fixture.
A receptacle is a female connecting device with slotted contacts. It is installed at an outlet or on
equipment, where it is intended to easily establish an electrical connection with an inserted
plug.
A plug is a male connecting device that has two or more prongs that are inserted into a
receptacle to connect to an electrical circuit. A plug is typically connected to a flexible cord that
is attached to a portable appliance, light, or equipment. Receptacles and plugs offer a simple
way to attach or detach an appliance or piece of equipment to/from an electrical outlet.
UTILIZATION EQUIPMENT AND DEVICES
Switches
A simple switch is a device placed between two or more electrical conductors in a circuit to
safely and intentionally open or close the circuit or to redirect the path of current in a circuit.
Contacts in a switch open (switches off) a circuit, close (switches on) a circuit, or divert current
from one conductor path to another. Switches are rated by purpose, voltage, and amperage, and
are classified for AC or DC.
Safety switches are used in building electrical systems. They are designed to reduce the
possibility of contact with bare electrical conductors and have current interrupting capability.
UTILIZATION EQUIPMENT AND DEVICES
There are two categories of safety switches: heavy duty and general duty. Heavy-duty safety
switches are designed for heavy industry, commercial, and institutional applications where
safety, performance, and continuity of service are required. These are enclosed and may be
fused or unfused.
Heavy-duty safety switches are designed for heavy industry, commercial, and institutional
applications where safety, performance, and continuity of service are required. These are
enclosed and may be fused or unfused. They are used extensively as motor circuit switches,
service entrance switches, and feeder disconnects, as well as for industrial furnaces, capacitors,
transformers, and welders. Ratings up to 1200 A, 600 V are available.
General duty safety switches are intended for industrial, general commercial and residential
loads where economy is important and requirements are less stringent. They are used on
lighting, heating, appliance, and intermittent motor loads. Ratings up to 600 V are available.
CONDUCTORS
Conductors are materials or objects that allow the flow of electrical current or heat.
They are characterized by their ability to transmit energy, typically in the form of
electrons (in the case of electrical conductors) or heat (in the case of thermal
conductors).
Electrical conductors are either solid or stranded. Solid conductors are a single solid
length of conductor called a wire. Stranded conductors consist of smaller wire strands.
The choice between solid and stranded depends on the need for flexibility in handling
and working with the conductor.
CONDUCTORS
In building electrical systems, conductor sizes No. 14 AWG through about No. 8 AWG are
typically solid conductors. On occasion, stranded conductors are used in these sizes because
stranded wiring is easier to snake through a conduit. Larger conductors are typically stranded.
The number of strands of wire is standardized; sizes No. 18 AWG through No. 2 AWG are 7-
strand cables; AWG No. 1 AWG through No. 4/0 AWG are 19-strand cables; and so on.
CONDUCTORS
Buses
A bus, sometimes called a bus bar, is an electrical conductor (usually copper or aluminum) that
serves as a common connection for two or more electrical circuits. Buses are typically solid bars
used for power distribution. They are commonly found in panel boards, switchboards, and other
power distribution equipment. Bus bars are either flat strips or hollow tubes as these shapes
allow heat to dissipate more efficiently because of their high surface area to cross-sectional area
ratio.
CONDUCTORS
Cable
A cable contains more than one conductor bundled together in a factory assembly of wires. An
outer sheathing encases and protects the conductors, simplifying installation of multiple wiring.
ENCLOSURES AND RACEWAYS
Enclosures
Enclosures are electrical boxes and cabinets made of metal (e.g., steel, galvanized steel,
aluminum, and so on) or nonmetallic (plastic) materials that provide protection for conductors,
connections, controls, and other electrical equipment. They protect the wiring, devices, and
equipment from damage and deterioration from accidental contact, wear, corrosive atmospheric
exposure, and sunlight. In cases where the enclosed conductors, connections, controls, and
electrical equipment are faulty, enclosures contain the arc and flaming that result, thereby
confining damage from fire.
ENCLOSURES AND RACEWAYS
Electrical boxes
Electrical boxes are metal and non-metallic (plastic) enclosures that hold devices such as
switches or outlets and safely permit wiring connections. Boxes are available in four primary
shapes: square, rectangular, octagonal, or round. Boxes can be joined (ganged) together or are
manufactured to accommodate multiple outlets or switches. These are known as two-gang,
three-gang or four gang boxes. Junction boxes (J-boxes) are a special type of electrical box used
to enclose conductor connections. Connections are commonly called junctions in the trade. A
pull box is a type of junction box that allows access to a raceway for snaking conductors through
the raceway. Knockouts in most boxes and other enclosures can be easily removed to allow
wiring to enter the box.
ENCLOSURES AND RACEWAYS
Conduit and Other Raceways
A raceway is as an enclosed channel such as a conduit, tube, or gutter designed for holding
wires, cables, or busbars. In some cases, metal raceways that are fully bonded serve to provide a
path for the flow of fault current to ground. Examples of raceway materials or systems follow:
1. Rigid metal conduit - is a heavy galvanized steel or aluminum tube that looks like the
galvanized steel pipe used for plumbing applications.
ENCLOSURES AND RACEWAYS
2. Intermediate metal conduit (IMC)-is a galvanized steel or aluminum tube that has a thinner
wall than rigid metal conduit. It has threaded connections much like pipe or thread less
connectors and couplings. It can be used in contact with earth and embedded in concrete
ENCLOSURES AND RACEWAYS
3. Electrical metallic tubing (EMT) is a thin-walled galvanized steel or aluminum tube in
nominal diameters up to 4 in. Unlike conduit, EMT cannot be threaded.
ENCLOSURES AND RACEWAYS
4. Electrical nonmetallic tubing (ENT) is a flame-retardant corrugated plastic tube that is
semiflexible such that it can be bent by hand. ENT must be used behind fire-rated finish
materials. It is permitted in damp locations and can be set in concrete above ground. Plastic
connectors snap together. It can also be solvent welded to rigid polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
conduit. It can be used in any building, but special precautions are required when used more
than three floors above grade.
5. Rigid nonmetallic conduit is a thin-walled pipe of PVC. It is joined with fittings that are
solvent welded.
ENCLOSURES AND RACEWAYS
6. Flexible metal conduit is similar to armored cable, but it is installed without cables or wiring
in it; wiring must be pulled.
ELECTRIC MOTORS
Electric motors are devices that convert electrical energy into mechanical
energy. They are widely used in various applications and industries due to their
efficiency, reliability, and versatility. Electric motors work based on the principle
of electromagnetic induction, which was discovered by Michael Faraday in the
early 19th century.
ELECTRIC MOTORS
Types of Electric Motors:

DC Motors: These motors run on direct current and are commonly used in applications where
precise speed control is required, such as in robotics or electric vehicles.
AC Motors: Alternating current motors include:
Induction Motors: These are the most common type of AC motors and are widely used in
household appliances, industrial machinery, and more. They work on the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
Synchronous Motors: These motors run at a constant speed that synchronizes with the
frequency of the AC power supply. They are used in applications where precise speed control
and synchronization are essential, such as in clocks and some industrial equipment.
 ELECTRIC MOTORS
Applications: Electric motors are used in a vast range of applications, including:

a) Transportation: Electric cars, trains, and bicycles.

b) Industrial Machinery: Conveyor belts, pumps, compressors, and manufacturing equipment.
c) Household Appliances: Fans, refrigerators, washing machines, and air conditioners.
d) Aerospace: Aircraft systems, including landing gear and auxiliary power units.
e) Robotics: Motors play a crucial role in the movement of robotic arms and other components.
OCCUPANT PROTECTION
Need for Occupant Protection
In the United States, hundreds of people are accidentally electrocuted each year. Electrocution
occurs when a small amount of electrical current flows through the heart for 1 to 3 s. The
amount of 0.006 to 0.2 A (6 to 200 milliamps, or mA) of current flowing through the heart
disrupts the normal coordination of heart muscles. These muscles lose their vital rhythm and
begin to fibrillate. Death soon follows. To provide an example of how small an amount of current
it takes to kill: a 15 W nightlight on a 120 V circuit draws about 13 mA, enough amperage to
cause electrocution.
OCCUPANT PROTECTION
OCCUPANT PROTECTION
Ground Fault Interruption
A ground fault is the unintentional flow of electrical current between a power source, such as an
ungrounded (hot) wire, and a grounded surface. A ground fault occurs when electrical current
leaks or escapes to ground. When a hot bare conductor inside an appliance inadvertently
touches the metal housing, the housing may become charged with electricity. If a person
touches the faulty appliance and at the same time touches a grounded metal object, such as a
water faucet or metal sink, the person will receive a shock because the person’s body serves as
an inadvertent path to ground.
OCCUPANT PROTECTION
A ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) is an electrical device that detects an extremely low leak
(6 mA) of electrical current (called ground faults) and acts quickly to shut off power. It is
designed to protect the user of an electrical appliance much like a circuit breaker or fuse
safeguards the wiring in an electrical system. A GFCI continuously monitors the current drawn
through the ungrounded (hot) and neutral conductors of an electrical circuit. When a leakage to
ground that exceeds 6 mA is detected, the GFCI instantaneously switches off power to the
branch circuit or appliance, thereby protecting a person from the dangerous effects of electrical
shock. Power is shut off in less than a heartbeat (about 1>40th of a second), which is hopefully
before serious or fatal shock occurs.