2.2.

TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

• It was designed to describe the functions of the

communication system by dividing the communication
procedure into smaller and simpler components.
• TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of
Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and is based on standard
protocols.
• It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) and It contains four layers.

• TCP/IP is a protocol-suite used in the Internet today.

2.1 Layered Architecture

• As the Figure 2.5 shows, we have five communicating devices:
1) Source host(computer A)
2) Link-layer switch in link 1
3) Router
 4) Link-layer switch in link 2
5) Destination host (computer B).
• Each device is involved with a set of layers depending on the role of the device in the
internet.
• The two hosts are involved in all five layers.
• The source host
→ creates a message in the application layer and
→ sends the message down the layers so that it is physically sent to the destination
host.
• The destination host
→ receives the message at the physical layer and
→ then deliver the message through the other layers to the application layer.
• The router is involved in only three layers; there is no transport or application layer.
.
• A link-layer switch is involved only in two layers: i) data-link and ii) physical.

2.2.1 The Main Work of TCP/IP

• to transfer the data of a computer from one device to another.
• this process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the receiver
will receive the same information which is sent by the sender.
• To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination accurately,
the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and combines them
at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data
while transferring from one end to another end.
Difference Between TCP and IP TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
and IP (Internet Protocol) in the transmission of data.
IP finds the destination of the mail and TCP has the work to send
and receive the mail.
UDP is another protocol, which does not require IP to communicate with
another computer.
IP is required by only TCP. This is the basic difference between TCP and
IP.
Model work of TCP/IP
 Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP Model,
the TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and the same
packets must be recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same data, and this
thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data.
TCP/IP model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data first go into this
layer in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in the same way at
the receiver’s end.
Layers of TCP/IP Model
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
3. Network/Internet Layer(IP)
4. Data Link Layer (MAC)
5. Physical Layer

2.2.2 Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 • As shown in the figure 2.6, the duty of the application, transport, and network layers
is end-to-end.
• However, the duty of the data-link and physical layers is hop-to-hop. A hop is a
host or router.

• Identical objects exist between two hops. • The link between two hops does not
change the object

2.2.3 Description of Each Layer

Physical Layer
• The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one node
to another node.
• Two devices are connected by a transmission medium (cable or air).
• The transmission medium does not carry bits; it carries electrical or optical signals.
• The physical layer
→ receives bits from the data-link layer &
→ sends through the transmission media.
The physical layer is concerned with the following:
Physical characteristics of interfaces and media - The physical layer defines
the characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium.
Representation of bits - To transmit the stream of bits, it must be encoded to
signals. The physical layer defines the type of encoding.
Data Rate or Transmission rate - The number of bits sent each second – is also
defined by the physical layer.
Synchronization of bits - The sender and receiver must be synchronized at the bit
level. Their clocks must be synchronized.
Line Configuration - In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected
together through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared
between several devices.
Physical Topology - The physical topology defines how devices are connected to
make a network. Devices can be connected using a mesh, bus, star or ring topology.
Transmission Mode - The physical layer also defines the direction of
transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex.

Data Link Layer

• Data-link-layer (DLL) is responsible for moving frames from one node to
another node over a link.

• The data-link layer

→ gets the datagram from network layer
→ encapsulates the datagram in a packet called a frame.
→ sends the frame to physical layer.
The other responsibilities of this layer are

Framing - Divides the stream of bits received into data units called frames.
Physical addressing – If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
n/w , data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and receiver.
Flow control- If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than
the rate produced in the sender ,the Data link layer imposes a flow ctrl mechanism.
Error control- Used for detecting and retransmitting damaged or lost frames
and to prevent duplication of frames. This is achieved through a trailer added at
the end of the frame.
Access control -Used to determine which device has control over the link at any
given time.

Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for source-to-destination transmission of data.
• The network layer is also responsible for routing the packet.
• The routers choose the best route for each packet.

• TCP/IP model defines 5 protocols:

1) IP (Internetworking Protocol)
2) ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
3) ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
4) IGMP (Internet Group Message Protocol)
1) IP
 o IP defines the format and the structure of addresses.
o IP is also responsible for routing a packet from its source to its destination.
o It is a connection-less & unreliable protocol.
i) Connection-less means there is no connection setup b/w the sender and the
receiver.
ii) Unreliable protocol means
→ IP does not make any guarantee about delivery of the data.
→ Packets may get dropped during transmission.
o It provides a best-effort delivery service.
o Best effort means IP does its best to get the packet to its destination, but with no
guarantees.
o IP does not provide following services
→ flow control
→ error control
→ congestion control services.
o If an application requires above services, the application should rely only on
the transportlayer protocol.
2) ARP
• ARP is used to find the physical-address of the node when its Internet-
address is known.
• Physical address is the 48-bit address that is imprinted on the NIC or LAN
card.
• Internet address (IP address) is used to uniquely & universally identify a
device in the internet.
3) ICM
P
• ICMP is used to inform the sender about datagram-problems that occur
during transit.

4) IGM
• IGMP is used to send the same message to a group of recipients
P
Transport Layer
• TL protocols are responsible for delivery of a message from a process to another
process.
• The transport layer
→ gets the message from the application layer
→ encapsulates the message in a packet called a segment and
→ sends the segment to network layer.

Responsibilities
Port addressing - The header in this must therefore include a address called port address.
This layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
Segmentation and reassembly - The message is divided into segments and
each segment is assigned a sequence number. These numbers are arranged
correctly on the arrival side by this layer.
Connection control - This can either be connectionless or connection-oriented.
The connectionless treats each segment as a individual packet and delivers to the
destination. The connection-oriented makes connection on the destination side before
the delivery. After the delivery the termination will be terminated.
Flow and error control - Similar to data link layer, but process to process take place
• TCP/IP model defines 3 protocols:
1) TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
2) UDP (User Datagram Protocol) &
 3) SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol)
1) TCP
• TCP is a reliable connection-oriented protocol.
• A connection is established b/w the sender and receiver before the data can be
transmitted.
• TCP provides
→ flow control ((matching the sending data rate of the source host with the
receiving data rate of the destination host to prevent overwhelming the destination),
→ error control ((to guarantee that the segments arrive at the destination
without error and resending the corrupted ones),
→ congestion control (reduce the loss of segments due to congestion in the
network)

1) UDP

• It is an unreliable, connectionless protocol.

• It does not provide flow, error, or congestion control.
• Each datagram is transported separately & independently.
• It is suitable for application program that
→ needs to send short messages &
→ cannot afford the retransmission.
2) SCTP
• SCTP provides support for newer applications such as voice over the Internet.
• It combines the best features of UDP and TCP.
Application Layer
This layer enables the user to access the n/w.
• The two application layers exchange messages between each other.
• Process-to-process communication is the duty of the application layer.
 • TCP/IP model defines following protocols:
1) SMTP is used to transport email between a source and destination.
2) TELNET is used for accessing a site remotely.
3) FTP is used for transferring files from one host to another.
4) DNS is used to find the IP address of a computer.
5) SNMP is used to manage the Internet at global and local levels.
6) HTTP is used for accessing the World Wide Web (WWW).
(FTP->File Transfer Protocol
(DNS ->Domain Name System
(SNMP ->Simple Network Management Protocol
SMTP ->Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
HTTP ->Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
TELNET ->Terminal Network)

2.2.4 Encapsulation and Decapsulation

A) Encapsulation at the Source Host
• At the source, we have only encapsulation (Figure 2.8).
1) At the application layer, the data to be exchanged is referred to as a message.
• A message normally does not contain any header or trailer.
• The message is passed to the transport layer.
2) The transport layer takes the message as the payload.
• TL adds its own header to the payload.
• The header contains
→ identifiers of the source and destination application programs
→ information needed for flow, error control, or congestion
control.
• The transport-layer packet is called the segment (in TCP) and the
user datagram (in UDP).
• The segment is passed to the network layer.
3) The network layer takes the transport-layer packet as payload.
• NL adds its own header to the payload.
• The header contains
→ addresses of the source and destination hosts
→ some information used for error checking of the header &
 → fragmentation information.
• The network-layer packet is called a datagram.
• The datagram is passed to the data-link layer.
4) The data-link layer takes the network-layer packet as payload.
• DLL adds its own header to the payload.
• The header contains the physical addresses of the host or the next hop (the router).
• The link-layer packet is called a frame.
• The frame is passed to the physical layer for transmission
B) Decapsulation and Encapsulation at the Router
• At the router, we have both encapsulation & decapsulation and because the router is
connected to two or more links.
1) Data-link layer
→ receives frame from physical layer
→ decapsulates the datagram from the frame and
→ passes the datagram to the network layer.
2) The network layer
→ inspects the source and destination addresses in the datagram header and
→ consults forwarding table to find next hop to which the datagram is to be delivered.
• The datagram is then passed to the data-link layer of the next link.
3) The data-link layer of the next link
→ encapsulates the datagram in a frame and
→ passes the frame to the physical layer for transmission

C) Decapsulation at the Destination Host

• At the destination host, each layer
→ decapsulates the packet received from lower layer
→ removes the payload and
→ delivers the payload to the next-higher layer

2.2.5 Addressing
• We have logical communication between pairs of layers.
• Any communication that involves 2 parties needs 2 addresses: source address and destination
address.
• We need 4 pairs of addresses (Figure 2.9):
1) At the application layer, we normally use names to define
→ site that provides services, such as vtunotesbysri.com, or
→ e-mail address, such as VCET@gmail.com.
2) At the transport layer, addresses are called port numbers.
➢ Port numbers define the application-layer programs at the source and
destination.
➢ Port numbers are local addresses that distinguish between several programs
running at the same time.
3) At the network-layer, addresses are called IP addresses.
➢ IP address uniquely defines the connection of a device to the Internet.
➢ The IP addresses are global, with the whole Internet as the scope.
4) At the data link-layer, addresses are called MAC addresses
➢ The MAC addresses defines a specific host or router in a network (LAN or WAN).
➢ The MAC addresses are locally defined addresses.

2.2.6 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

• Multiplexing means a protocol at a layer can encapsulate a packet from several next-
higher layer protocols (one at a time) (Figure 2.10).
• Demultiplexing means a protocol can decapsulate and deliver a packet to several
next-higher layer protocols (one at a time).
1) At transport layer, either UDP or TCP can accept a message from several
application-layer protocols.
2) At network layer, IP can accept
→ a segment from TCP or a user datagram from UDP.
→ a packet from ICMP or IGMP.
3) At data-link layer, a frame may carry the payload coming from IP or ARP.
OSI MODEL
• ISO is the organization, OSI is the model.
• Purpose: OSI was developed to allow systems with diff. platforms to communicate with
each other.
• Platform means hardware, software or operating system.
• OSI is a network-model that defines the protocols for network communications.
• OSI has 7 layers as follows (Figure 2.11):
1) Application Layer
2) Presentation Layer
3) Session Layer
4) Transport Layer
5) Network Layer
6) Data Link Layer
7) Physical Layer
• Each layer has specific duties to perform and has to co-operate with the layers above &
below it.
Description of Each Layer
Physical Layer
• The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one node
to another node.
• Two devices are connected by a transmission medium (cable or air).
• The transmission medium does not carry bits; it carries electrical or optical signals.
• The physical layer
→ receives bits from the data-link layer &
→ sends through the transmission media.

The physical layer is concerned with the following:

Physical characteristics of interfaces and media - The physical layer defines
the characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium.
Representation of bits - To transmit the stream of bits, it must be encoded to
signals. The physical layer defines the type of encoding.
Data Rate or Transmission rate - The number of bits sent each second – is also
defined by the physical layer.
Synchronization of bits - The sender and receiver must be synchronized at the bit
level. Their clocks must be synchronized.
Line Configuration - In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected
together through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared
between several devices.
Physical Topology - The physical topology defines how devices are connected to
make a network. Devices can be connected using a mesh, bus, star or ring topology.
Transmission Mode - The physical layer also defines the direction of
transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex.

Data Link Layer

 • Data-link-layer (DLL) is responsible for moving frames from one node to
another node over a link.

• The data-link layer

→ gets the datagram from network layer
→ encapsulates the datagram in a packet called a frame.
→ sends the frame to physical layer.
The other responsibilities of this layer are

Framing - Divides the stream of bits received into data units called frames.
Physical addressing – If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
n/w , data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and receiver.
Flow control- If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than
the rate produced in the sender ,the Data link layer imposes a flow ctrl mechanism.
Error control- Used for detecting and retransmitting damaged or lost frames
and to prevent duplication of frames. This is achieved through a trailer added at
the end of the frame.
Access control -Used to determine which device has control over the link at any
given time.

Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for source-to-destination transmission of data.
• The network layer is also responsible for routing the packet.
• The routers choose the best route for each packet.
 • TCP/IP model defines 5 protocols:
1) IP (Internetworking Protocol)
2) ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
3) ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
4) IGMP (Internet Group Message Protocol)
1) IP
o IP defines the format and the structure of addresses.
o IP is also responsible for routing a packet from its source to its destination.
o It is a connection-less & unreliable protocol.
i) Connection-less means there is no connection setup b/w the sender and the
receiver.
ii) Unreliable protocol means
→ IP does not make any guarantee about delivery of the data.
→ Packets may get dropped during transmission.
o It provides a best-effort delivery service.
o Best effort means IP does its best to get the packet to its destination, but with no
guarantees.
o IP does not provide following services
→ flow control
→ error control
→ congestion control services.
 o If an application requires above services, the application should rely only on
the transportlayer protocol.
2) ARP
• ARP is used to find the physical-address of the node when its Internet-
address is known.
• Physical address is the 48-bit address that is imprinted on the NIC or LAN
card.
• Internet address (IP address) is used to uniquely & universally identify a
device in the internet.
3) ICM
P
• ICMP is used to inform the sender about datagram-problems that occur
during transit.

4) IGM
• IGMP is used to send the same message to a group of recipients
P

Transport Layer
• TL protocols are responsible for delivery of a message from a process to another
process.
• The transport layer
→ gets the message from the application layer
→ encapsulates the message in a packet called a segment and
→ sends the segment to network layer.
 Responsibilities
Port addressing - The header in this must therefore include a address called port address.
This layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
Segmentation and reassembly - The message is divided into segments and
each segment is assigned a sequence number. These numbers are arranged
correctly on the arrival side by this layer.
Connection control - This can either be connectionless or connection-oriented.
The connectionless treats each segment as a individual packet and delivers to the
destination. The connection-oriented makes connection on the destination side before
the delivery. After the delivery the termination will be terminated.
Flow and error control - Similar to data link layer, but process to process take place
• TCP/IP model defines 3 protocols:
1) TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
2) UDP (User Datagram Protocol) &
3) SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol)
1) TCP
• TCP is a reliable connection-oriented protocol.
• A connection is established b/w the sender and receiver before the data can be
transmitted.
• TCP provides
→ flow control ((matching the sending data rate of the source host with the
receiving data rate of the destination host to prevent overwhelming the destination),
→ error control ((to guarantee that the segments arrive at the destination
without error and resending the corrupted ones),
→ congestion control (reduce the loss of segments due to congestion in the
network)

3) UDP

• It is an unreliable, connectionless protocol.

 • It does not provide flow, error, or congestion control.
• Each datagram is transported separately & independently.
• It is suitable for application program that
→ needs to send short messages &
→ cannot afford the retransmission.
4) SCTP
• SCTP provides support for newer applications such as voice over the Internet.
• It combines the best features of UDP and TCP.

SESSION LAYER

This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications.

The other responsibilities of this layer are

Dialog control - This session allows two systems to enter into a dialog either in
half duplex or full duplex.
Synchronization-This allows to add checkpoints into a stream of data.

PRESENTATION LAYER

It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of information exchanged between two
systems.
The other responsibilities of this layer are

Translation – Different computers use different encoding system, this layer

is responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods. It will
change the message into some common format.
Encryption and decryption-It means that sender transforms the original
information to another form and sends the resulting message over the n/w. and vice
versa.
Compression and expansion-Compression reduces the number of bits contained in
the information particularly in text, audio and video.

Application Layer
This layer enables the user to access the n/w.
• The two application layers exchange messages between each other.
• Process-to-process communication is the duty of the application layer

following protocols:
1) SMTP is used to transport email between a source and destination.
2) TELNET is used for accessing a site remotely.
3) FTP is used for transferring files from one host to another.
4) DNS is used to find the IP address of a computer.
 5) SNMP is used to manage the Internet at global and local levels.
6) HTTP is used for accessing the World Wide Web (WWW).
(FTP->File Transfer Protocol
(DNS ->Domain Name System
(SNMP ->Simple Network Management Protocol
SMTP ->Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
HTTP ->Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
TELNET ->Terminal Network)

differences between the OSI & TCP/IP model:

OSI Model TCP/IP model

TCP/IP doesn’t offer any clear distinguishing
OSI model provides a clear distinction
points between services, interfaces, and
between interfaces, services, and protocols.
protocols.
OSI uses the network layer to define routing
TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
standards and protocols.
OSI model use two separate layers physical
and data link to define the functionality of the TCP/IP uses only one layer (link).
bottom layers
OSI model, the transport layer is only A layer of the TCP/IP model is both
connection-oriented. connection-oriented and connectionless.
In OSI model, data link layer and physical are In TCP data link layer and physical layer are
separate layers. combined as a single host-to-network layer.
The minimum size of the OSI header is 5
Minimum header size is 20 bytes.
bytes.